Translators of Pragmatic Texts and Expert Writing: A Reflection on Translator Training/Education in New Brunswick, Canada

Translators of Pragmatic Texts and Expert Writing: A Reflection on Translator Training/Education in New Brunswick, Canada Denise Merkle Université de Moncton Abstract In Canada, translator training programmes are offered at the undergraduate level. Traditionally, undergraduates honed their writing skills in required philosophy, history or literature courses, where they were obliged to read lists of books and articles and write essays. Such evaluations are often now replaced by multiple choice exams, short answer questions or oral presentations. However, the workforce requires that translators have expert writing skills. Translators-intraining who already hold one or more university degree have more often than not already acquired expert writing skills in at least one field. Solutions must be found to develop the writing skills of those translators-in-training who arrive in translatortraining programmes without previously acquired expert writing skills. If greater emphasis is not placed on writing, there is the danger that current training and educational methods and content may no longer continue to meet the expectations of the profession (language industries), and, by extension, the expectations of students (i.e., obtain a job and hold onto it upon graduation) in a world where reading and writing seem to be increasingly devalued. 1. The Situation Much translator training, particularly at undergraduate level, is based on the myth that learners already master their working languages. I use the term myth because the vast majority of translator trainers are aware that the future translators they are working with simply do not have the language competence necessary to undertake many translation tasks, particularly at the beginning of their training. (Kelly 2005: 115) The topic of translator as writer has been generating considerable interest over a number of years, for in our modern technocratic and mercantile context the act of writing, like much associated with the traditional humanities, has come under fire and been decried as not useful. The traditional emphasis on reading, writing and numeric literacy in the education system is increasingly shifting to technical and scientific literacy, although what appears to be frequently forgotten by the general public and countless educators is that the success of knowledge acquisition in the technical and scientific areas can be undermined by insufficient language and numeric mastery 1

upon which all learning is based (Nelson 1996/2002). New Brunswick, like the rest of Canada, is not immune to this problematic evolution in societal and educational priorities. Even would-be translators occasionally do not fully comprehend that central to the translatorial skill set is the ability to read critically and to write not only in their first language, which will generally be the target language of their translations at least in the Canadian context, but also to read across languages. This problem is the source of some concern in undergraduate translator training programmes, where the majority of students are recent high school (or, in Québec, Cegep 1 ) graduates. To be eligible for employment with Canada s Federal Translation Bureau a bachelor s degree in translation is required. Undergraduate course requirements include comparative stylistics, general and specialized translation courses, documentation and terminology courses. Recommended courses include history and theory of translation (see Valentine 2003 for a detailed presentation of undergraduate translator-training programmes in Québec and Canada). Writing courses are not considered to be an integral component of translator training programmes, since Kelly s myth (2005: 115) seems to reign, i.e., it is generally assumed that students admitted into translator-training programmes, after passing an entrance examination, have mastered writing skills. 2 Interestingly, the Université du Québec en Outaouais has developed a unique (in the Canadian context) and successful B.A. in Traduction et Rédaction [translation and writing] programme (http://www.uqo.ca/futurs-etudiants/p-traduction.asp), a programme that caters specifically for the development of (professional) writing skills. Other universities, e.g., York University s Glendon College (http://www.glendon.yorku.ca/translation/requirements.html), offer certificate programmes in technical and professional communication. What is lacking in the case of many of the translators-in-training in the New Brunswick context who come directly from the high school system is mastery of their dominant language and critical reading skills (second language). Some students arrive at Université de Moncton s English-French translation programme with insufficient first-language written language skills (grammar and style) and frequently have a vocabulary in need of enrichment. The bilingualism of New Brunswick francophones (Acadians) can result in linguistic interference (code-mixing). Surprisingly, would-be translators at times 1 Collège d enseignement général et professionnel that Québec students are required to attend after finishing high school (somewhat equivalent to the French lycée). 2 It should be acknowledged that Daniel Gile (1995: 221) noted 15 years ago that some students were admitted to translator-training programmes with insufficient language skills. 2

do not realize that one must master at least two languages to be able to translate; a number of them affirm that they do not like to write, making a clear and highly problematic to my mind distinction between translating (linguistic transfer of ideas conceived of and arguments elaborated by someone else) and writing (idea generation and argument development for which they are responsible, i.e., independent thinking). Of interest and pertinence in Canada a bilingual country and in New Brunswick the country s only bilingual province is, more specifically, the issue of writing in a context of official English-French bilingualism, where the languages often come into contact, to the point of creating linguistic interference. In Canada and New Brunswick, where the translation of legislation and public documents is a constitutional or legal requirement, writing and translation inevitably cross paths. Generally, documents are written in English (the dominant language), then translated into French (the dominated language). In this context, it has become relevant to bridge what I consider to be the artificial dichotomy that separates pragmatic translation and pragmatic writing. The work of polysystem scholars (e.g., Even-Zohar 1990) has contributed to our understanding of (primarily literary) translation as a creative writing activity that can have a determining influence on a nation s intellectual, cultural and political development (Delisle and Woodsworth 2007). In addition, significant contributions have been made to our understanding of pragmatic translation as (creative) writing (Delisle 2003, 2005; Gouadec 1989, 2000, 2002, 2007). Yet, little has been written about language teaching for translators (Malmkjær 2004: 4). In the following section of this paper, we shall briefly discuss language teaching for translators-in-training. But first, we would like to insist on the link made between translation competency and writing competency, not only by researchers (e.g., Delisle 2005: 36-37), but also by the profession. Canada s Translation Bureau stresses the importance of writing skills on its website (http://www.btb.gc.ca/btb.php?lang=eng&cont=818). For its part, the New Brunswick Translation Bureau refers to mastery of grammar and style: Translation consists in rendering a written message into another language as faithfully as possible. It involves analyzing the message to determine its meaning and then expressing that meaning appropriately in the target language. In other words, the message is transmitted faithfully and the 3

translation is grammatically correct, idiomatic, and stylistically suited to the use for which it is intended. http://www.gnb.ca/0099/translation/ translation-e.asp It is thus clear that not only the ivory tower recognizes the fundamental link between the two (Chesterman and Wagner 2002). Furthermore, in addition to government translators, the private sector has taken note. Take as an example, a Polish website that offers professional translation services between Polish and English. Under the heading A Good Translator is Highly Educated, we read: Most competent translators are highly educated, holding advanced degrees in both of the languages they work in, and most hold degrees in translation as well. This is because a good translator must have a solid grasp of both languages, with the ability to write intelligently in both. The texts that a translator will be asked to translate from/into Polish will most often contain a high level of writing in the original language, and that high level of writing must be passed on into the translation. (http://www.korepetycje.com/translationwriting.html) In the Canadian context, it could be argued that the texts that a translator will be asked to translate from/into [English/French] will most often contain a high level of writing in the original language, and that high level of writing must be passed on into the translation (ibid.). Furthermore, the following passage A Good Translator is also a Good Term Paper Writer and Researcher is of particular interest for the Canadian context where the federal government requires that professional translators hold an undergraduate degree in translation: A translator has the luxury of taking his or her time in translating a written document into [another] language. Because of this, both a good custom writer and translator should familiarize himself with the tools necessary to provide as accurate a translation as possible. If the translator happens upon a section of text that appears unfamiliar or ambiguous, he or she must take the time to 4

perform the necessary research that will clear up the meaning of that section of text. (http://www.korepetycje.com/translationwriting.html) What is becoming problematic in New Brunswick, however, is that undergraduate students are increasingly not required to write research papers as part of their degree requirements, and invariably complain when asked to do so. Furthermore, their research work is more often than not limited to consulting websites, located on the Internet using research engines such as Google and Yahoo, and terminology data banks to which they are introduced in their terminology or specialized translation courses (Public Works and Government Services Canada, Federal Translation Bureau, Termium at http://www.termiumplus.gc.ca/tpv2alpha/alpha-fra.html?lang=fra and the Office québécois de la langue française s Grand dictionnaire terminologique at http://www.granddictionnaire.com/btml/fra/r_motclef/ index1024_1.asp). While the situation is not yet critical, educators have noted a general decline in the interest in and quality of writing and reading at the undergraduate level, in part a result of the client mentality that has some unfortunate students thinking that they can learn without working for it. It should be noted that this problem is not limited to New Brunswick. In fact, the National Reading Summit of November 2009 identified the changing attitude towards reading as a threat to democracy (http://www.nationalreadingsummit.ca/). The Université de Moncton is the only university in Canada s Atlantic region to offer translator training; its programmes train translators who work from English to French. While Québec universities (Laval, Montréal, Sherbrooke, Outaouais, Concordia) house the majority of professional translator-training programmes, the Collège St-Boniface (Manitoba), Glendon College (York University) and University of Ottawa, the latter two in Ontario, also offer professional translator training. Three groups of students graduate from the Université de Moncton translation programmes: regular B.Trad., 3 Co-op B.Trad., 1+ degreee B.Trad. 4 The employment 3 Baccalauréat en traduction (B.Trad). Université de Moncton is the largest francophone university outside Québec and was founded to serve first and foremost the Acadian community that resides primarily in New Brunswick. 4 This programme is an option for students who already hold at least one post-secondary (university) degree. Students enrolled in this programme take almost exclusively translation courses and accumulate what amounts to the equivalent of a specialization in translation (without the optional courses that make up the total credits towards a B.Trad. degree). 5

prospects for B.Trad. graduates have been excellent since the start of the millenium, with an annual hire rate of 100% since 2005. Students receiving job offers prior to graduation are often those who also hold one or more degrees in addition to their translator training, e.g., a master s degree in the arts, a degree in medicine, the sciences or a profession (law, accounting, etc.). Employment prospects in translation are also very good for graduates of the cooperative programme, for these students tend to be particularly goal-oriented. Like the graduates of the other translator-training programmes (cf. those enumerated above), Moncton s graduates are hired by the Federal Translation Bureau, the New Brunswick Translation Bureau, (para-)public sector enterprises (e.g., hospitals) and by private sector firms (e.g. CLS Lexi-tech) (see Elton 2007 for information on the Federal Translation Bureau hiring requirements as seen by students). The quick placement of B.Trad. graduates who hold other degrees strongly indicates that the marketplace is looking to hire experts in specific fields (law, medicine, biology, dentistry, education, political science) and/or writers with strong editorial skills (M.A. in French Studies). This category of learner, who is often older and has been active in the workforce for a number of years, tends to have acquired a rich general and field-specific vocabulary, mastered basic grammar rules and learned to distinguish between different text types. These translators-in-training are, to some degree at least, expert writers in their respective fields. In addition, this group tends to read and, importantly, have a good work ethic. Consequently, this group generally does not need intensive writing courses, although certain learners may benefit from courses that correct linguistic interference (lexical and structural). By contrast, recent high school graduates are often in need of writing and reading courses. Since translation courses represent half of their course load, one half of their load could be made up of courses that will help them improve their target writing skills. Yet, some of them shy away from such courses. How is it that some translators-in-training do not realize that they must master the written language in order to translate? 2. Misconceptions about the translation profession It appears fair to say that the general public does not appreciate the translator s sophisticated skill set any more than do high school guidance counsellors (who generally know very little if anything about the translation profession) or high school teachers. Consequently, a good many students fresh from high school arrive in our translation programme with no idea of the work that is involved to become a 6

translator (whereas a future lawyer, accountant or doctor is far less naive about the work required to become a member of one of those professions). Too often students have to be convinced that their chosen career is indeed a profession and made to understand that professional translators must have the ability to construct an effective document on a specialized topic (engineering, computers, a new prescription drug), a (near-)perfect mastery of at least two languages (in the Canadian context usually French and English), the total mastery of the subject matter, the ability to write and cultural knowledge (Delisle 2005: 36-37). Yet, it should be noted that some recent high school graduates do arrive at university with a sophisticated linguistic skill set and a good work ethic. 3. Distinguishing between general translator training and expert translator training Undergraduate translator training programmes generally produce generalists who are exposed to a variety of text types and specialized vocabularies through specialized translation courses (administrative, commercial, legal, technical, etc.). An exception at the undergraduate level is the Université de Montréal that offers courses in specialized terminology and writing in the commercial, economic, scientific, legal and technical, etc. fields. Furthermore, these courses help prepare learners for specialized translation courses by exposing them to transfer problems specific to the text type and field (http://www.progcours.umontreal.ca/cours/index_fiche_cours/index_c yc1_tra.html). The University of Ottawa offered a master s programme in the field of legal translation; however, the programme has been suspended. In addition, students who earn an M.A. in translation can acquire expert knowledge in a field through their thesis research. Yet, as we have seen, students who are already specialized in a field and who have strong writing skills can be considered expert translators after having completed their B.Trad. degree. 4. Language teaching for translators 4.i. What exactly is expert writing 5? What writing skills and techniques are part of translation practice? Expert writing requires intimate familiarity with one or more text type, in addition to linguistic mastery (terminology, style, etc.) (Nord 1997). 5 I would like to thank Shizhuo Yang for asking probing questions in an email sent to me on 12 November 2009 in response to the presentation I made at the Portsmouth conference. 7

Literary writing requires the skill of an expert writer because of the linguistic dexterity and creativity that is involved, as well as, surprisingly, the ability to do terminology research (depending on the subject matter of the work to be translated of course). In addition, legal writers, technical writers, medical writers, etc. who write well are all expert writers. When given the appropriate training, they can become expert translators. It is in the best interests of translators-intraining to be introduced to different text types and their skopos (Vermeer 1990) as well as to the editorial and stylistic conventions and the specialized vocabulary required for each text type. Taking a variety of specialized translation courses can help learners decide whether they prefer the variety of general translation or the concentration of translating in one area of expertise. It is clear that students who have not mastered basic writing skills are not ready for expert writing classes. In any event, such classes are rarely offered at the undergraduate level within translator-training programmes, the exception being the programme offered by the Université du Québec en Outaouais, as we have seen. Interested students would have to take upper-level courses that require writing in the area of specialization that interests them (business, engineering, medicine, etc.) or enrol in a certificate programme in technical or professional communication such as the one offered by Glendon College. 4.ii How to develop the writing skills of translators-in-training Kelly (2005:115) suggests that the first step is to appraise the language level of students realistically in order to design and sequence activities accordingly. This suggestion is sound from a pedagogical perspective and would make room in translation programmes for language (i.e., writing) courses. Gile (1995) also stresses the importance of identifying the linguistic strengths and weaknesses of translators-in-training and adapting the programme of study to suit their needs. He divides students into two categories: 1) those who require initial training, 2) those who require further training. The latter category comprises those who require training in translation theory, techniques and strategies (many of Université de Moncton s 1+ degree students). They know at least two languages, write texts of good editorial quality in their own language, have likely done some translation work and have acquired general and specialized knowledge in one or several subject areas. The first category, however, needs more training. They may be language teachers without much general or specialized knowledge, experts in fields that do not require editorial skills and first-year university students in any discipline. Those who require initial training may need 8

language training (first and/or second language), editorial training and specialized knowledge build-up. One positive step proposed by Beeby (2004) is the integration of discourse study into pragmatic translation classes. Delisle s thoughts (2003, 2005) on teaching professional translation are useful here. Delisle insists that linguistic, methodological, technical and disciplinary competencies must be cultivated in addition to linguistic dexterity and method in research techniques (use of general and specialized dictionaries, documentation research). He adds that translation aids (CAT, TM, terminology banks, electronic dictionaries), office automation software (word processors, spellcheckers) and disciplinary aids, such as the acquisition of specialized languages in courses on specialized translation (technical, economic, legal, computer, medical, etc.) can provide future specialized translators with the requisite terminology. Furthermore, in addition to the basic competencies, teaching must address the realities of the profession: translation is an act of communication that sometimes requires changes to source text formulation in order to deal with linguistic and non- linguistic constraints and meet communication needs. Consequently, students translate into their dominant language (usually their first language) in keeping with the hypothesis that their active writing skills will be strongest in this language. Still, according to Delisle, translation exercises should be conceived to emphasize effective communication (pragmatic texts) or literariness (literary texts). If we accept the assumption that the majority of textual (translation) equivalents are creative, then translators must be linguistically creative (a high level of mastery of the written language). Delisle remarks on an optimistic note that increasingly translation schools understand the importance of multiplying the number of writing courses that translators-in-training must take to fulfill programme requirements (2005: 36-37). 4.iii The difference between general writing classes and writing in translation classes The primary shifts of emphasis in the teaching of writing to translators-in-training are on the problem of linguistic interference between SL and TL that results from the contact between languages and problems of transfer (concepts, terminology, textual conventions, etc.). In comparative stylistics and writing and translation courses, for example, students learn to separate as clearly as possible the two languages and two sets of textual conventions. Nevertheless, unilingual writing training in the target language (the translator's 9

dominant language) is, in theory at least, a prerequisite to translator training, for the translator in training must have acquired a good mastery of the target language before undertaking writing exercises in the context of the languages (and cultures) in contact (Gouadec 2007: 18-20). General writing courses can be of use to students whose writing skills are in need of greater improvement, and these students are encouraged to take additional writing courses (Gile 1995: 211). 4.iv How can writing training improve translation? In pragmatic translation (emphasis on transfer of information rather than poetics), translators do not limit their activity to the transfer of translation units from SL to TL, as Bryne (2009) explains in his paper about technical translation. They are expected to produce a target language text that is coherent (Nord 1997), in keeping with target culture norms for the given text type (Vermeer 1990), and that reads well thanks to correct grammar, good vocabulary choices and the appropriate use of stylistic devices, in keeping with target language norms and conventions (for example, the English language does not use connectives in the same way as the French language does). Translators tend to be language purists and are expected to improve on the linguistic quality of the source text as required (e.g., the disambiguation of a problematically ambiguous passage in the source text).the target reader should find the translation intelligible and agreeable to read. Only a competent writer, i.e., one who masters target culture text type conventions as well as stylistic devices, is able to produce a fluid and fully comprehensible target text, the criteria of successful pragmatic translation. In addition, as Byrne (2009) accurately noted, translators have ethical and legal obligations that may require them to rewrite portions of their text (add missing information, delete information considered unnecessary in the target context, etc.). Only a translator, who is also a writer in his or her own right, will have the linguistic mastery and self-confidence to produce a suitably readable target text that is in reality a product not only of translation, but also of writing. 5. Preliminary Conclusion: Towards Solutions It has become necessary to devote greater attention to the issue of writing and/in translation in undergraduate translator-training programmes given the evolution of societal and educational priorities 10

that downplay rigorous writing tasks and writing excellence. 6 In reaction, translation programmes can choose to make strong writing skills a condition of admission, require that students take upper-level courses that include writing tasks in the area of specialization that interests them or offer writing courses to compensate for insufficient writing assignments in many optional courses. Traditionally, students honed their writing skills in required philosophy, history or literature courses, where they were obliged to read lists of books and articles and write essays (upwards of 10 pages in length). Such evaluations are often now replaced by multiple choice exams, short answer questions (1/2 page), or group work the culmination of which is the group presentation of an exposé. Courses on intercultural contacts, literary translation, history and theory of translation could include book report writing to develop analytical reading techniques and an essay writing component designed to develop writing techniques; courses on specialized languages, terminology and documentation could require the writing of specialized texts and reports; practicums could require the submission of a detailed post-practicum report written in well-developed prose. In other words, writing assignments can be incorporated into numerous courses that are essential components of translator-training programmes. If greater emphasis is not placed on writing, there is the danger that current training and educational methods and content may no longer continue to meet the expectations of the profession (language industries), and, by extension, the expectations of students (i.e., obtain a job and hold onto it upon graduation) in a world where reading and writing seem to be increasingly devalued. Bibliography Beeby, Allison (2004). Language Learning for Translators. In K. Malmkjær, ed. Translation in Undergraduate Degree Programmes. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 39-65. Byrne, Jody (2009). Are Technical Translators Writing Themselves out of Existence?. In I. Kemble, ed. The Translator as Writer, Proceedings of the 9 th Portsmouth Translation Conference. Portsmouth: University of Portsmouth. Chesterman, Andrew and Emma Wagner (2002). Can Theory Help Translators? Manchester, U.K.: St. Jerome Publishing. 6 Studies on the evolution of society and its impact on student motivation and expectations have been published in TTR XX1/1 (2008). Two articles, in particular, consider changes that must be made to translator-training programmes to ensure that recent graduates meet the needs of a rapidly evolving and increasingly demanding profession: A. Hurtado Albir, Compétence en traduction et formation par compétences (27-64), A. Echeverri, Énième plaidoyer pour l innovation dans les cours pratiques de traduction. Prélables à l inovation? (65-98). In his article, Echeverri insists that Canadian translation schools teaching methods must become more innovative. 11

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