Ornithology Anne Geene & Arjan de Nooy de HEF publishers
Giacomo Puccini, Madama Butterfly, 1904
1 History 1.1 First Photograph of a Bird 1.2 Aristotle on Birds 1.3 The Population of the Mauritshuis 11 17 43 2 Form and Function 2.1 Camouflage 2.2 In Flight 2.3 Surface Tension 2.4 Velocity 2.5 Silhouettes 65 81 113 121 131 3 Behaviour and Migration 3.1 Bird Geometrics 3.2 Migration of a Herring Gull 3.3 Symbiosis 3.4 Sonograms 3.5 Ostrich Policy 3.6 Group Dynamics 3.7 Territory 143 177 189 193 203 217 237 4 Reproduction and Oology 4.1 Nest 4.2 Genetics 4.3 Holotype 241 257 263 5 Studies and Observations 5.1 Bird Counting 5.1.1 Area 5.1.2 Fixed Frame 5.1.3 One Picture 5.2 Reaction Rate 5.3 The Blackness of the Crow 267 269 275 283 289 293 6 Unresolved 6.1 Species 6.2 The Whiteness of the Wood Pigeon s Egg 6.3 Unexplained Phenomena 307 313 321 Bird Index Bibliography Colophon 330 334 335
1.1 First Photograph of a Bird The relatively slow shutter speed required for good exposure was an evident problem in the nascent days of photography. Even a photograph in direct sunlight required at least a few minutes for success. The restless nature of animals therefore made them poor subjects for the techniques of those times. Consequently, wildlife photos from the period are somewhat rare, excepting those of sedentary, inactive or sleeping creatures. Correspondingly, the famous first image in which a man is depicted, Louis Daguerre s Boulevard du Temple, shows a Parisian street cobbler and his client while the background swims past. The subjects had to stand motionless for minutes in order to be visible in the photo. We set out to uncover the first picture of a living bird. After an exhaustive search, it was found nestled in Henry Talbot s renowned An Oak Tree in Winter 1841 43. Here we see depicted, a wood pigeon, a bird that happily adheres to moments of stillness. 1.1 First Photograph of a Bird 11
William Henry Fox Talbot, An Oak Tree in Winter, 1841 43 12 1.1 First Photograph of a Bird 13
1.1 First Photograph of a Bird 14 1.1 First Photograph of a Bird 15
1.2 Aristotle on Birds Aristotle s History of Animals (Historia Animalium, 4th Century B.C.) is the earliest systematic zoological study handed down from antiquity. It comprises a mixture of philosophical/scientific considerations, assessments and personal observations as well as texts and stories of his contemporaries and would remain a standard in the field for almost two millennia. Writing extensively on birds, Aristotle s text could easily be considered as the world s first tract on ornithology. There follow some notable quotes of Aristotelian ornithology, from the translation of D Arcy Wentworth Thompson (1910). Photographs of the mounted birds are of specimens in the collection of the Natural History Museum Rotterdam. 16 17
The cuckoo shows great sagacity in the disposal of its progeny; the fact is, the mother cuckoo is quite conscious of her own cowardice and of the fact that she could never help her young one in an emergency, and so, for the security of the young one, she makes of him a supposititious child in an alien nest. The truth is, this bird is pre-eminent among birds in the way of cowardice; it allows itself to be pecked at by little birds, and flies away from their attacks. Book IX, 29, 618a The cuckoo is said by some to be a hawk transformed, because at the time of the cuckoo s coming, the hawk, which it resembles, is never seen; and indeed it is only for a few days that you will see hawks about when the cuckoo s note sounds early in the season. Book VI, 7, 563b They say that pigeons can distinguish the various species: so that, when a hawk is an assailant, if it be one that attacks its prey when the prey is on the wing, the pigeon will sit still; if it be one that attacks sitting prey, the pigeon will rise up and fly away. Book IX, 36, 620a Pigeons have the faculty of holding back the egg at the very moment of perturition; if a hen pigeon be put about by any one, for instance if it be disturbed on tis nest, or have a feather plucked out, or sustain any other annoyance or disturbance, then even though she had made up her mind to lay she can keep the egg back in abeyance. Book VI, 2, 560b Pigeon The pigeon, as a rule, lays a male and a female egg, and generally lays the male egg first... in all connected to the rearing of the young the female parent is more cross-tempered than the male, as is the case with most animals after parturition. Book VI, 4, 562b The erithacus (or redbreast) and the so-called redstart change into one another; the former is a winter bird, the latter a summer one, and the difference between them is practically limited to the coloration of their plumage. Cuckoo Book IX, 49B, 632b Redbreast Redstart 1.2 Aristotle on Birds 18 1.2 Aristotle on Birds 19
In the same way with the beccafico and the blackcap; these change into one another. The beccafico appears about autumn, and the blackcap as soon as autumn has ended. These birds, also, differ from one another only in colour and note; that these birds, two in name, are one in reality is proved by the fact that at the period when the change is in progress each one has been seen with the change as yet. Book IX, 49B, 632b Beccafico Blackcap The blackheaded tit is said by some to lay the largest number of eggs; seventeen eggs have been seen; it lays, however, more than twenty; it is said always to lay an odd number. Book IX, 15, 616b Blackheaded Tit 1.2 Aristotle on Birds 20 1.2 Aristotle on Birds 21
The crake is quarrelsome, clever at making a living, but in other ways an unlucky bird. Book IX, 17, 616b For the eagle, by the way, ejects the young birds prematurely, before they are able to feed themselves, or to fly. It appears to do so from jealousy; for it is by nature jealous, and is so ravenous as to grab furiously at its food; and when it does grab at its food, it grabs it in large morsels. Book IX, 34, 619b Crake Eagle The horse and the anthus are enemies, and the horse will drive the bird out of the field where he is grazing: the bird feeds on grass, and sees too dimly to foresee an attack; it mimics the whinnying of the horse, flies at him, and tries to frighten him away; but the horse drives the bird away, and whenever he catches it he kills it. Book IX, 1, 609b Anthus 1.2 Aristotle on Birds 22 1.2 Aristotle on Birds 23
Many indications of high intelligence are given by cranes. They will fly to a great distance and up in the air, to command an extensive view; if they see clouds and signs of bad weather they fly down again and remain still. With regard to their origin, nothing is known from ocular observation; the only fact known for certain is that they are first seen when a west wind is blowing. Book IX, 28, 618a Book IX, 10, 614b The crane, as has been said, migrates from the one end of the world to the other; they fly against the wind. The story told about the stone is untrue: to wit, that the bird, so the story goes, carries in its inside a stone by way of ballast, and that the stone when vomited up is a touchstone for gold. Book VIII, 12,597b Crane Little Horned Owl With partridges, by the way, if the female gets to leeward of the male, she becomes thereby impregnated. And often when they happen to be in heat she is affected in this wise by the voice of the male, or by his breathing down on her as he flies overhead; and, by the way, both the male and the female partridge keep the mouth wide open and protrude the tongue in the process of coition. Book V, 5, 541a The partridge lays not less than ten eggs, and often lays as many as sixteen. As has been observed, the bird has mischievous and deceitful habits. In the spring-time, a noisy scrimmage takes place, out of which the male-birds emerge each with a hen. Owing to the lecherous nature of the bird, and from a dislike to the hen sitting, the males, if they find any eggs, roll them over and over until they break them in pieces; to provide against this the female goes to a distance and lays the eggs, and often,under the stress of parturition, lays them in any chance spot that offers; if the male be near at hand, then to keep the eggs intact she refrains from visiting them. Book IX, 8, 613b It is a great rogue of a bird, and is a capital mimic; a birdcatcher will dance before it and, while the bird is mimicking his gestures, the accomplice comes behind and catches it. The fact is that, when she stands to windward an within scent of the male, she conceives, and becomes useless for decoy purposes: for, by the way, the partridge appears to have a very acute sense of smell. BookVI, 2, 560b Book VIII, 12, 597b Eared Owl Partridge 1.2 Aristotle on Birds 24 1.2 Aristotle on Birds 25
Of herons there are three kinds: the ash coloured, the white, and the starry heron (or bittern). Of these the first mentioned submits with reluctance to the duties of incubation, or to union of the sexes; in fact, it screams during the union, and it is said drips blood from its eyes; it lays its eggs also in an awkward manner, not unattended with pain. It is at war with certain creatures that do it injury: with the eagle for robbing it, with the fox for worrying it at night, and with the lark for stealing its eggs. Book IX, 1, 609b Ashcolored Heron Of the other two species-for there are three in all-the white heron has handsome plumage, unites without harm to itself with the female, builds a nest and lays its eggs neatly in trees; it frequents marshes and lakes and Plains and meadow land. The speckled heron, which is nicknamed the skulker, is said in folklore stories to be of servile origin, and, as its nickname implies, it is the laziest bird of the three species. Book IX, 18, 617a Book IX, 18, 617a White Heron Speckled Heron 1.2 Aristotle on Birds 26 1.2 Aristotle on Birds 27
The hoopoe usually constructs its nest out of human excrement. Book IX, 15, 616a The jay has a great variety of notes: indeed, one might almost say it had a different note for every day in the year. Book IX, 13, 615b Hoopoe Jay The kite has been seen to drink, but he certainly drinks very seldom. Book VIII, 3, 594a The halcyon is the most rarely seen of all birds. Book V, 9, 542b Halcyon Kite 1.2 Aristotle on Birds 28 1.2 Aristotle on Birds 29
The nightingale, when the hills are taking on verdure, sings continually for fifteen days and fifteen nights; afterwards it sings, but not continuously. As summer advances it has a different song, not so varied as before, nor so deep, nor so intricately modulated, but simple; it also changes its colour, and in Italy about this season it goes by a different name. The bird called sitta is quarrelsome, but clever and tidy, makes its living with ease, and for its knowingness is regarded as uncanny; it has a numerous brood, of which it is fond, and lives by pecking the bark of trees. Book IX, 17, 616b Book IX, 49B, 632b A mother-nightingale has been observed to give lessons in singing to a young bird, from which spectacle we might obviously infer that the song of the bird was not equally congenital with mere voice, but was something capable of modification and of improvement. Book IV, 9, 536b The so-called goat-sucker lives on mountains; it is a little larger than the owsel, and less than the cuckoo; it lays two eggs, or three at the most, and is of a sluggish disposition. It flies up to the she-goat and sucks its milk, from which habit it derives its name; it is said that, after it has sucked the teat of the animal, the teat dries up and the animal goes blind. Nightingale Sitta Book IX, 30, 618b Goat-sucker of this bird, by the way, the story goes that he was originally born out of a funeral pyre. Book IX, 1, 609b Oriole 1.2 Aristotle on Birds 30 1.2 Aristotle on Birds 31
There is enmity also between the owl and the wren; for the latter also devours the owl s eggs. In the daytime all other little birds flutter round the owl-a practice which is popularly termed admiring him -buffet him, and pluck out his feathers; in consequence of this habit, bird-catchers use the owl as a decoy for catching little birds of all kinds. Book IX, 1, 609a The parrot which is said to have a man s tongue, and after drinking wine, the parrot becomes more saucy than ever. Book VIII, 12, 597b Owl Parrot Pelicans that live beside rivers swallow the large smooth mussel-shells: after cooking them inside the crop that precedes the stomach, they spit them out, so that, now when their shells are open, they may pick the flesh out and eat it. Book IX, 10, 614b Pelican 1.2 Aristotle on Birds 32 1.2 Aristotle on Birds 33
And, by the way, it is owing to the distress occasioned by the bulkiness of its body that the bird quail alway screams while flying: for the labour is severe. Storks, and all other birds, when they get a wound fighting, apply marjoram to the place injured. Book IX, 6, 612a Book VIII, 12, 597b Quail Stork The reed-warbler makes its living as easily as any other bird, sits in summer in a shady spot facing the wind, in winter in a sunny and sheltered place among reeds in a marsh; it is small in size, with a pleasant note. Book IX, 16, 616b Reed-warbler 1.2 Aristotle on Birds 34 1.2 Aristotle on Birds 35
The sea-eagle is very keen-sighted, and before its young are fledged tries to make them stare at the sun, and beats the one that refuses to do so, and twists him back in the sun s direction; and if one of them gets watery eyes in the process, it kills him, and rears the other. It lives near the sea, and feeds, as has been said, on sea-birds; when in pursuit of them it catches them one by one, watching the moment when the bird rises to the surface from its dive. When a sea-bird, emerging from the water, sees the sea-eagle, he in terror dives under, intending to rise again elsewhere; the eagle, however, owing to its keenness of vision, keeps flying after him until he either drowns the bird or catches him on the surface. The eagle never attacks these birds when they are in a swarm, for they keep him off by raising a shower of water-drops with their wings. Book IX, 34, 620a Sea-eagle 1.2 Aristotle on Birds 36 1.2 Aristotle on Birds 37
Some declare that the male sparrow lives only a year, pointing to the fact that early in spring the male sparrow has no black beard, but has one later on, as though the blackbearded birds of the last year had all died out; they also say that the females are the longer lived, on the grounds that they are caught in amongst the young birds and that their age is rendered manifest by the hardness about their beaks. In a general way in the lives of animals many resemblances to human life may be observed. Pre-eminent intelligence will be seen more in small creatures than in large ones, as is exemplified in the case of birds by the nest building of the swallow. Book IX, 7, 612b Book IX, 7, 613a Sparrow Swallow The tree-creeper is a little bird, of fearless disposition; it lives among trees, feeds on caterpillars, makes a living with ease, and has a loud clear note. Book IX, 17, 616b Tree-creeper 1.2 Aristotle on Birds 38 1.2 Aristotle on Birds 39
Some birds have a peculiar habit of making a noise at their hinder quarters, as, for instance, the turtle-dove; and they make a violent movement of their tails at the same time that they produce this peculiar sound. Book IX, 49B, 633b Some birds live on the seashore, as the wagtail; the bird is of a mischievous nature, hard to capture, but when caught capable of complete domestication; it is a cripple, as being weak in its hinder quarters. Book IX, 12, 615a Turtle-dove Wagtail The wren lives in brakes and crevices; it is difficult of capture, keeps out of sight, is gentle of disposition, finds its food with ease, and is something of a mechanic. It goes by the nickname of old man or king ; and the story goes that for this reason the eagle is at war with him. Book IX, 11, 615a Wren 1.2 Aristotle on Birds 40 1.2 Aristotle on Birds 41
1.3 The Population of the Mauritshuis Here we find a representation of the entire bird population of the Mauritshuis as observed on 17 April 2015. The Mauritshuis has a compact collection of Dutch paintings from the Golden Age, one highlight being The Goldfinch by Carel Fabritius, which we also spotted that day. 42 43
Hendrick Avercamp, IJsvermaak Hooded Crow Hooded Crow Hooded Crow Hooded Crow Hooded Crow Hooded Crow Hooded Crow Hooded Crow Abraham Bloemaert, Theagenes ontvangt de erepalm van Chariclea Grey Heron Paul Bril, Berglandschap met de heilige Hieronymus Goldfinch Goldfinch Nuthatch Nuthatch Magpie Magpie Jan Brueghel de Oude, Hendrik van Balen, Krans van vruchten rond een voorstelling met Cybele die geschenken ontvangt van personificaties van de vier jaargetijden Woodpecker (variety) Woodpecker (variety) Woodpecker (variety) Jan Brueghel de Oude, Hans Rottenhammer, Christus in het voorgeborchte Jan Brueghel de Oude, Hans Rottenhammer, De rust op de vlucht naar Egypte Green Woodpecker Blue Tit Grey Heron Grey Heron Goldfinch Bullfinch Goldfinch 1.3 The Population of the Mauritshuis 44 1.3 The Population of the Mauritshuis 45
Jan Brueghel de Oude, Peter Paul Rubens, Het aardse paradijs met de zondeval van Adam en Eva Red-and-Green Macaw Left: 2 Great Tit Right: Pied Flycatcher African Grey Parrot Pied Flycatcher Rose-ringed Parakeet Pheasant Barn Owl Teal Indian Peafowl Mute Swan Mute Swan Blue-and-yellow Macaw White-throated Toucan Goldfinch Goldfinch Barn Swallow Rüppell s Starling Wild Turkey Red-headed Lovebird Kingfisher Great Bird-ofparadise Teal Surf Scoter Right: Ruff Left: Curlew (variety) Goldeneye Grey Heron Western Swamphen Sturnidae (variety) Great Spotted Woodpecker White Stork Nuthatch Turtle Dove Tawny Owl Northern Goshawk Hoopoe Bullfinch Flycatcher (variety) Eagle-owl Magpie Red Junglefowl Golden Oriole White-throated Toucan Blue-and-yellow Macaw Magpie Hoopoe 1.3 The Population of the Mauritshuis 46 1.3 The Population of the Mauritshuis 47
House Sparrow Great Bird-ofparadise Spotted Redshank Great Spotted Woodpecker Ostrich Jan van de Cappelle, Schepen voor de kust Aelbert Cuyp, Ruiterportret van Pieter de Roovere Aelbert Cuyp, Boeren en vee bij de Merwede Gerard David, Boslandschap Great Tit Karel Dujardin, Italiaans landschap met een jonge herder, spelend met zijn hond Carel Fabritius, Het puttertje Goldfinch 1.3 The Population of the Mauritshuis 48 1.3 The Population of the Mauritshuis 49
Jacob van Geel, Gefantaseerd boslandschap Jan van Goyen, Riviergezicht met kerk en boerderij Willem van Haecht, Apelles schildert Campaspe Yellow-crowned amazon Indian Peafowl Red Junglefowl (Pulli) Indian Peafowl Indian Peafowl Mute Swan Red Junglefowl (variety) Blue Tit Goldfinch Left: Grey Partridge Right: Greylag Geese and Red Junglefowl (variety) Jan van der Heyden, Gezicht op de Oudezijds Voorburgwal met de Oude Kerk in Amsterdam Mute Swan Pauwels van Hillegaert, De prinsen van Oranje met familieleden te paard, uitrijdend vanaf het Buitenhof, Den Haag Mute Swan Magpie Meindert Hobbema, Boslandschap met boerenhoeven Left: Red Junglefowls Right: Greylag Geese Red Junglefowl Red Junglefowl Western Marsh Harrier Pelegrine Falcons 1.3 The Population of the Mauritshuis 50 1.3 The Population of the Mauritshuis 51
Hans Holbein the Younger, Portret van een edelman met havik Northern Goshawk Hans Holbein the Younger, Portret van Robert Cheseman (1485 1547) Pelegrine Falcon Melchior d Hondecoeter (possibly), Dode haan, hangend aan een spijker Red Junglefowl Melchior d Hondecoeter, Kippen en eenden Red Junglefowl (variety) Greylag Geese Rock Dove Teal Domestic Duck Domestic Duck Domestic Duck (pullus) Domestic Duck (pullus) Red Junglefowl (variety) Red Junglefowl (variety) Wigeon Domestic Duck Melchior d Hondecoeter, Ganzen en eenden Greylag Goose (pullus) Greylag Goose (pullus) Greylag Goose (pullus) Domestic Duck Wigeon Magpie 1.3 The Population of the Mauritshuis 52 1.3 The Population of the Mauritshuis 53
Greylag Goose (pullus) Rock Dove (variety) Greylag Goose Greylag Goose Domestic Duck 1 niet groot gennoeg Jacob Jordaens, Nimfen knippen de baard van Pan af Barn Swallow Alexander Keirincx, Cornelis van Poelenburch, Boslandschap met figuren Great Tit Snipe Quinten Massys, Maria met kind Gabriël Metsu, De jager Rock Dove Isack van Ostade, Reizigers voor een herberg Red Junglefowl Nicolaes Pietersz Berchem, Jan Baptist Weenix, De roeping van Mattheüs Indian Peafowl Paulus Potter, De Stier Magpie Herring Gull Herring Gull Herring Gull Herring Gull Herring Gull 1.3 The Population of the Mauritshuis 54 1.3 The Population of the Mauritshuis 55
Herring Gull Herring Gull Herring Gull Herring Gull Magpie Skylark Roelant Roghman, Berglandschap met waterval Jacob van Ruisdael, Gezicht op kasteel Bentheim Jacob van Ruisdael, Gezicht op Haarlem met bleekvelden Salomon van Ruysdael, Gezicht op Beverwijk vanaf het Wijkermeer 1.3 The Population of the Mauritshuis 56 1.3 The Population of the Mauritshuis 57
Salomon van Ruysdael, Riviergezicht met kerk en veerpont Mallard Salomon van Ruysdael, Meergezicht met zeilschepen Herring Gull Herring Gull Herring Gull Herring Gull Pieter van Santvoort, Duinlandschap met een landweggetje Hercules Seghers, Rivierdal Frans Snijders, Stilleven met een dode reebok Yellow-crowned Amazon Jan Steen, Portret van Jacoba Maria van Wassenaer (De Hoenderhof) Rock Dove (variety) Rock Dove (variety) Rock Dove (variety) Rock Dove (variety) Rock Dove (variety) Rock Dove (variety) Rock Dove (variety) Red Junglefowl (variety) Red Junglefowl (variety) Red Junglefowl (variety) Red Junglefowl (variety) Red Junglefowl (variety) Red Junglefowl (variety) Red Junglefowl (variety) Red Junglefowl (variety) Red Junglefowl (variety) Red Junglefowl (pulli) Red Junglefowl (variety) 1.3 The Population of the Mauritshuis 58 1.3 The Population of the Mauritshuis 59
Red Junglefowl (pullus) Red Junglefowl (variety) Red Junglefowl (variety) Red Junglefowl (variety) Red Junglefowl (variety) Rock Dove Rock Dove Pheasant Mallard Red Junglefowl (variety) Wild Turkey Wild Turkey Domestic Duck Domestic Duck Domestic Duck Red Junglefowl Indian Peafowl Mute Swan Mute Swan Jan Steen, Soo voer gesongen, soo na gepepen Scarlet Macaw David Teniers, Keukeninterieur Wild Turkey Mute Swan Kingfishers Pheasant Grey Partridge Adriaen van de Velde, Strandgezicht Esaias van de Velde, Winterlandschap met boerderij Rock Dove (variety) Rock Dove (variety) 1.3 The Population of the Mauritshuis 60 1.3 The Population of the Mauritshuis 61
Willem van de Velde, Schepen op de rede Willem van de Velde, Schepen op de rede David Vickboons, Boerenkermis Greylag Goose Arie de Vois, Zelfportret als jager Grey Partridge Jan Baptist Weenix, Italiaans landschap met herberg en antieke ruïnes Rogier van der Weyden (and studio), De bewening van Christus Mute Swan Mute Swan Mute Swan Adam Willaerts, Schepen bij een rotsachtige kust Grey Heron Grey Heron Herring Gull 1.3 The Population of the Mauritshuis 62 1.3 The Population of the Mauritshuis 63
2.1 Camouflage 64 65
66 2.1 Camouflage 67
2.1 Camouflage 68 2.1 Camouflage 69
2.1 Camouflage 70 2.1 Camouflage 71
2.1 Camouflage 72 2.1 Camouflage 73
2.1 Camouflage 74 2.1 Camouflage 75
2.1 Camouflage 76 2.1 Camouflage 77
2.1 Camouflage 78 2.1 Camouflage 79
2.2 In Flight 2.1 Camouflage 80 81
82 2.2 In Flight 83
2.2 In Flight 84 2.2 In Flight 85
2.2 In Flight 86 2.2 In Flight 87
2.2 In Flight 88 2.2 In Flight 89
2.2 In Flight 90 2.2 In Flight 91
2.2 In Flight 92 2.2 In Flight 93
2.2 In Flight 94 2.2 In Flight 95
2.2 In Flight 96 2.2 In Flight 97
2.2 In Flight 98 2.2 In Flight 99
2.2 In Flight 100 2.2 In Flight 101
2.2 In Flight 102 2.2 In Flight 103
2.2 In Flight 104 2.2 In Flight 105
2.2 In Flight 106 2.2 In Flight 107
2.2 In Flight 108 2.2 In Flight 109
2.2 In Flight 110 2.2 In Flight 111
2.3 Surface Tension 2.2 In Flight 112 113
114 2.3 Surface Tension 115
2.3 Surface Tension 116 2.3 Surface Tension 117
2.3 Surface Tension 118 2.3 Surface Tension 119
2.4 Velocity From the shape of the droppings, it can be deduced whether and how quickly the bird was in motion. A classification is shown for speed, increasing from 0 60 km/h, or from wood pigeon to mallard. 2.3 Surface Tension 120 121
122 2.4 Velocity 123
2.4 Velocity 124 2.4 Velocity 125
2.4 Velocity 126 2.4 Velocity 127
2.4 Velocity 128 2.4 Velocity 129
2.5 Silhouettes 2.4 Velocity 130 131
132 2.5 Silhouettes 133
2.5 Silhouettes 134 2.5 Silhouettes 135
2.5 Silhouettes 136 2.5 Silhouettes 137
2.5 Silhouettes 138 2.5 Silhouettes 139
2.5 Silhouettes 140 2.5 Silhouettes 141
3.1 Bird Geometrics 2.5 Silhouettes 142 143
144 3.1 Bird Geometrics 145
3.1 Bird Geometrics 146 3.1 Bird Geometrics 147
3.1 Bird Geometrics 148 3.1 Bird Geometrics 149
3.1 Bird Geometrics 150 3.1 Bird Geometrics 151
3.1 Bird Geometrics 152 3.1 Bird Geometrics 153
3.1 Bird Geometrics 154 3.1 Bird Geometrics 155
3.1 Bird Geometrics 156 3.1 Bird Geometrics 157
3.1 Bird Geometrics 158 3.1 Bird Geometrics 159
3.1 Bird Geometrics 160 3.1 Bird Geometrics 161
162 163
3.1 Bird Geometrics 164 3.1 Bird Geometrics 165
3.1 Bird Geometrics 166 3.1 Bird Geometrics 167
3.1 Bird Geometrics 168 3.1 Bird Geometrics 169
3.1 Bird Geometrics 170 3.1 Bird Geometrics 171
3.1 Bird Geometrics 172 3.1 Bird Geometrics 173
3.1 Bird Geometrics 174 3.1 Bird Geometrics 175
3.2 Migration of a Herring Gull 3.1 Bird Geometrics 176 177
1 2 12 3 13 18 16 4 10 7 9 15 5 8 14 6 17 11 178 3.2 Migration of a Herring Gull 179
1 Alesund Norway 3 Devon UK 2 Baltic Sea 4 Bretange France 3.2 Migration of a Herring Gull 180 3.2 Migration of a Herring Gull 181
5 Barcelona Spain 7 Venice Italy 6 Calpe Spain 8 Rome Italy 3.2 Migration of a Herring Gull 182 3.2 Migration of a Herring Gull 183
9 Venice Italy 11 Fuerteventura Spain 10 Étretat France 12 Borkum Germany 3.2 Migration of a Herring Gull 184 3.2 Migration of a Herring Gull 185
13 Brighton UK 15 Tuscany Italy 14 Rome Italy 16 Scheveningen The Netherlands 3.2 Migration of a Herring Gull 186 3.2 Migration of a Herring Gull 187
17 Kreta Greece 3.3 Symbiosis 18 Brighton UK 3.2 Migration of a Herring Gull 188 189
190 3.3 Symbiosis 191
3.4 Sonograms 192 193
194 3.4 Sonograms 195
3.4 Sonograms 196 3.4 Sonograms 197
3.4 Sonograms 198 3.4 Sonograms 199
3.4 Sonograms 200 3.4 Sonograms 201
3.5 Ostrich Policy 3.4 Sonograms 202 203
204 3.5 Ostrich Policy 205
3.5 Ostrich Policy 206 3.5 Ostrich Policy 207
3.5 Ostrich Policy 208 3.5 Ostrich Policy 209
3.5 Ostrich Policy 210 3.5 Ostrich Policy 211
3.5 Ostrich Policy 212 3.5 Ostrich Policy 213
3.5 Ostrich Policy 214 3.5 Ostrich Policy 215
3.6 Group Dynamics 3.5 Ostrich Policy 216 217
218 3.6 Group Dynamics 219
3.6 Group Dynamics 220 3.6 Group Dynamics 221
3.6 Group Dynamics 222 3.6 Group Dynamics 223
3.6 Group Dynamics 224 3.6 Group Dynamics 225
3.6 Group Dynamics 226 3.6 Group Dynamics 227
3.6 Group Dynamics 228 3.6 Group Dynamics 229
3.6 Group Dynamics 230 3.6 Group Dynamics 231
3.6 Group Dynamics 232 3.6 Group Dynamics 233
3.6 Group Dynamics 234 3.6 Group Dynamics 235
3.7 Territory 3.6 Group Dynamics 236 237
238 3.7 Territory 239
4.1 Nest The wood pigeon is known for its untidy nests, seemingly thrown together from loosely arranged twigs, insecurely woven. These are found, platform-like in bushes or in large trees in wooded districts. Nevertheless a complete nest still appears to comprise a significant level of organisation. This is a reproduction of a nest after the young had flown. 240 241
242 4.1 Nest 243
4.1 Nest 244 4.1 Nest 245
4.1 Nest 246 4.1 Nest 247
4.1 Nest 248 4.1 Nest 249
4.1 Nest 250 4.1 Nest 251
4.1 Nest 252 4.1 Nest 253
4.1 Nest 254 4.1 Nest 255
4.2 Genetics 4.1 Nest 256 257
258 4.2 Genetics 259
4.2 Genetics 260 4.2 Genetics 261
4.3 Holotype* The cuckoo does not build her own nest, but uses the nest of varies hosts. The look of the egg is tailored depending on the selection of the host. Therefore, the typical cuckoo s egg simply does not exist. In order to propose its holotype, all of the cuckoo eggs from the collection of the Natural History Museum Rotterdam have been digitally combined. 4.2 Genetics 262 4.3 Holotype * A holotype is a term used in biological nomenclature. The term is assigned to a single physical example (or illustration, or several of such), which best represents the species (or lower ranked taxon). Every living organism on earth has such a designation, usually by the discoverer, in an original description of the species. 263
264 4.3 Holotype 265
5.1 Bird counting Enumerating birds is an interesting problem of movement in time and space. Not only does the identification of the species present difficulties, but also the determination of the approximate number in a given space can be problematic. For example, is it better to arrive at the correct number by investigating a defined fixed frame over time (stationary counting) or is it better to be self-moving? Should you add birds you only hear and increase the risk of double counting? Should you count alone or in teams? Photography can offer tools useful in solving this problem, with various methods being distinguishable therein. 266 267
Sorghvliet Park, The Hague 268 5.1.1 Bird Counting Area 269
Great Spotted Woodpecker Great Spotted Woodpecker Treecreeper Blackbird Great Tit Blue Tit Treecreeper Mallard Mallard Blue Tit Herring Gull Blackbird Great Tit Mallards Wood Pigeon Blackbird House Sparrow Great Spotted Woodpecker Wood Pigeon Blue Tit Blackbird Great Spotted Woodpecker Blue Tit Blackbird Herring Gull Coots Blackbird Song Trush Wren Rose-ringed Parakeet 5.1.1 Bird Counting Area 270 5.1.1 Bird Counting Area 271
Blue Tit Herring Gulls Great Spotted Woodpecker Carrion Crow Blackbird Great Tit Great Spotted Woodpecker Magpie Egyptian Goose Blue Tit Blue Tit Blue Tit Marsh Tit Rose-ringed Parakeets Rose-ringed Parakeets Blue Tit Blue Tit Willow Warbler Rose-ringed Parakeets Rose-ringed Parakeets Wood Pigeon Willow Warbler Wren Wood Pigeons Wood Pigeon Wood Pigeon Wood Pigeons Robin Robin Robin 5.1.1 Bird Counting Area 272 5.1.1 Bird Counting Area 273
Pied Avocet: 1 Mallard: 1 Pied Avocet: 2 Pied Avocet: 3 Pied Avocet: 1 274 5.1.2 Bird Counting Fixed Frame 275
Pied Avocet: 3 Pied Avocet: 3 Black-winged Stilt: 2 Pied Avocet: 2 Pied Avocet: 2 Black-winged Stilt: 1 Pied Avocet: 1 Pied Avocet: 4 Spotted Redshank: 1 Pied Avocet: 6 Mallard: 1 5.1.2 Bird Counting Fixed Frame 276 5.1.2 Bird Counting Fixed Frame 277
Pied Avocet: 7 Pied Avocet: 5 Ruff: 1 Pied Avocet: 7 Spotted Redshank: 1 Pied Avocet: 2 Ruff: 1 Spotted Redshank: 1 Pied Avocet: 2 Pied Avocet: 1 Spotted Redshank: 1 Pied Avocet: 2 Pied Avocet: 3 5.1.2 Bird Counting Fixed Frame 278 5.1.2 Bird Counting Fixed Frame 279
Pied Avocet: 2 Pied Avocet: 5 Pied Avocet: 8 Pied Avocet: 2 Pied Avocet: 3 Pied Avocet: 1 Pied Avocet: 1 Pied Avocet: 3 Black-tailed Godwit: 1 5.1.2 Bird Counting Fixed Frame 280 5.1.2 Bird Counting Fixed Frame 281
23 Mallard (male) 12 Mallard (female) 25 Coot 22 Black-headed Gull 01 Egyptian Goose 282 5.1.3 Bird Counting One Picture 283
5.1.3 Bird Counting One Picture 284 5.1.3 Bird Counting One Picture 285
5.1.3 Bird Counting One Picture 286 5.1.3 Bird Counting One Picture 287
5.2 Reaction Rate Herring Gulls: 118 5.1.3 Bird Counting One Picture 288 289
290 5.2 Reaction Rate 291
5.3 The Blackness of the Crow Photographic exercise on making a black crow white. 5.2 Reaction Rate 292 293
294 5.1 The Blackness of the Crow 295
5.1 The Blackness of the Crow 296 5.1 The Blackness of the Crow 297
5.1 The Blackness of the Crow 298 5.1 The Blackness of the Crow 299
5.1 The Blackness of the Crow 300 5.1 The Blackness of the Crow 301
5.1 The Blackness of the Crow 302 5.1 The Blackness of the Crow 303
5.1 The Blackness of the Crow 304 5.1 The Blackness of the Crow 305
6.1 Spiecies 5.1 The Blackness of the Crow 306 307
308 6.1 Spiecies 309
6.1 Spiecies 310 6.1 Spiecies 311
6.2 The Whiteness of the Wood Pigeon s egg The eggs of the wood pigeon are pearly white, and relatively conspicuous. Such eggs are produced mostly by birds which remain in their nest during breeding or make their nests in cavities. Wood pigeons often leave the nest and are sloppy nest builders (see Chapter 4.1). Consequently the lack of pigment in their eggs is puzzling and to date, no one has proposed an undisputed explanation. 6.1 Spiecies 312 313
314 6.2 The Whiteness of the Wood Pigeon s Egg 315
6.2 The Whiteness of the Wood Pigeon s Egg 316 6.2 The Whiteness of the Wood Pigeon s Egg 317
6.2 The Whiteness of the Wood Pigeon s Egg 318 6.2 The Whiteness of the Wood Pigeon s Egg 319
6.3 Unexplained Phenomena 6.2 The Whiteness of the Wood Pigeon s Egg 320 321
322 6.3 Unexplained Phenomena 323
6.3 Unexplained Phenomena 324 6.3 Unexplained Phenomena 325
6.3 Unexplained Phenomena 326 6.3 Unexplained Phenomena 327
6.3 Unexplained Phenomena 328 329
A Accipiter gentilis 45, 46, 52, 53 Acrocephalus scirpaceus 34, 35, 197, 201 African Grey Parrot, Psittacus erithacus 46, 47 Agapornis pullarius 46, 47 Agelaius xanthomus 261 Alauda arvensis 56, 57 Alcedo atthis 46, 47, 60, 61, 260 Alopochen aegyptiacus 272, 283 Amazona ochrocephala 50, 51, 58, 59 American Flamingo, Phoenicopterus ruber 212, 262 Anas crecca 46, 47, 52, 53 Anas penelope 52, 53 Anas platyrhynchos 58, 59, 100, 120, 121, 166, 270, 275, 277, 283, 324, 325 Anas platyrhynchos domesticus 52, 53, 60, 61 Anser albifrons 100, 101, 158, 159 Anser anser 52 55, 62, 63, 213, 221 Anthus, see Meadow Pipet Anthus pratensis 22, 23 Aquila pomarina 22, 23 Ara ararauna 46, 47 Ara chloropterus 46, 47 Ara macao 60, 61 Ardea alba 26, 27, 262 Ardea cinerea 44 47, 62, 63, 216, 224, 229 Asio otus 24, 25 Athene noctua 32, 33 Atlantic Canary, Serinus canaria 260, 262 Aythya fuligula 172 174 B Balearica regulorum 205 Barn Owl, Tyto alba 46, 47 Barn Swallow, Hirundo rustica 38, 39, 46, 47, 54, 55 Beccafico, see Garden Warbler Bewick s Swan, Cygnus c. Bewickii 292 Bittern, Botaurus stellaris 26, 27 Black-headed Gull, Chroicocephalus ridibundus 171, 232, 235, 283 Black-headed Tit, see Marsh Tit Black Kite, Milvus migrans 28, 29 Black Swan, Cygnus atratus 323 Black-tailed Godwit, Limosa limosa 281 Black-winged Stilt, Himantopus himantopus 276 Blackbird, Turdus merula 71, 83, 85, 86, 88, 270, 271, 273 Blackcap, Sylvia atricapilla 20, 21 Blue-and-yellow Macaw, Ara ararauna 46, 47 Blue Tit, Cyanistes caeruleus 44, 45, 50, 51, 78, 109 112, 270 273 Botaurus stellaris 26, 27 Bubo bubo 46, 47 Bubulcus ibis 161 Budgerigar, Melopsittacus undulatus 259 Bucephala clangula 46, 47 Bullfinch, Pyrrhula pyrrhula 44 47 C Caprimulgus europaeus 30, 31 Carduelis carduelis 43 51, 93, 261 Carrion Crow, Corvus corone 84, 89, 92, 95, 101, 156, 261, 262, 273, 293 306 Cattle Egret, Bubulcus ibis 161 Certhia familiaris 38, 39, 270 Chicken, see Red Junglefowl Chroicocephalus ridibundus 171, 232, 235, 283 Ciconia ciconia 34, 35, 46, 47 Circus aeruginosus 50, 51 Coconut Lorikeet, Trichoglossus haematodus 32, 33 Collared Dove, Streptopelia decaocto 70, 75 Columba livia 52 55, 58 61, 151, 191 Columba livia domestica 18, 19, 73, 83, 87 89, 91 96, 98, 99, 102, 103, 106, 151, 164, 216, 219, 224, 226, 227 Columba palumbus 11, 13 15, 80, 87, 92, 121, 241 257, 270, 272, 273, 291, 313 320 Coot, Fulica atra 77, 115 120, 169, 207, 211, 221, 270, 283, 324, 327 Copsychus saularis 202 Corvus cornix 44, 45, 112 Corvus corone 84, 89, 92, 95, 101, 156, 261, 262, 273, 293 306 Corvus monedula 84, 90, 110, 111 Coturnix coturnix 34, 35 Crake, see Water Rail Crane, Grus grus 24, 25, 145 Crow, see Carrion Crow Cuckoo, Cuculus canorus 18, 19, 263, 265 Cuculus canorus 18, 19, 263, 265 Curlew, Numenius arquata 46, 47 Cyanistes caeruleus 44, 45, 50, 51, 78, 109 112, 270 273 Cygnus atratus 323 Cygnus c. Bewickii 292 Cygnus olor 46, 47, 50, 51, 60, 61, 210 D Delichon urbicun 94, 97 Dendrocopos major 46 49, 261, 270 272 Domestic Duck, Anas platyrhynchos domesticus 52 55 60, 61 E Eagle, see Lesser Spotted Eagle Eagle-owl, Bubo bubo 46, 47 Eared Owl, Asio otus 24, 25 Eastern Bluebird, Sialia sialis 260 Egyptian Goose, Alopochen aegyptiacus 272, 283 Erithacus rubecula 18, 19, 273 Evening Grosbeak, Hesperiphona vespertina 261 F Falco peregrinus 50 53 Feral Pigeon, Columba livia domestica 18, 19, 73, 83, 87 89, 91 96, 98, 99, 102, 103, 106, 151, 164, 216, 219, 224, 226, 227 Ficedula hypoleuca 46, 47 Forpus conspicillatus 328 Fulica atra 77, 115 120, 169, 207, 211, 221, 270, 283, 324, 327 G Gallinula chloropus 327 Gallus gallus 46, 47, 50 55, 58 61, 67, 231, 239 Gallus gallus domesticus brisson 206 Garden Warbler, Sylvia borin 20, 21 Garrulus glandarius 28, 29 Goat-sucker, see Nightjar Golden Oriole, Oriolus oriolus 30, 31, 46, 47 Goldeneye, Bucephala clangula 46, 47 Goldfinch, Carduelis carduelis 43 51, 93, 261 Great Bird-of-paradise, Paradisaea apoda 46 49 Great Cormorant, Phalacrocorax carbo 107, 176 Great Egret, Ardea alba 26, 27, 262 Great Spotted Woodpecker, Dendrocopos major 46 49, 261, 270 272 Great Tit, Parus major 46 49, 54, 55, 85, 262, 270, 271, 273 Great White Pelican, Pelecanus onocrotalus 32, 33 Greater Rhea, Rhea americana 215 Greater White-fronted Goose, Anser albifrons 100, 101, 158, 159 Green Woodpecker, Picus viridis 44, 45 Grey Crowned Crane, Balearica regulorum 205 Grey Heron, Ardea cinerea 44 47, 62, 63, 216, 224, 229 Grey Partridge, Perdix perdix 24, 25, 50, 51, 60 63 Greylag Goose, Anser anser 52 55, 62, 63, 213, 221 Grus grus 24, 25, 145 H Halcyon, see White-throated Kingfisher Halcyon smyrnensis 28, 29 Haliaeetus albicilla 36, 37 Herring Gull, Larus argentatus 54 59, 62, 63, 74, 99, 104 106, 156, 177, 180 188, 195, 224, 232, 235, 270 272, 284 288 Hesperiphona vespertina 261 Himantopus himantopus 276 Hirundo rustica 38, 39, 46, 47, 54, 55 Hooded Crow, Corvus cornix 44, 45, 112 Hoopoe, Upupa epops 46, 47, 228, 229, 262 House Martin, Delichon urbicun 94, 97 House Sparrow, Passer domesticus 38, 39, 48, 49, 68, 69, 76, 153, 154, 222, 223, 271 I Indian Peafowl, Pavo cristatus 46, 47, 50, 51, 54, 55, 60, 61, 209 J Jay, Garrulus glandarius 28, 29 K Kingfisher, Alcedo atthis 46, 47, 60, 61, 260 Kite, see Black Kite L Lamprotornis purpuroptera 46, 47 Larus argentatus 54 59, 62, 63, 74, 99, 104 106, 156, 177, 180 188, 195, 224, 232, 235, 270 272, 284 288 Lesser Spotted Eagle, Aquila pomarina 22, 23 Limosa limosa 281 Little Horned Owl, Otus scops 24, 25 Little Owl, Athene noctua 32, 33 Bird Index 330 Bird Index 331
Luscinia megarhynchos 30, 31, 79 M Magpie, Pica pica 44 47, 50 57, 262, 272, 324 Mallard, Anas platyrhynchos 58 61, 100, 120, 121, 166, 270, 275, 277, 283, 324, 325 Marsh Tit, Poecile palustris 20, 21, 272 Meadow Pipet, Anthus pratensis 22, 23 Melanitta perspicillata 46, 47 Meleagris gallopavo 46, 47, 60, 61 Melopsittacus undulatus 259 Merganser, Mergus merganser 168 Mergus merganser 168 Milvus migrans 28, 29 Monk Parakeet, Myiopsitta monachus 67 Moorhen, Gallinula chloropus 327 Motacilla alba 40, 41, 72 Mountain Bluebird, Sialia currucoides 260 Mute Swan, Cygnus olor 46, 47, 50, 51, 60, 61, 210 Myiopsitta monachus 67 N Nightingale, Luscinia megarhynchos 30, 31, 79 Nightjar, Caprimulgus europaeus 30, 31 Northern Goshawk, Accipiter gentilis 46, 47, 52, 53 Numenius arquata 46, 47 Nuthatch, Sitta europaea 30, 31, 44 47 Nyctea scandiaca 262 O Oriental Magpie-robin, Copsychus saularis 202 Oriole, see Golden Oriole Oriolus oriolus 30, 31, 46, 47 Ostrich, Struthio camelus 48, 49, 203 216 Otus scops 24, 25 Owl, see Little Owl P Paradisaea apoda 46 49 Parrot, see Coconut Lorikeet Partridge, see Grey Partridge Parus major 46 49, 54, 55, 85, 262, 270, 271, 273 Passer domesticus 38, 39, 48, 49, 68, 69, 153, 154, 222, 223, 271 Pavo cristatus 46, 47, 50, 51, 54, 55, 60, 61, 209 Pelecanus onocrotalus 32, 33 Pelegrine Falcon, Falco peregrinus 50 53 Pelican, see Great White Pelican Perdix perdix 24, 25, 50, 51, 60 63 Phalacrocorax carbo 107, 176 Phasianus colchicus 46, 47, 60, 61 Pheasant, Phasianus colchicus 46, 47, 60, 61 Philomachus pugnax 46, 47, 279 Phoenicopterus ruber 212, 262 Phoenicurus phoenicurus 18, 19 Phylloscopus trochilus 273 Pica pica 44 47, 50, 51, 54 57, 262, 272, 324 Picus viridis 44, 45 Pied Avocet, Recurvirostra avosetta 275 281 Pied Flycatcher, Ficedula hypoleuca 46, 47 Pigeon, see Feral Pigeon Poecile palustris 20, 21, 272 Porphyrio porphyrio 46, 47 Psittacula krameri 46, 47, 108, 271, 272 Psittacus erithacus 46, 47 Pyrrhula pyrrhula 44 47 Q Quail, Coturnix coturnix 34, 35 R Rallus aquaticus 22, 23 Ramphastos tucanus 46, 47 Recurvirostra avosetta 275 281 Red-and-Green Macaw, Ara chloropterus 46, 47 Red-headed Lovebird, Agapornis pullarius 46, 47 Red Junglefowl, Gallus gallus 46, 47, 50 55, 58 61, 67, 231, 239 Redstart, Phoenicurus phoenicurus 18, 19 Reed-warbler, Acrocephalus scirpaceus 34, 35, 197, 201 Rhea americana 215 Robin, Erithacus rubecula 18, 19, 273 Rock Dove, Columba livia 52 55, 58 61, 151, 191 Rose-ringed Parakeet, Psittacula krameri 46, 47, 108, 271, 272 Ruff, Philomachus pugnax 46, 47, 279 Rüppell s Starling, Lamprotornis purpuroptera 46, 47 S Scarlet Macaw, Ara macao 60, 61 Sea-eagle, see White-tailed Eagle Serinus canaria 260, 262 Sialia currucoides 260 Sialia sialis 260 Silkie, Gallus gallus domesticus brisson 206 Sitta, see Nuthatch Sitta europaea 30, 31, 44 47 Skylark, Alauda arvensis 56, 57 Snowy Owl, Nyctea scandiaca 262 Song Thrush, Turdus philomelos 271 Sparrow, see House Sparrow Speckled Heron, see Bittern Spectacled Parrotlet, Forpus conspicillatus 328 Spotted Redshank, Tringa erythropus 276, 278, 279 Starling, Sturnus vulgaris 90, 91, 97, 98, 100, 101, 146, 147, 149, 152, 153, 162, 163, 236 Stork, see White Stork Streptopelia decaocto 70, 75 Streptopelia turtur 40, 41, 46, 47 Strix aluco 46, 47 Struthio camelus 48, 49, 203 216 Sturnus vulgaris 90, 91, 97, 98, 100, 101, 146, 147, 149, 152, 153, 162, 163, 236 Surf Scoter, Melanitta perspicillata 46, 47 Sylvia atricapilla 20, 21 Sylvia borin 20, 21 T Tawny Owl, Strix aluco 46, 47 Teal, Anas crecca 46, 47, 52, 53 Treecreeper, Certhia familiaris 38, 39, 270 Trichoglossus haematodus 32, 33 Tringa erythropus 276, 278, 279 Troglodytes troglodytes 32, 40, 41 Tufted Duck, Aythya fuligula 172 174 Turdus merula 71, 83, 85, 86, 88, 270, 271, 273 Turdus philomelos 271 Turtle Dove, Streptopelia turtur 40, 41, 46, 47 Tyto alba 46, 47 U Upupa epops 46, 47, 228, 229, 262 W Wagtail, see White Wagtail Water Rail, Rallus aquaticus 22, 23 Western Jackdaw, Corvus monedula 84, 90, 110, 111 Western Marsh Harrier, Circus aeruginosus 50, 51 Western Swamphen, Porphyrio porphyrio 46, 47 White Heron, see Great Egret White Stork, Ciconia ciconia 34, 35, 46, 47 White-tailed Eagle, Haliaeetus albicilla 36, 37 White-throated Kingfisher, Halcyon smyrnensis 28, 29 White-throated Toucan, Ramphastos tucanus 46, 47 White Wagtail, Motacilla alba 40, 41, 72 Wigeon, Anas penelope 52, 53 Wild Turkey, Meleagris gallopavo 46, 47, 60, 61 Willow Warbler, Phylloscopus trochilus 273 Wood Pigeon, Columba palumbus 11, 13 15, 80, 87, 92, 121, 241 257, 270, 272, 273, 291, 313 320 Wren, Troglodytes troglodytes 32, 40, 41 Y Yellow-crowned Amazon, Amazona ochrocephala 50, 51, 58, 59 Yellow-shouldered Blackbird, Agelaius xanthomus 261 Bird Index 332 Bird Index 333
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