Hans Hansen, with Jon Kvist and Axel West Pedersen Minimum Pensions in 7 European Countries 1. Introduction. What is a minimum pension. Social assistance is usually the last resort benefit to be received by persons who have no other means for their living. It is, however, rare that elderly, i.e. persons who have passed the official pension age, with no other means receive social assistance. In the 5 Nordic countries this group receives a minimum pension based on pension rights obtained from residence in the country. In Great Britain and Germany the elderly receive a minimum pension, which is more or less directly derived from the ordinary social assistance scheme. Minimum pensions are, however, functional equivalents to social assistance in all 7 countries. They are received by pensioners, who have no or only a small alternative income. Minimum pensions are usually higher than social assistance, but they are tapered against other income. In the Nordic countries the tapering of minimum pensions is more gradual than tapering of social assistance. This is also the case for the Savings component of the British Pension Credit, cf. the following section. 2. Country schemes. A brief description of the development in the minimum pension schemes in the 7 European Countries for the period 1994-2006. The rules are for a single pensioner. Denmark (DK). Eligibility: A full minimum pension is obtained after 40 years of residence in the country after the age of 15 years has been reached. It takes 3 years of residence to open the pension rights, i.e. to be eligible at all. Pension age: Minimum 65 years from July 2004 (deferral against a premium is possible). Pension age to be increased in future. Components: The Danish Folkepension has two components, a basic amount (Grundbeløb) and a supplement (Pensionstillæg). These two components constituted the minimum pension until 2003 when a supplementary pension benefit (supplerende engangsydelse, now called supplerende pensionsydelse) was added. All three components are tapered against other income, the basic amount, however, only against income from work. The taper for the supplement is 30% (15% for each spouse in a couple) when a certain threshold for extra income has been reached. The taper for the basic amount is also 30% starting above an income level when the supplement is tapered to zero and only against income from work The supplementary pension benefit is tapered according to special rules, it is tapered to zero before the supplement starts to be tapered. The supplementary pension benefit is disregarded when housing benefits are calculated. The nominal value of the components of the minimum pension in 2009 is contained in section 5 of this paper. A small personal 1
supplement has been included in the calculations in section 3 and 4, strictly speaking it should be excluded (it contributes up to 1 percentage point to the net replacement rates). Indexation: The three components of the minimum pension are indexed according to the average wage development with a minor deduction (0.3 percentage point per year). The supplementary pension benefit is often increased discretionarily. Taxation: The minimum pension is taxed as other income disregarding social contributions, which are not levied on pension income. Sweden (S). Eligibility: The old scheme (before 2003) required 40 years of residence from the age of 16 years to obtain a full minimum pension. It took 3 years to open the pension rights. The new scheme also requires 40 years of residence (since the age of 25) for a full pension. Pension age: The official pension age for the old scheme was 65 years, with a possibility to take out the pension, against a reduction, from the age of 61 years. The minimum age for the new scheme is 65 years. Components: The old minimum pension (until 2003) had two components, a basic amount (Folkpension) and a supplement (Pensionstilläg). Both were percentages (96 and 55.5 (56.9 from 1999) respectively) of the price based basic rate (Prisbasbelopp) in the Swedish public pension scheme. From 1993 to 1999 the pension components had 98% of their full value. The supplement was tapered by 100% against other pension income in the public pension scheme, primarily the occupational pension component ATP. The basic amount was not tapered against other income. The minimum pension was reformed from 2003. The guarantee pension (Garantipension) is now 2.13 times the price based basic rate. The nominal value of the minimum pension for 2009 is contained in section 5 of the paper. The pension is tapered against other public pension income, first by 100% up to a threshold and then by 48% Indexation: The minimum pension (both the old and the new ) is indexed according to the price development as reflected in the price based basic rate. Taxation: The old minimum pension was not taxed due to a special tax allowance for pensioners. The guarantee pension is taxed as other income, from 2009, however, based on an increased tax allowance for pensioners. Norway (NO). Eligibility: A full minimum pension requires 40 years of residence between the ages of 16 and 67 years. It takes 3 years of residence to open the pension rights. Pension age: The official pension age in Norway is 67 years. The pension cannot be taken out earlier. 2
Components: The Norwegian minimum pension consists of two components, a basic pension (Grunnpensjon) and a supplement (Særtillegg). The basic pension is one G, where G is the basic rate in the Norwegian pension scheme equivalent to the Swedish basbelopp. The supplement has been augmented from 60.5% of G in 1994 to 79.33% of G starting in 1998 with a further increase to 94% of G in 2008. The supplement is tapered against other pension income, primarily from the public occupational pension scheme. The taper is 100%. This is similar to the tapering mechanism in the old Swedish scheme. The nominal value of the components of the Norwegian minimum pension for 2009 is contained in section 5. Indexation: G is indexed 1 st of May each year. The indexation reflects the expected wage development. Taxation: The Norwegian minimum pension is not taxed due to special tax reduction rules. Finland (FIN). Eligibility: A full minimum pension is obtained after 40 years of residence between the ages of 16 and 65 years. It takes 3 years of residence to open the pension rights. Pension age: The official pension age for the minimum pension is 65 years, also after the 2005 reform. It is, however, possible to start taking out the pension from the age of 63 (the new minimum age in the Finnish occupational pension scheme) against a reduction. Components: The Finnish minimum pension had two components, a basic amount (Folkpension) and a supplement (Pensionstillæg) from 1994 to 1997, when the two components were merged into one (Folkpension). Until 2008 (Check!) there was one set of rates for pensioners living in the high cost area of the country (including the capital Helsinki) and another, lower, set of rates for pensioners living in the low cost area. The minimum pension is tapered against other pension income, primarily from the public occupational pension scheme. Until 1996 it was only the supplement, which was tapered. The taper was 50% and the tapering started (it still does) after a relatively small threshold for extra income had been passed. From 1996 both the basic amount and the supplement (merged into one component from 1997) were tapered against other pension income, the taper still being 50 %. The nominal value of the Finnish minimum pension for 2009 is contained in section 5. Indexation: The minimum pension is indexed according to the price development. Taxation: The Finnish minimum pension is not taxed due to a special tax allowance for pensioners. 3
Iceland (ISL). (in progress) Eligibility: A full minimum pension is obtained after 40 years of residence between the ages of 16 and 67 years. It takes 3 years to open the pension rights. Pension age: The official pension age is 67 years. Components: Indexation: The Icelandic minimum pension is indexed according to the price development. Taxation: The minimum pension is taxed according to the usual rules. Great Britain (GB). Eligibility: The British minimum pension is based on a certain age, cf. below, and having no or only a small income from other sources. Pension age: The official pension age in Great Britain is 65 years for men and 60 years for women. Both are being increased in future. The minimum pension (MIG and PC, cf. below) can be received from the age of 60 (by a couple if one of the partners is 60) and can then also be characterized as an early retirement scheme. Components: Until 1999 the British pensioner without any, or only a little other income received benefits from the Income Support (IS) scheme, the British social assistance scheme. The Minimum Income Guarantee (MIG) was replacing the IS for elderly in 1999, implying a substantial lift in the nominal value of the benefit. The Pension Credit (PC) was introduced in 2003. The PC has two components, a Guarantee Credit, equivalent to the MIG, and a Savings Credit, an extra benefit for those who have some other income. It should be noted that the benefits from all three schemes IS, MIG and PC (Guarantee Credit) are higher than the benefit from the national basic pension scheme (which is dependent on a contribution record based on earlier income). Pensioners only receiving the national basic pension are topped up to the minimum pension level. In other words, the taper of the minimum pension is 100 %. In the cases considered in this paper only the Guarantee Credit component of the PC scheme is relevant. Indexation: The IS scheme is indexed according to the price development, the MIG was indexed according to the wage development which is also the case for the PC scheme. The change takes place in the start of April each year. Taxation: British minimum pensions are not taxable income. Germany (D). (in progress) Eligibility: The German minimum pension is dependent on having reached the official pension age and having no other income or only a small one. 4
Pension age: The official pension age in Germany is 65 years. It will be increased to 67 years from 2012. Components: Before 2003 pensioners in need received social assistance. This is based on the basic rate, Eckregelsatz, with a possibility for pensioners to receive a supplement, Zuschlag, if they qualified for it, Mehrbedarf. From 2003 pensioners received the Grundsicherung im Alter consisting of the Eckregelsatz with the Zuschlag as a standard component. From 2005 the two components were merged into one. The Grundsicherung im Alter is tapered against other income, the taper is 100%. Indexation: The social assistance is indexed according to the price development, since the merger of components in 2005 the Grundsicherung im Alter has been indexed according to the wage development (Check!). Taxation: The German minimum pensions are not taxable income. 3. Minimum pensions presented as net replacement rates. What is a net replacement rate in the context of minimum pensions? The income after tax and social contributions following a change of income source (eg. from wages to unemployment benefits) measured in relation to the former income after tax and social contributions constitute the usual concept of a net replacement rate, here based on OECD s Take Home Pay income concept for both the nominator and the denominator. In the just mentioned case it will be the unemployment benefits, for which the person is eligible, after tax and social contributions in relation to the same persons former wage income after tax and social contributions. The net replacement rate is a measure of the impact on net income when a person moves from one income situation to another, in case from work to unemployment. Minimum pensions will be received by persons, who have no or only a small former income. In this paper the income situation as a recipient of a minimum pension is related to a situation with former income at the level of OECD s APW (Average Production Worker). Such a person would probably be eligible for more than a minimum pension, he or she will receive an occupational pension if that income level has been maintained over a longer span of years. The net replacement rate in this situation is then not a measure of the impact of moving from one income situation to another for the same person, the two situations are for different persons. The APW income after tax and social contributions is just a measurement rod. The APW income level has been used for all the years 1994 2006 for which results are presented in table 1, also after the change of definition to the AW (Average Worker) from 2005 in OECD s publications. Four components are determining the net replacement rate. One component is the nominal level of the minimum pension. A second component is the taxation (including social contributions) of the pension. A third component is the nominal level of the former income and a fourth component is the taxation of this income. These components will often change differently over time. Minimum pensions are 5
often indexed according to the development of prices, which most often is different from the development of the APW wage, prices usually increase slower than wages. Taxes were changed considerably, especially in the period 2000 2006, and the impacts from the changes were often different for pensions and wage income, typically favouring the last mentioned. The net replacement is a complex measure, here reflecting the relative position of recipients of minimum pensions compared to persons receiving wages at the APW level. Results. Table 1. Net replacement rates (Pct.) for minimum pensions for a single pensioner in 7 European countries. Denominator: 100% APW net income. Year DK S NO FIN ISL GB D 1994 50.2 41.2 42.1 37.2 31.0 18.9 1995 49.4 41.3 36.3 30.0 19.0 1996 48.6 39.6 40.4 34.0 29.4 18.9 1997 48.0 39.3 40.6 32.4 28.5 19.2 1998 48.1 38.6 43.4 32.7 51.4 28.1 18.9 1999 47.4 38.6 44.3 31.4 51.3 29.0 18.6 2000 47.5 37.7 45.2 30.4 49.9 29.0 18.0 2001 47.2 36.3 29.7 32.9 17.5 2002 46.4 35.6 45.9 29.5 54.1 34.2 17.5 2003 48.0 37.0 45.8 29.0 51.3 34.6 20.5 2004 46.7 37.0 46.1 28.0 51.5 34.4 20.0 2005 46.8 36.5 45.5 28.0 50.9 34.5 20.0 2006 46.5 35.5 45.2 27.5 50.6 34.5 20.0 Note: For Finland it is the pension in the low cost area of the country, which has been applied. It is 1-1.5 percentage points lower than the replacement rates for pensions in the high cost area, of the country. Denmark is the country with the highest net replacement rates (preliminary calculations indicate that Iceland could take the lead position! Iceland will be placed in the text when the calculations are finished) and Germany the country with the lowest ones for minimum pensions. Norway ranks second for all the years, Sweden ranks third and Finland ranks fourth until 2001 when Great Britain takes that position. It is also remarkable that Great Britain starts 10 percentage points lower than Sweden in 1994 but is only 1 percentage point lower in 2006. The Nordic countries have lower net replacement rates in 2006 than in 1994, except Norway, where it is opposite. In Great Britain the net replacement rate is higher in 2006 than in 1994, which is also the case in Germany, but only marginally. The British position since 1999 is closely related to combating poverty, also among the elderly, from the start of the first New Labour government in 1997. Three of the Nordic countries, especially Finland, have experienced a substantial decline in the net replacement rates from the start to the end of the period. For Denmark and Sweden 6
the decline is by approximately 5 percentage points, for Finland it is by approx. 10 percentage points. Norway has experienced an increase of 3 percentage points. In 2008 the Norwegian minimum pension was improved again and that will undoubtedly push Norway ahead of Denmark for that year. A decline in the net replacement rate does indicate a deterioration of the situation for the pensioner relative to that of the working person, but it does not necessarily imply a deterioration of the absolute situation for the pensioner. In 2004 significant tax cuts were implemented for the working population in Denmark, resulting in a decline in the net replacement rate, but not in the nominal and real net pension. This should be kept in mind, because the period 2000 2006 is a period with substantial tax reforms often with different impacts on incomes for pensioners and the working population. Now follows a few comments on the profile for the net replacement rates of each country. The Danish profile is one of mainly declining net replacement rates until 2003. In that year the Supplementary Pension Benefit was introduced and the result was an increase in the net replacement rate of approx 1.5 percentage points. 2004 saw, as already mentioned, a decline due to the tax cuts for the working population followed by marginal changes up and down in 2005 and 2006. The driver in the present system is the Supplementary Pension Benefit, through which improvements to the most needy pensioners are often channelled. The Supplementary Pension Benefit has become a more and more integrated part of the Danish Folkepension. The Danish minimum pension is taxed from 1994. The Swedish profile is not very different from the Danish one. From 1994 to 2003 the net replacement rates mainly decline. The new Guarantee Pension, which is taxable income, replaced the old minimum pension (non taxable due to a special tax allowance for pensioners) in 2003 resulting in an increase of close to 1.5 percentage points in the net replacement rate. The level is constant in 2004 but drops in 2005 and 2006, the two years when the tax compensation for the pension contributions (only paid by non pensioners) is fully implemented. The tax component implying tax cuts for income from work is of importance here, just as in the Danish case for 2004. The Norwegian profile shows some variation over the period. The minimum pension is regulated according to the wage development but the APW wage development is sometimes different. The substantial improvement for the supplement, Særtillegget, in May 1998 (from 63.2 % to 79.33 % of G) with full year effect in 1999 is, however clearly seen. The supplement was improved again in 2008 (from 79.33 % to 94 % of G) showing a political will to continue the improvement of the economic situation for recipients of minimum pensions in Norway. The Finnish profile is one with mainly decreasing net replacement rates from the start to the end of the period. The total decrease is, as already mentioned, approx. 10 percentage points. The two components of the Finnish minimum pension were merged in 1997, but without changes in the combined nominal level other than from the usual indexing. The Finnish pension reform in 2005 had no implications for the minimum pension. Tax reductions, especially for the working population, have been implemented throughout the period. The Finnish minimum pension is not taxed due to a special tax allowance. 7
Iceland (fill in). The British net replacement rates for minimum pensions declined from 1994 to 1999, the year when the Income Support scheme was replaced by the Minimum Income Guarantee for pensioners implying a significant lift in the nominal level of the British minimum pension and also an increase in the net replacement rate for 1999. The improvements of the British minimum pension continued in the following years resulting in increasing net replacement rates until 2004, when the level stabilized. The Minimum Income Guarantee scheme was replaced by the Pension Credit scheme in 2003 with no significant change for the basic part of the scheme. It should also be noted that taxation of working income was lowered in the period up to 2003. The British minimum pension is non-taxable income. The German profile is very stable from 1994 to 1999, when the net replacement rates start to decline gradually. This decline continues until 2003 when the Grundsicherumg im Alter is implemented. The new scheme implied an increase in the minimum pension. The minimum pension for the period 1994 to 2003 is based on the Eckregelsats without Zuschlag. In 2003 the Zuschlag becomes a standard component for the new scheme and it was integrated in the rate for the German minimum pension from 2005. The net replacement rates are stable from 2003 to 2006. The German tax reform was implemented for most of this period (1999 to 2006, with a pause from 2001 to 2004) implying reductions in the tax rates and increases in the basic allowance. The German minimum pension is non-taxable income. 4. Minimum pensions and relative poverty. Table 2 below contains net replacement rates for minimum pensions for 2006. The only difference to table 1 is that the income varies from 75 % to 200 % of the APW income. The replacement rate for the 100 % APW case is identical in the two tables. Table 2. Net replacement rates (pct.) for minimum pensions for a single pensioner in 7 European countries. Denominator: Varying APW income. 2006. Wage income in pct. of APW income level: Country 75 100 125 150 175 200 Denmark 60.0 46.5 40.0 35.0 31.5 28.5 Sweden 46.0 35.5 29.0 25.5 22.5 20.5 Norway 58.2 45.2 37.4 32.3 28.4 25.4 Finland 34.5 27.5 23.5 20.5 18.0 16.0 Iceland 64.5 50.6 41.6 35.4 30.7 27.2 Great Britain 44.0 34.5 28.0 23.5 20.5 18.5 Germany 24.5 20.0 16.5 14.5 12.5 11.0 The idea of this section is to give an indication of where the minimum pensions are placed in relation to the EU s poverty line, which is 60% of the median net income in each country. It will not be an accurate calculation but just an indication. The argument runs as follows: The Take Home Pay for the 100 % APW income is located in the 6 th and 7 th decile of the income distribution in most countries according 8
to OECD. This implies that the Take Home Pay of the 75 % APW income probably is placed in the 5 th decile, some what below the median net income. If this is the case the net replacement rate for the minimum pension calculated on basis of the Take Home Pay for the 75 % APW income may be used as guidance for proximity to the EU poverty line. Three of the Nordic countries, Iceland, Denmark and Norway have net replacement rates close to 60% at the 75 % APW income level indicating that the net minimum pensions for these three countries are close to the EU poverty line, while the net minimum pensions of the remaining 4 countries are clearly below the line. If housing benefits are included, cf. the following section, the situation is improving for the minimum pensions in relation to the poverty line. 5. Minimum pensions and housing benefits in 5 Nordic countries. This section contains calculations of minimum pensions in Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Finland and Iceland for the year of 2009. Housing benefits are also included on the assumption that the gross housing costs (rent) are 1/3 and 1/2 respectively of the net pension. These housing cost assumptions are only to illustrate the impact of alternative housing costs on the disposable income after housing costs of the pensioner. Denmark. The three components of the Danish minimum pension, the basic pension (Grundbeløb), the pension supplement (Pensionstillæg) and the supplementary pension benefit (Supplerende pensionsydelse) are itemized below together with taxation and the housing benefits the pensioner can receive based on the two housing cost assumptions. It is assumed that the area (m2) of the dwelling is within the maximum limit. Social assistance cannot be received in this situation. Low rent High rent Grundbeløb 63 048 DKK 63 048 DKK Pensionstillæg 63 468-63 468 - Suppl. pens. ydelse 10 300-10 300 - Gross pension 136 816-136 816 - Taxes 36 195-36 195 - Net pension 100 621-100 621 - Rent 33 540-50 310 - Housing benefits 19 536-36 312 - Net housing costs 14 004-13 998 - Disposable income after housing costs 86 617 DKK 86 623 DKK Average tax 26.5 % 26.5 % Rent / net pension 33.3 % 50.0 % Housing ben./rent 58.2 % 72.2 % 9
Net hous. c. / net pens. 13.9 % 13.9 % It is remarkable that the housing benefit scheme compensates the extra housing costs in the high rent case entirely (and a little bit more). This is not a totally general characteristic of the scheme, but it is not a rare outcome. Sweden. The Swedish minimum pension is the Garantipension. There is a possibility of receiving a social assistance like benefit (Särskilt BTP) if the disposable income after housing costs is below a certain level when housing benefits (BTP) are also received (this level is not reached in the cases presented here). Low rent High rent Garantipension 91 164 SEK 91 164 SEK Taxes 17 229-17 229 - Net pension 73 935-73 935 - Rent 24 645-36 968 - Housing benefits 22 427-33 641 - Net housing costs 2 218-3 327 - Disposable income after housing costs 71 717-70 608 - Avereage tax 18.9 % 18.9 % Rent / net pension 33.3 % 50.0 % Housing ben./rent 91.0 % 91.0 % Net hous. c. / net pens. 3.0 % 4.5 % In the Swedish housing benefit scheme (BTP) 91% of the housing costs are compensated in these cases (both alternative rent levels). This also implies that 91 % of the extra housing costs in the high rent case is compensated by the scheme, in Denmark it was 100 % (and a little more), both are very high percentages. This will be different for higher incomes and higher rents. Norway. The two components of the Norwegian minimum pension, the basic pension (Grunnpension) and the supplement (Særtillegg) are itemized below based on May 1 st 2008 levels and rules (will be updated when May 1 st 2009 levels are known). There is no taxation of the Norwegian minimum pension. Social assistance cannot be received in this situation. The housing benefit scheme (bostøtte) will be reformed in 2009 but the 2008 rules (applied here) will also be valid for the first half of 2009. Low rent High rent Grunnpensjon 70 256 NOK 70 256 NOK 10
Særtillegg 66 041-66 041 - Gross pension 136 297-136 297 - Taxes 0-0 - Net pension 136 297-136 297 - Rent 45 432-68 149 - Housing benefits 12 053-27 955 - Net housing costs 33 379-40 194 - Disposable income after housing costs 102 918-96 103 - Average tax 0 % 0 % Rent/net pension 33.3 % 50.0 % Housing ben./rent 26.5 % 41.0 % Net hous. c./net pens. 24.5 % 29.5 % Even when the Norwegian housing benefit scheme is significantly less generous than those of the other big Nordic countries (cf. Finland below) the extra housing costs in the high rent case compared with the low rent case is compensated by 70 %, not as much as in the other 3 Nordic countries, but still a very substantial proportion. Finland. The Finnish minimum pension is folkpension. The 2009 level is presented below (check that there is no longer a low cost and a high cost rate!). The minimum pension is not taxed. Social assistance cannot be received in this situation. Low rent Hgh rent Folkpension 7 010 Euro 7 010 Euro Taxes 0-0 - Net pension 7 010-7 010 - Rent 2 337-3 505 - Housing benefits 1 505-2 497 - Net housing costs 832-1 008 - Disposable income After housing costs 6 178 Euro 6 002 Euro Average tax 0 % 0 % Rent/net pension 33.3 % 50.0 % Housing ben./rent 64.4 % 71.2 % Net hous, c./net pens. 11.9 % 14.4 % 11
In Finland 85 % of the extra housing costs in the high rent case compared with the low rent case are compensated by the housing benefit scheme, somewhat lower than in Denmark and Sweden but higher than in Norway. Iceland (fill in) Summary for housing benefits. The high compensation from the housing benefit schemes, from 70 to 100%, of an increase in the housing costs in four of the Nordic countries has already been mentioned. The Swedish scheme is the most generous, it compensates 91% of the housing costs (within the limits and with a minimum pension). The net housing costs in the low and high rent cases are reduced to 3 and 4.5% respectively of the net pension. Norway has the least generous scheme, here the percentages are 24.5 and 29.5 respectively of the net pension. Denmark and Finland are in between. Iceland? Conclusions. Based on table 2 there are three countries providing a minimum pension, which is not far away from the EU poverty line, that is Iceland, Denmark and Norway if only the minimum pension is taken into account. Based on table 1 there are two countries trying actively to improve minimum pensions relative to working income that is Norway and Great Britain. The relative position of the pensioner receiving minimum pensions has deteriorated in Denmark, Sweden and Finland in the period studied while it has been relatively stable in Iceland (anticipated) and Germany, with Iceland having the highest net replacement rates and Germany the lowest in the study. Housing benefits in the Nordic countries compensate a very substantial part of the housing costs in Sweden and a more modest part in Norway. The marginal housing costs are compensated to a very high extent in 4 of the Nordic countries (Iceland?). 12
References. H. Hansen. Time Series of APW - Calculations. Module for Denmark 1994 2005. SFI report 06:33. Copenhagen 2006. Available on SFI s website, www.sfi.dk H. Hansen. Time Series of APW - Calculations. Module for Sweden 1991 2002. SFI report 04:14. Copenhagen 2004. Available on SFI s website. H. Hansen. Time Series of APW Calculations. Module for Finland 1994 2001. SFI report 04:06. Copenhagen 2004. Available on SFI s website. H, Hansen. Time Series of APW Calculations. Module for Great Britain 1991 2004. SFI report 06:14. Copenhagen 2006. Available on SFI s website. Updates for Time Series of APW Calculations. Version 7.6, May 2008. Available on SFI s website together with the above mentioned reports. Documentation of care packages for elderly in OECD s 2003 Tax/Ben model. May 2006. Available on SFI s website www.sfi.dk/sw20973.asp Taxing Wages. 1994 2006. Published by OECD. Paris. Social Protection in the Nordic Countries. 1994 2005. Published by NOSOSKO. 13