This Master thesis would not have its current shape without the help of several people. I

Acknowledgements This Master thesis would not have its current shape without the help of several people. I would like to thank my supervisor, Dr Marjolijn Verspoor, who guided me through the process of writing this thesis and who helped me get over obstacles and through difficult moments. I would also like to thank Dr Wander Lowie, the second reader of my thesis, who helped me with the statistical analysis of this study. Several people have helped me with the experiments this thesis contains: Dr L.A. Stowe, Bregtje Seton, Vanessa Pietersz, and all the numerous anonymous respondents of the word association tasks and reaction time experiments; I would like to thank them as well. Finally, I would like to thank my family and friends who have supported and stimulated me throughout my years at the University of Groningen and who have believed in me. 1

List of abbreviations L1 L2 BIA WA task RT experiment NSD NSE NNSD SD Ms First Language or mother tongue Second Language Bilingual Interactive Activation model Word Association task Reaction Time experiment Native Speakers of Dutch Native Speakers of English Non-Native Speakers of Dutch (with L1 English) Standard Deviation Milliseconds 2

Summary Words are labels for concepts. Many different words could refer to a similar concept. Not every concept is represented by a word, because sometimes a particular feeling cannot always be referred to with a word. Therefore, a concept is seen as a dynamic, mental representation that exists separately from words. It displays our experience and knowledge gained through the outside world. When learning another language, L2 learners with a different language and cultural background are likely to have different concepts than native speakers of a language. When L2 learners transfer conceptual knowledge of their L1 onto their L2 by means of specific L1 elements, they influence their L2. This study questions to what extent the L1 conceptual knowledge of native speakers of English influences their L2 Dutch. To answer this question, two experiments are conducted. First, a word association task with 75 target words is carried out. The responses are compared to responses by native speakers of Dutch and native speakers of English. Out of the responses, one association is selected for each target word to represent the non-native speakers of Dutch and one to represent the native speakers of Dutch. These associations show that the L2 learners are still influenced by the conceptual representations of their L1. In order to prove that these results are meaningful, a reaction time experiment is conducted. Different native Dutch and non-native Dutch subjects respond to the 75 target words and their associations acquired from the word association tasks. Unfortunately, the results of the reaction time experiment did not have a significant result. A future study with subjects of a more similar background and proficiency in Dutch could prove the conceptual transfer from L1 to L2. 3

Table of contents 1 Acknowledgements 2 List of abbreviations 3 Summary 5 Table of contents 7 Introduction 10 Chapter 1: Theoretical Background 11 1.1 Approaches towards the process of learning a second language. 14 1.2 The relationship between words and conceptual knowledge. 20 1.3 The bilingual mind. 28 1.4 The elicitation of parts of the conceptual knowledge. 30 1.5 Empirical evidence 31 1.6 Conclusion 32 1.7 Statement of purpose and hypothesis 34 Chapter 2: Methodology Word Association Tasks Introduction 35 2.1 Word Association Subjects 36 2.2 WA Materials 39 2.3 WA Procedures 40 2.4 WA Analysis 46 Reaction Time experiment methodology 2.5 RT Subjects 47 2.6 RT Materials 51 2.7 RT Procedures 52 2.8 RT Analysis 55 Chapter 3: Results 3.1 Results WA tasks 56 3.2 Results RT experiments 58 3.2.1 Classification 60 3.2.2 Prime nouns and prime verbs compared 61 3.2.3 Syllables 64 Chapter 4: Analysis and Discussion 4.1 Discussion and Analysis WA tasks 69 4.2 Discussion and Analysis RT experiments 74 4.3 Shortcomings of this study 4.3.1 Shortcomings of WA tasks 76 4.3.2 Shortcomings RT experiments 5

78 Chapter 5: Conclusion and Suggestions 5.1 Conclusion 80 5.2 Shortcomings of this study 81 5.3 Relevance of this study for language teaching 82 5.4 Suggestions for future research 84 References 89 Appendices I Word Associations questionnaires for NSD and NNSD 91 II Primes and Classification EN primes 96 III Motivation for the EN primes 107 IV Motivation for the NL primes 109 V Associations given to all word association tasks 6

Introduction Learning to speak a foreign language usually takes a lot of time and effort. In order to speak a foreign language the first step is forming a basic vocabulary. The easiest and most frequent way of learning new words is by learning L2 translations of L1 words. However, when you simply study translation equivalents, you may not always get the complete meaning of a word, because a translation equivalent may not cover all specific L1 elements. Dutch learners of English, for example, might not learn that the English word career covers a different meaning than the Dutch word carrière. In English career refers more to a general course of ones working life than the Dutch word carrière, which stands mainly for the particular profession for which one has trained and has worked hard for in order to get that position. These subtle differences may cause one not to achieve mastery of all the conceptual elements of the L2 concepts, even when the level of overall fluency could be at the level of a native speaker. This study researches these subtle differences between concepts in Dutch and English. A word association task is used in order to determine to what extent L1 English influences the conceptual knowledge of advanced learners of Dutch. The results of these word association tasks are analysed on conceptual transfer : whether L2 learners transfer conceptual elements of their L1 onto their L2. The responses are compared to associations by native speakers of Dutch and English to discover L1 transferred associations. Subsequently, a reaction time experiment is conducted to see whether the advanced L2 speakers react differently to transferred associations than the native speakers Previous studies have researched the bilingual mind and conceptual differences between languages (cf. De Bot, Lowie, & Verspoor, 2005), but not many studies have focused on the extent to which conceptual transfer influences the conceptual knowledge of L2. Sharifian did a similar study (2005), but the focus in that study was on conceptual differences 7

between groups with a different cultural tradition. Verspoor did a similar word association study with advanced L2 learners, but they had different L1 s. Dong et al. (2005) did a study that was similar to this study because it consisted of word association tasks and reaction time experiments, but they tested Chinese learners of English at different levels of proficiency. This study researches the influence of conceptual differences on the conceptual representations of L2 learners of Dutch with L1 English of the same cultural background. The purpose of this study is to gain insight into the conceptual representation of learners of L2 Dutch. L2 learners may appear to have fully mastered the language, but when it turns out that they have not yet acquired the conceptual differences between the L2 and their L1, it could be useful for language teachers to pay more attention to conceptual differences while teaching foreign languages, in this case, Dutch. Conceptual differences between languages are an important aspect to acquire in order to obtain a native-like proficiency. Therefore, the aim of this study is to determine whether very advanced learners of Dutch are still influenced by their L1 after having lived in the Netherlands for many years. The word association tasks will explore whether conceptual transfer takes place in advanced L2 learners. Similar association tasks have led to good results in previous studies (Verspoor, 2005). If the results give proof of conceptual transfer in learners of Dutch, a further reaction time experiment is conducted to determine whether the results of the word association tasks were significant. This study could then lead to more extensive studies in order to improve the quality of these experiments or to gain more knowledge about the conceptual transfer and conceptual knowledge of learners of L2. This study starts with a theoretical background in Chapter one that builds up to the presentation of these experiments. The theory also deals with the above mentioned studies by Dong et al., Sharifian, Verspoor and others. Chapter 2 explains the methodology of the study and Chapter 3 continues with the analysis. In Chapter 4, the experiment is analysed and 8

discussed in order to get to the conclusion that L2 learners are influenced by their L1 and transfer elements of their L1 onto their L2 concept. The conclusion ends with suggestions for future research. 9

1. Theoretical background This study deals with the difference of conceptual knowledge in Dutch between native speakers of Dutch and native speakers of English who acquired Dutch as a second language. The main purpose of this study is to find out to what extent L1 conceptual knowledge influences L2 conceptual knowledge. A successful way to expose parts of the conceptual knowledge is by conducting word association tasks. In this way, parts of the bilingual network consisting of interconnected words and concepts are researched. This study consists of a word association task performed by native speakers of Dutch, native speakers of English and English near-native speakers of Dutch, their L2. Subsequently, a selection of these words with their typical word association for both L1 and L2 will be displayed in a reaction time experiment to prove that the connection between a certain word and its association is invoked more quickly than to any other word. Native speakers of Dutch and English near-native speakers of Dutch will perform the reaction time experiment. In this paper, I strive to find out how L1 conceptual knowledge may influence the L2 conceptual knowledge, based on the connectionist Bilingual Interactive Activation Model. The first chapter of this study deals with the theoretical background, which starts with the aims of this study and then processes the following aspects of second language acquisition: 1) Approaches towards the process of learning a second language. 2) The relation between a word and conceptual knowledge. 3) The organisation of the bilingual lexicon. 4) The elicitation of parts of the conceptual knowledge through word association tasks. 5) Empirical evidence. 6) Conclusion 7) Statement of purpose and hypothesis. 10

1.1 Approaches towards the process of learning a second language Supposedly, the acquisition of a second language is very different from acquiring the mother tongue. It requires interaction in the second language, not so much with speakers being concerned with the form of their speech, but with trying to understand the speech and to form understandable utterances. Mitchell and Myles describe the difference in learning an L2 instead of an L1, as follows The needs of second language learners are very different, if only because they are already successful communicators in one language and because they already have a mental representation of language, with the parameters set to the values of their native language (55). This determines the difficulty in learning a second language, because the second language learner will approach the L2 with the foreknowledge of their L1, which will often be different. In order to understand all the developments on the relation between concepts and words, a brief look on some past research and theories is necessary. Theories about the bilingual lexicon are widespread and still broadly researched nowadays. Krashen s monitor Model Krashen hypothesizes in the late ninety-eighties that language acquisition and language learning are two separate processes. Krashen used five basic hypotheses, one of them was the Monitor hypothesis which claims that an innate monitor changes our utterances that have been acquired by our system; only here learning has a function (Krashen 1982, p. 15 ). The Natural Order hypothesis assumes that people acquire the rules of language in a predictable order, independent of the order in which rules are taught in language classes (Krashen 1985, p. 1). By means of the Input hypothesis, Krashen also claims that a learner s language competence grows through acquisition. Acquisition results into speaking competence according to 11

Krashen (1985, 2). Learners are also believed to have affective variables that decide how receptive a learner is to comprehensible input. The Universal Grammar paradigm and Krashen s hypotheses led to one general research question: how similar are the first and second language acquisition processes? Cognitive approaches to second language learning In the ninety-eighties, cognitive ideas about second language learning emerged. These cognitive ideas about language learning are based on what is known about the acquisition of complex procedural skills in general. Cognitive approaches align language learning with any learning process in general. These views are opposed to ideas about a Universal Grammar, which considers language learning as different from other kinds of learning. Cognitive approaches can be divided into two different strands. Theorists such as Pienemann, Towell and Hawkins (1994) support the innate language device, but they are concerned with the development of processing theories that would complement generative theories like the Universal Grammar theory. Others like N.C. Ellis (2003), MacWhinney (1999) and Tomasello (1992) deny the existence of an innate device and aim for a constructionist theory that has a usage-based view of language development, which is driven by communicative needs. The constructionists raise different ideas about second language acquisition, concerning many processing models that all focus on the way in which language processing works in the brain (Mitchell and Myles, 99). Connectionism The constructionist view, also called emergentist, has a usage-based view of language learning. There are many approaches in the constructionist view, such as emergentism, connectionism, associationism, constructivism, functionalism, cognitivism, etc. As this study 12

is based on a connectionist model, the following theories will be restricted to the connectionist approach. Connectionists claim that language learning is a process that can be learned in the same way as learning in general. De Bot et al. (2006) describe connectionism as a movement in cognitive science that seeks to explain human intellectual abilities by using computer simulations of neural networks (31). Language learning is a learning process that can be influenced because of interaction between its components and because of interaction with the environment. According to Ellis and Schmidt, connectionist models have strength of association between separate nodes. Therefore, they are suitable to investigate word association because of exposure to language. They believe that the learning of rules happens through the associative processes; associations between elements are sought after and the connections between elements become stronger when elements keep recurring (Elis, N. and Schmidt, R., 1997, 145). Connectionists are less interested in the development of language because they believe it to be a general learning process. Instead, they focus on the manner of acquisition and its working elements. The models and theories above mentioned have tried to capture the process of learning and acquiring a second language. It seems that unraveling the process of how people learn and acquire a language does not address the workings of the bilingual mind. The bilingual mind has two lexicons. Current research still focuses on the question whether the bilingual mind has separate or intermingled lexicons. Another important topic of interest is whether the bilingual mind has a separate conceptual knowledge system for each language or whether the languages in the bilingual mind are possibly interconnected by means of one conceptual knowledge system. The workings of a bilingual mind may possibly tell us more about the way the second language is learned. However, before the bilingual mind is discussed it is first necessary to 13

look at the workings of a monolingual mind and the relationship between words and concepts. The following part will discuss this relationship between words and concepts and includes theories on this topic. 1.2 The relationship between words and the conceptual knowledge Our word choice determines how we express ourselves in our daily lives. All words have many separate, specific senses that make it easier for people to say precisely what they think. Within Cognitive Linguistic theory, each word in our mental lexicon is a label for a certain concept we have in mind. For example, the word pet is a label for the concept we have in mind of a pet. The difference in the kind, size and shape of the pet differs for almost everybody since hardly anybody has an identical pet. In general, people have a different image in mind when they think of the word pet. It is far from easy to define what a concept is exactly. Within a CL view, a word s meaning emerges out of language contexts and it does not emerge until it is used in a language context. The word triggers a conceptual representation, which is usually referred to as a concept. This means that words refer to concepts, but not every concept is designated by a word. Words are labels for concepts and many words that could refer to a similar concept, for example, advantage and benefit. However, there are also concepts that cannot be referred to with a word. A certain feeling or a specific moment can be conceptually represented, though one cannot designate it by means of just one word. A concept is seen as a dynamic, mental representation that exists separately from words. A concept displays our experience and knowledge gained through the outside world. This clarifies why a second language learner not only has to learn a different language but also different conceptual knowledge that is partially dependent on the culture of the L2. Lakoff defines a concept as conceptual, dynamic representations in people s minds that are related to our experience and knowledge (Lakoff, 1987). Lakoff presented a dynamic model 14

of concepts, which he named an Idealised Cognitive model (1987). According to Lakoff, we create conceptual representation through experience with the world and culture around us (1987). This seems to be a reasonable explanation for the fact that speakers of different languages have a different conceptual knowledge, because generally speaking, speakers of different languages belong to different cultures. Different cultures lead to difference in experience, which will consecutively lead to difference in conceptual knowledge. This approach is similar to what De Groot says about concepts being dynamic and changing under the influence of experience (2000) and similar to Sharifian s theory of cultural cognition that will be discussed below. Dynamic usage-based model A linguist, who agrees with the cognitive linguistic view that a linguistic theory has to combine all aspects of language, is Langacker. Langacker developed a linguistic model of the language mind in order to understand the workings of the monolingual mind. In his Dynamic usage-based model (2000) he defines language structure as massive networks in which structures with varying degrees of entrenchment, and representing different levels of abstraction are linked together in relationships of categorization, composition and symbolization. In this way, Langacker opts for an integrated approach of all aspects of language. Within the usage-based model, regular behaviour of linguistic items is captured by schematic constructions and their instances. This knowledge is stored in the minds of speakers. Some constructions are more entrenched in speakers' minds than others, depending on the frequency of the expressions and utterances. Langacker describes Cognitive Grammar as a structured organisation of conventional linguistic units. These linguistic units are semantic, phonological, and symbolic resources form the linguistic system, which need the help of the language user to perform the following 15

abilities: planning, problem-solving ability, memory, general knowledge, short- and longerterm goals, and full apprehension to create language. A combination of all these abilities is what Langacker describes as a usage event, the pairing of vocalization and conceptualization representing its full contextual understanding. Therefore, in using an utterance the speaker or addressee is not only aware of the words, but also of the characteristics of it. This awareness is caused by the abilities of the language user mentioned above. These linguistic units compete to determine which unit will emerge as the active structure that is put forward to categorize the target. The factors that determine which unit will become the active structure are the level of entrenchment, the level of abstraction and the amount of overlap. Such a competition of these linguistic units is what Langacker calls an activation set. Before an expression is uttered, it will first be judged by the pairing of a language user and the linguistic system in a usage event. These usage events have in turn many features that are susceptible to categorization by well-formed linguistic units. Several structures together form Langacker s Dynamic usage-based model, among them the structure of metaphors. According to Langacker, the scheme of metaphors in the language user s mind is based on a general idea of comparison and categorization. Their established structures are used to measure novel structures. Metaphors have three structures that represent different domains of experience, a target domain, and a source domain and a schema. The Source domain is already established. The Target source and schema are diverse in nature and status and contribute to the impressive qualitative diversity of the metaphors. However, these three structures need a Hybrid domain that blends the features of the Target and Source domain to produce a different structure. This could be exemplified by a person that resembles a pig because of its behaviour. The Source is here the pig, the Target is the person, and the Hybrid is the pigperson, the result of a blended Source and Target. Langacker 16

defines metaphors as conceptual phenomena that are not necessarily tied to a particular linguistic expression. Phonology is another structure of Langacker s model. These structures, such as intonation, feet, words, and syllables are omnipresent. The phonological level consists of sound segments abstracted from syllables. If several phonological segments have enough in common and occur in enough recognizable situations, a schematized segment arises which personifies the commonalities of the segments. The phonological rules are schemas judged from actual and conventional expressions. In these schemas, certain sound combinations will be assessed as non-conventional. In the same manner as these segments are deduced from syllables, the model considers morphemes that are deduced from words. Morphology is the third structure allowed by content requirement. The other structures are semantic and symbolic structures. Morphemes are seen to arise by the process of abstraction. This process can be described as the identification of repeated pairings between conceptual and phonological structures. Not all morphemes have a perceptible conventional meaning, but the meaning can often be derived from its meaning in other words. For example, printer consists of print and er. Er does not have a conventional meaning of its own, but can be recognized from words as freezer, eraser, and ruler. A recurring sound/meaning association enables a schema to analyse other expressions. The morphemic components become prominent in this way and show the content of the words from which they are extracted. In this way, a system of sound symbolism might evolve when a morpheme is increasingly linked to a certain meaning. What Langacker indicates with this model is that the immense activities that represent a speaker s conventional linguistic knowledge can usually be assigned to a few basic psychological phenomena. These apply repeatedly in many domains and at many levels of organisation of our linguistic structures. 17

According to Langacker (1994, in Sharifian, 1997), dynamic concepts are primarily cognitive phenomena in individual s minds. Sharifian, however, says dynamic concepts are also reflected in the culture of a certain group of human beings. Culture is relevant to cognitive sciences because its existence manifests human cognitive abilities and because societies depict aspects of human life, in particular cognitive activity. Cognition emerges because of communication between members of a cultural group. Language is an important aspect of cultural cognition, because languages express the cultural conceptualisations of their speakers according to Sharifian. Every speaker of a cultural group has differences in representations, cultural cognition, cultural conceptualisation, and language. Nevertheless, every member of a cultural group has some of the aspects that form a culture. Not every member shares the same aspects, but they are heterogeneously distributed among the members of a cultural group. Each member contributes properties to a culture. This knowledge is randomly distributed over the members of a cultural group. According to Sharifian, cognition is an emergent system, resulting from the interaction between members of a cultural group across time and space. Cognition is dynamic, because members of a cultural group pass it on to other generations that renegotiate it. Cognition forms, together with art, rituals, dance etc., a part of a culture. The ultimate level of cultural cognition consists of properties that emerge from the interactions between members of a cultural group. In this way, conceptualisations emerge at the cultural level of cognition. Individuals probably do not conceptualise in exactly the same way, but often a collective cognition is created between members of a cultural group, which are called cultural conceptualisations (12). Our cultural cognition determines our behaviour and our language. Further, we assume that the behaviour of others is based on the same cultural cognition. Our cultural cognition also serves as the basis for the assumptions that people make from what they experience in 18

their culture. Cultural cognition is largely transmitted through language. Language is also emergent, because it results from the speech of individual members of a speech community across time and space (Sharifian, 25). According to Tomasello (in: Sharifian, 1997) human beings have constructed an array of categorical perspectives, construals of all kinds of objects, events, and relations, and they have embodied them in their systems of symbolic communication called natural languages. Tomasello means that all of the cultural conceptualisations and ideas people in a cultural group have are mainly expressed by their language. The cultural level of cognition is where language and conceptualisation appear. Various sources of experience make it possible for new experiences to be made sense of and organised. These experiences lead to the development of our conceptual knowledge. Our conceptual knowledge consists of categories and schemas that are kept apart by means of certain associations. These word associations, according to Robinson (1997, in: Sharifian) reflect regularities in an organism s perception of and interaction with its environment. Schemas and categories store conceptual relationships and they are used to create mental models, mapping across conceptualisations. To summarise, words are labels for concepts. Many words could refer to a similar concept. However, not every concept is represented by a word. For example, a particular feeling cannot always be named by a word. A concept is seen as a dynamic, mental representation that exists separately from words. It displays our experience and knowledge gained through the outside world. Lakoff sees a concept as a conceptual, dynamic representation in people s minds that is related to our experience and knowledge. Langacker sees it only as a dynamic representation in people s minds. Langacker claims with the Usagebased model that the behaviour of linguistic items is captured in the language mind, 19

depending on the frequency of the expressions and utterances. A pairing of the semantical, phonological and symbolic resources from the linguistic unit is what Langacker calls a usage event, the pairing of vocalization and conceptualization representing its full contextual. It is a combination of words and their concepts in one utterance. The structures of metaphors, morphemes and phonemes help the selection of the right words for the right concept in an utterance. According to Sharifian, dynamic concepts are reflected in the culture of a certain group of human beings. Cognition emerges because of communication between members of a cultural group. An important aspect of cultural cognition is language, because languages express the cultural conceptualisations of their speakers. Since every speaker has different conceptual representations, every speaker forms a part of the cultural cognition. Sharifian s view of cultural cognition and language fits with the Cognitive Linguistics theory. Cognitive linguistics mainly focuses on aspects of language, which are the embodiment of the conceptualisation of experience. Parts of the concepts in peoples minds can be exposed by means of word association tasks. Before I will continue discussing word association tasks, I will first discuss theories on the workings of the bilingual mind in order to get a better idea of the theory used for this study and of the workings of the bilingual mind. Afterwards, the conceptual knowledge of bilinguals will be reviewed. 1.3 The bilingual mind This section will present an overview of models on the bilingual lexicon in the past and will end with a discussion on the Bilingual Interactive Activation model, the model on which this study is based. The first, earliest models created about the bilingual mind were spatial models. Most of these models apply existing processing models to the second language-learning context. 20

Primary interest is in the manner of input processing. One of the first spatial models was Weinreich s theory concerning the relations between words and concepts in L1 and L2 (1953). According to Weinreich, the bilingual mental lexicon could be organised as a compound, a coordinate or as a subordinate lexicon. Figures 1.1a, b, c show what the representation of each lexicon would look like. Conceptual Storage 1 Conceptual Storage 2 Lexicon 1 Lexicon 2 Figure 1.1a Weinreich s compound model of representation Conceptual Storage 1 Conceptual Storage 2 Lexicon Figure 1.1b Weinreich s coordinate model of representation Conceptual Storage 1 Conceptual Storage 2 Lexicon Figure 1.1c Weinreich s subordinate model of representation 21

In a compound organised lexicon, there is one common concept with a different word in each language. In a coordinate organised lexicon, different languages are separated, meaning that each word in each language has its own concept. In a subordinate organised lexicon, there is one set of concepts; the lexical items in the second language can only be activated via the lexical items in the first language. Weinreich s separated lexicons seem rather self-contained and they do not consider any overlapping stages in the development of the second language learner. Reactions to Weinreich s model by others showed that Weinreich s model needed elaboration on this aspect. Beauvillain and Grainger (1987) did a reaction-time experiment that shows that lexicons do interact between languages. It has also been proven that cognates, words that are similar between languages, may have stronger relations. This will be discussed in the discussion of this study as well. Kroll and Stewart introduced the Revised Hierarchical Model (1994), which was produced to get insights into the developmental results after a move from lexical to conceptual processing. This model, which assumed that the lexical level is independent, was criticised by many subsequent models. Dijkstra et al. (1999) show in their study that form and meaning representations of lexical candidates from different languages become activated during language experiments under particular circumstances. This shows that it is likely that the lexical level is not independent, but that it is connected to the semantic and syntactical levels of language. Figure 2 shows Kroll and Stewart s model that assumes that the L1 lexicon is larger than the L2 lexicon. Further, the lines indicate that the links between words and concepts in the L1 are stronger and the links from L2 words to L1 words as well. The dotted lines indicate the relation between words and concepts in L2 and the relation of word and concepts from L1 to L2 words. 22

Figure 2 The Revised hierarchical model of lexical and conceptual representation in bilinguals (Kroll and Stewart, 1994). Subsequent models changed this separated lexical storage view and claimed that a bilingual mind was not likely to have separate storage spaces but interacting spaces (De Groot 1992, Kroll and Dijkstra 2002). These models did not propose independent lexical representations for each language, but one interactive system at the level of meaning. The general interest changed to whether words in the bilingual mind are connected via the lexical representations or via access to the conceptual representations (de Bot et al., 2004). In the following part, I will discuss one of the most accepted theoretical models on the bilingual mind in psycholinguistic research. This model, the Bilingual Interactive Activation model, gives many important assumptions on the set up of the bilingual mind in order to find out how the L1 lexicon could influence the L2 lexicon. However, I will first mention the process of other studies leading up to the development of this model, before I discuss the model itself. Many second language researchers have tried to understand the functioning of the bilingual mind. Several studies on bilingual research have recently argued that bilingual speakers probably have separate lexical representations of languages, but one single 23

conceptual system is assumed by de Groot (1992), and Kroll and Dijkstra (2002). After these assumptions, subsequent studies asked whether words in the mental lexicon of bilinguals are connected via the lexical representations or by direct access to the conceptual representations (de Bot et al., 2005, 156). As assumed, L2 speakers could possibly have one big conceptual storage space for all their languages or separate storage spaces for each language. In case of one big conceptual storage space, L2 concepts are influenced by differing L1 concepts. According to Kroll and Stewart (1994), L2 learners create a direct association to their L1 when they learn a new lexical item. In this way, the meaning of the word in the L2 will be learned under the influence of the L1 concept. This could explain why bilingual speakers often use words in their L2 in the same manner as in their L1, because they erroneously think the concept is identical. They tend to put links between their L1 knowledge and their L2 knowledge when they form a concept in their L2. In this way, L2 concepts are created by L1 associations. A study on the retrieval of word meaning by Kroll and de Groot (1997) shows conceptual representations are shared in the bilingual memory. Dijkstra and Van Heuven (1998) introduced a model that processes the bilingual mind and argues that the conceptual knowledge of a bilingual mind is the link between the two lexicons. This model is the Bilingual Interactive Activation model (1998), which will be discussed below. Bilingual Interactive Activation model Nowadays, more and more people are involved with different cultures and different languages. People are able to learn several languages and to gain a separate level of proficiency for each language. The level of proficiency depends on the frequency of exposure to a language, the use of the language, and the attention that has been paid to the learning process. This point of view was already discussed by De Bot et al. in A Dynamic systems approach to second language acquisition (2006). 24

The knowledge one individual has of different languages and varieties can be considered as a dynamic system in its own right, and it will change over time due to a complex interaction of a wide range of factors, such as internal forces, the amount of exposure to the forms of the language and the attention given to them (2). DST presents a framework that offers a view on language as a dynamic system on its own. As the process of learning more than one language is analysed, consequently many theories have been developed that opt to explain the workings of the bilingual mind. The question arises in what ways bilinguals are able to separate these languages from each other. A recent model that tries to explain the workings of a bilingual mind is the Bilingual Interaction Activation Model by Van Heuven and Dijkstra (1998). The Bilingual Interactive Activation model is a bilingual computer access model for bilingual word recognition. The model consists of one combined lexicon for all known words in Dutch and English. The model appears to generate data that closely resembles the data generated by a bilingual mind. The activation of all lexical representation takes place independently of the language. However, it is based on a similarity between the offered stimuli and the known lexical representations. This means that the word MUST will not only activate the word must, but also words with the same onset and the same suffix in both Dutch and in English such as munt (Dutch for coin) and most. All these words will compete with one another until only the right word remains. English words also activate similar Dutch words and these Dutch words activate in their turn the complete Dutch entity in the language mind. This entity consequently inhibits the English words from being activated. Additionally, due to the restrained English entity, the Dutch words will be activated earlier in the recognition process. 25

According to the BIA, the relative number of similarly spelled words in the two languages determines the activation speed of the activation in the target language above the non-target language entity activation. This was proved by experiments of Bijeljac-Babic et al.(1997) and Segui and Grainger (1990) and Van Heuven, Dijkstra and Grainger (1998). The latter did a series of progressive demasking experiments in which subjects had to identify words that are covered with a slowly disappearing mask. Further, they conducted lexical decision experiments in which the participants had to indicate whether the appearing words are existing or non-existing words in either Dutch or English. These lexical decision experiments tested how the recognition of target words exclusively belonging to one language is influenced by orthographically similar words in either the same or the other language of a bilingual participant. When the orthographic words in Dutch increased, the response times to English target words decreased in Dutch/English bilinguals. An increase of target language similar words produced suppressed effects for Dutch target words and supported effects for English target words. This experiment performed by only monolingual English speakers, showed supportive effects due to similar English words. However, no effects appeared for similar Dutch words. These experiments all provided evidence for analogue activation of words in a Dutch/English bilingual lexicon, hypothesized by the BIA model. The BIA itself is an adaptation of the monolingual memory model of McClelland & Rumelhart (1981). Van Heuven and Dijkstra have extended the Bilingual Interactive Activation model to the BIA+. Van Heuven and Dijkstra added a semantics module and a task module in the BIA+ model that were not present in the BIA. They gave rise to the word level in the BIA+ and at the word level, the lexical items are separated into their respective languages. As mentioned above, the BIA model claims that mental lexicons of different languages are likely to have separate lexicons, however they are interconnected by means of 26

an interactive conceptual knowledge. The interconnection of the conceptual knowledge of L1 and L2 shows that the lexicon of a bilingual speaker is in fact one system. Even though it is known that the conceptual knowledge of L1 influences the conceptual knowledge of L2, the amount of influence of the conceptual knowledge of the L1 on the L2 conceptual knowledge is not visible. In order to get some more insights on this part of the bilingual mind, the relationship between words and concepts needs elaboration. Once it becomes evident how a word represents a concept, a better idea will be obtained about the way our conceptual knowledge works and how the conceptual knowledge may interact between two languages. Bilingual Interactive Activation model ++ The BIA+ has been adapted again by Jacquet and French in 2002 into the BIA++ that acknowledged that recognition of a word belonging to an active language can be influenced by an orthographically similar word in the other, non-active language. One of their questions was how the non-active language entity can suppress a word in the active language. In the BIA++, the task module was left out and replaced by different sets of elementary processing operations to be activated depending on the task demands. In this way, the process becomes distributed task processing. Another adjustment they made was the adding of learning mechanisms. This would help improve the model so that it would not have to be manually adjusted after word recognition of for example homographs (room/room cream in Dutch). In this way, it would be easier to modify the semantic level without having to enter the semantics manually for each language continuously. To summarize, many models on the working of the bilingual mind have been discussed. Weinreich s spatial model on three possible organisations of the bilingual mind was one of the first models. The compound organisation only has a single connection between L1 conceptual storage and its lexicon and a single connection between the L2 conceptual 27

storage and its lexicon. The coordinate organisation shows a link from one lexicon to both the L1 conceptual storage and the L2 conceptual storage. The subordinate organisation has one lexicon as well but is not connected with both conceptual storages. The conceptual storage of L2 can only be accessed via the L1 conceptual storage. A later model by Kroll and Dijkstra, called the Revised Hierarchical model (1994), shows a separate lexical storage for L1 and L2 that have access to one another. The lexical storages have a connection with a conceptual knowledge for both languages. However, the model assumes that the L1 lexicon has more influence and that the lexical level is independent, which will later be proved wrong by other models that present an interactive system. A rather recent model, the Bilingual Interactive Activation model is a bilingual computer access model for bilingual word recognition. This model consists of one combined lexicon for all known words in Dutch and English and the activation of all lexical representation takes place independently of the language. This model has afterwards been revised into the BIA++. Even though the BIA++ is the model on which the study in this thesis is based, it is rather broad and rough. The model explains that the conceptual knowledge consists of one system for all languages; however, it does not explain how L1 influences the L2 concept. A means to detect a relation between the L1 and the L2 concept is by carrying out word association tasks. Word associations also expose differences between L1 and L2 concepts. The following paragraphs will discuss word association tasks and the reaction time experiments that were used for this study. 1.4 The elicitation of parts of the conceptual knowledge. To have a closer look at the differences and similarities between L1 and L2 conceptual representation of bilinguals, word associations of L2 learners and native speakers of a language can be compared for certain words. In this way, parts of the bilingual network 28

consisting of interconnected words and concepts can be exposed. Word associations will show an aspect of a conceptual representation. Word association tasks determine the extent to which the responses in the various experimental conditions are or are not the same (De Groot, 1992, 398). Word association tasks most likely also activate L1 associations when the L2 concept has to be accessed. The word associations of an individual with a certain target word will reveal parts of the concept. Different word association tasks of groups of individuals can be compared to see whether there is overlap or difference among the individuals. Associations that are mentioned most for certain target words will indicate that these associations are common to a group of individuals with the same language background. This suggests that when a certain association is given most in one language, it is a common association in that language. When associations are the same across languages, the conceptual representation is expected to be the same between languages (De Groot, 1992). However, differences between word associations among two or three groups of different language backgrounds would indicate that these groups have different conceptual representations. Although word association tasks give a qualitative view of differences in conceptual representation between native speakers and learners, it would be more convincing if these differences could be proved by means of reaction time experiments. RT experiments measure the time it takes a participant to react to a certain displayed stimulus after the displayed target. The shorter the reaction time to the target word the likelier it is that the target and the stimulus are related in the conceptual knowledge of the participants. A brief reaction time between a target and a stimulus for words that are already related in the word association tasks proves the relation between the target and the stimulus. Many studies and experiments have been done to prove the relation between words and concepts in the conceptual knowledge of L1 and L2 speakers of several languages. 29

1.5 Empirical evidence This section reports on studies on the relation between words and concepts in the conceptual knowledge of the bilingual mind. In her study What bilingual word associations can tell us (2006), Verspoor tested the differences in concepts of certain English words with native speakers in English and Dutch learners of English. She concluded that even advanced learners of an L2 make subtle errors because they transfer their L1 conceptual representation to the L2. This study contains a similar experiment and the same results are expected for advanced learners of Dutch. In the dissertation How much huis, Haus, or maison do you find in house? by S.W. van den Berg (2006), a word association study was done into conceptual transfer of advanced students of English. Her dissertation shows the importance of the selection of testing words and the different results between languages. The results of her experiment show that advanced students of English are still influenced by the L1 concepts. In another study by Dong et al., word association tests and reaction time experiments were done with Chinese learners of English. They concluded that conceptual differences tend to blend in the bilingual mind, depending on the level of proficiency. Verspoor and Lowie reported on a paper and pencil test into the conceptual differences in choosing prepositions between English and Dutch (Input Versus Transfer? The Role of Frequency and Similarity in the Acquisition of L2 Prepositions, 2004). The results show that the advanced learners of English no longer rely on Dutch in selecting prepositions (90). They no longer need their L1 in choosing prepositions in their L2. Van Hell and De Groot (1998) did a word association experiment and a reaction time experiment on conceptual representation in bilinguals. They found that concepts of bilinguals are mainly determined by word-type and grammatical class (p. 193). 30

Another study by Dong et al. (2005) uses the responses of word association tasks for a reaction time experiment. They did a reaction time experiment with Chinese and English bilinguals and they claim that bilinguals have a shared storage for their conceptual representations and asymmetrical links between different concepts. This means that some concepts do resemble the general L2 concept, whilst others are L1 concepts. Based on these results they presented a shared, distributed, asymmetrical model on the bilingual mind. Other previous lexical decision tasks argue that each language has an independent and a separate lexicon (Forster, K.I and Nan Jiang, 72). The reaction time experiment in this study aims to find out whether there is a separate mental lexicon for each language as well or whether there is an intermingled system in which all lexical items of different languages are represented with the same semantic information for each language. Lexical decision tasks have argued that languages have a separate and independent storage in the mind. The location of the mental lexicon in which the conceptual knowledge of languages is stored has not been determined. This lexical decision task will aim to contribute to the research on mental lexicon storage. 1.6 Conclusion Concepts are dynamic mental representation in the conceptual representation of the human mind. They are related to experience and knowledge. The outside world, experience and knowledge influence concepts and therefore people do no have identical concepts. A culture influences concepts as well and it is difficult to adapt to cultural differences, as Sharifian says about cognition, cultural conceptualization and language. Therefore, it also is difficult to acquire a language completely with its own set of concepts. Moreover, L1 concepts remain active while L2 is being used. Therefore, it is assumed that there is an interactive connection between the lexical knowledge of several languages. Several models discussed in this chapter 31

have attempted to explain and show this. Early models by Weinreich give three possible organisations of the bilingual language mind. The Revised Hierarchical model by Kroll and Stewart (1994) has two separate lexical storages and one conceptual representation storage. The L1 lexicon has more influence than the L2 lexicon and the lexical level is independent of the conceptual level. A recent model claims that the lexical storage for L1 and L2 are interactive and connected to a common storage for conceptual representation. This model, the Bilingual Interactive Activation model (1998) is a computer model that consists of one combined lexicon for all known words in Dutch and English and the activation of all lexical representation takes place independently of the language. The model has later been adapted to the BIA++ model and is the model on which this study is based. Many similar studies have already been performed on conceptual transfer of the bilingual mind. The following section will explain more about the hypothesis for this study and similar expectations that have already been proved in the empirical evidence mentioned above. 1.7 Statement of purpose and hypothesis The focus of this empirical study will be on the influence of the conceptual knowledge of L1 English on the conceptual knowledge of advanced learners of L2 Dutch. This study will attempt to discover whether L2 learners are able to use their L2 without the interference of the conceptual knowledge of their L1. The research question of this study focuses on the extent with which the L1 conceptual knowledge influences the L2 conceptual knowledge. The hypothesis is that there will probably be a difference between the concepts of native speakers of Dutch and English learners of Dutch because the learners are likely to be influenced by their L1 knowledge. Another assumption is that English learners of Dutch will most likely have a longer reaction time to the Dutch primes than native speakers, because they will be influenced by their L1 concept. Therefore, the Dutch learners were expected to react fastest to 32

the Dutch primes, less fast to the English prime and slowest to the neutral prime. The native speakers are expected to react fastest to the English prime, less fast to the Dutch prime and slowest to the neutral prime. The goal of this study is to prove the influence of the L1 conceptual knowledge on the L2 conceptual knowledge and to discover the amount of influence. 33

2. Methodology Word Association tasks This study aims to find out whether learners of Dutch are still influenced by the conceptual knowledge of their L1. Further, this study attempts to provide evidence for the shared conceptual knowledge of bilinguals. In the previous chapter, words were described as labels for concepts, and word association tasks were presented as a means to expose parts of a conceptual representation. For this study, a word association tasks will be conducted and performed by learners of Dutch. The results will be compared to associations given by native speakers of Dutch and native speakers of English. The associations that appear to have a discrepancy with the associations of native speakers will be used for a reaction time experiment. This is to find out whether learners of Dutch do react faster to primes and targets that are normally not associated by native speakers of Dutch, but are associated by native speakers of English. In other words, the experiment is to find out whether learners of Dutch are still influenced by the conceptual knowledge of their L1. Dutch abstract nouns and verbs are selected for these word association tasks. The three groups whose word associations will be compared are native speakers of Dutch (NSD), native speakers of English (NSE) and non-native speakers of Dutch (NNSD). To obtain translation equivalents, a separate group was asked to translate English words into Dutch. These translation equivalents will be used for three identical word association tasks to be filled out by the three subject groups. A collection of associations is selected to reflect that group s conceptual representation. Afterwards, the results of all word association tasks will be compared to one another and the association that most represents the subject group will be selected as its prime word. These prime words are the words that will also be used for the 34

reaction time experiment. Before the RT experiment is discussed, first the methodology for the word association experiment will be explained. 2.1 Word Association Subjects The subjects of the WA s are four different groups: 1. Native speakers of Dutch (NSD): 24 first-year students of English to translate 75 words into English. 2. Native speakers of English (NSE): 100 native speakers of English to give associations to 75 English (L1) words. 3. Native speakers of Dutch (NSD): 47 native speakers of Dutch to give associations to 75 Dutch (L1) words. 4. Non-native speakers of Dutch (NNSD), 28 native speakers of English to give associations to 75 Dutch words. The participants have been living in the Netherlands for more than 5 years. Groups 1, 2 and 3 did a word association task in their L1, whilst group 4, the experimental group did a task in their L2, Dutch. Translation equivalents were obtained in the translation task by group 1. This translation task was done for a Word Knowledge project in 2007. This group of participants had an average age of 19. Their native language was Dutch. Group 2 was a group of 100 participants from all over the UK who responded to 100 different abstract nouns and verbs whose results are available on the website of the Edinburgh Word Association Thesaurus. These associations were acquired from monolingual speakers of English between 1968 and 1971. It was not possible to find native associations for all 75 35

nouns and verbs used in this study, but all associations that were available were used to compare it to the associations of NNSD and NSD. Group 3 consisted of first-year and second-year students of Dutch at the University of Groningen with an average age of 20. They responded to Dutch target words with Dutch associations. These students study in Dutch and are influenced by English as much as an average Dutch person is. Group 4 is the experimental group, which consists of 28 native speakers of English, with nationalities varying from American, Canadian and Irish, who live throughout the Netherlands. They all speak Dutch and have an intermediate or advanced level of proficiency in Dutch. The majority of them work for an online translation centre; therefore, they are used to switch from one language to the other, actively and passively. They are likely to use the conceptual knowledge of both languages for their translation activities. They have an average age of 48 with a minimum age of 27 and a maximum age of 79. They have lived in the Netherlands for an average of 22 years and they have spoken Dutch for an average of 26 years. Most of them met a Dutch partner abroad or have Dutch parents and therefore they learned Dutch before moving to the Netherlands. 2.2 WA Materials The experiment starts by establishing 75 abstract nouns and verbs to be used for a word association task. The selected words were words that had already been used in a project for the MA course Word knowledge: Is a rose a roos? (University of Groningen, 2007). The target words had a frequency of between 6 and 1206 in the British National Corpus in order to make sure that the subjects would be tested for words that they encounter regularly. Abstract nouns and verbs are likely to bring up associations that exist in the conceptual knowledge. 36

Abstract nouns and verbs are likely to prime a concept or a part of a concept, which gives more insight into the conceptual knowledge of the subject. Another criterion for the target words is that they need to have a proper translation equivalent in Dutch and in English. For example, words such as curiosity, which is nieuwsgierigheid in Dutch and strenght, which is kracht in Dutch. These abstract words tempt to associate the image that people have in mind when they see or think about that target word. Abstract nouns and verbs will often make subjects associate to synonyms, memories, sayings, or expressions and therefore, they expose a part of the concept and of the conceptual knowledge. The original list of abstract nouns and verbs consists of Dutch words. In order to get an objective translation equivalent for each of these target words, the results of a translation task are used. The translation task was performed by 24 first-year students of English in a Word Knowledge project (2007) at the University of Groningen. These students did the paper and pencil task in class. During this task, the students had to write down one word, which they considered the best translation for the Dutch word. The results of all 24 students are tallied and compared to one another so that the most frequent translated equivalent can be selected. Even though the most frequently used translation is preferred, it also has to be a response that translates the Dutch word best. In order to find associations of monolingual NSE, those translations equivalents are used to find word associations mentioned in a computer-guided word association task documented in the Edinburgh Word Association Thesaurus. This database consists of 8,400 English words and gives about 100 associations for a search word. The selected 75 translation equivalents will present word associations mentioned by monolingual speakers of English. This database is used to retrieve English native speakers associations to the target words of this word association experiment. Nine of the target words are not registered in the EAT database. In order to obtain these missing associations of NSE I performed a similar word 37

association task among NSE. They were asked to give their first association to the following 9 words: 1. influence (5) 2. curiosity (11) 3. advantage (14) 4. cowardice (20) 5. distinguish (22) 6. courage (27) 7. differ (46) 8. propose (55) 9. mention (63) (see appendix I). However, not enough associations were obtained in order to give a good representation of an association of a NSE. Therefore, some associations of English words by NSE are not considered in the selection of the right association in comparison with NSD and NNSD. Moreover, these target words and primes will not be used in the following RT experiment, but they will determine whether the words that will serve as typical native English association, are in fact mentioned by NSE. I will come back to this in the discussion of this study in chapter 4. In order to get word associations of all Dutch target words by NSD, the data will be used of the word association task performed by 48 first-year and second-year students of Dutch for the Word Knowledge study (2007). The 48 students performed an identical word association task in class by writing down the Dutch word that came to mind when they saw the Dutch target word. They were instructed not to think long about the right associations, but to write down what they first thought of. All these associations were tallied and organised in descending frequency. The results are visible in table 2.2, with percentages next to it that clarify each association s relation to the total amount of associations. The associations mentioned by NSD and NSE in the first two WA s will be used as the generally assumed native Dutch and native English associations to all the target words. Each association mentioned by the NNSD s is compared to the NSD and the NSE associations in order to find out whether the conceptual knowledge of the NNSD is influenced by their L1. In this way, it will be visible whether the participants concept is a typical English concept or a Dutch concept. This WA will also be in Dutch performed by NNSD. A comparison of these associations will show to what extent NNSD still have English concepts in mind or a Dutch 38

concept. The selection-process of the best association and the procedure of all tasks will be explained in the following section. 2.3 WA Procedures This section will explain how the WA s are conducted and how the experiment will proceed towards the analysis and discussion of this study. To make sure all subjects are aware of what is asked of them during the WA tasks, the purpose of the tasks is explained briefly for its subjects on top of the WA forms. Each participant is asked to respond to each target word by writing down the first word that comes to their mind when they think of the target word. The monolingual NSE, whose associations can be found on the Edinburgh Associative Thesaurus, also had to insert one association for each target word. The first translation task is performed by NSD who are first-year students of English. The first Word Association task is performed by NSD who are first-year students of Dutch. Both tasks are performed in class. They have approximately 15 minutes to complete the task. The NNSD are contacted by e-mail and by means of advertisements on the bulletin board of the website of their employers. It cannot be precisely indicated how long all subjects took to finish the task. However, they have all received one file with precise instructions. Afterwards, they are asked to return the completed file via e-mail. After all these associations are acquired, they are selected, tallied, and documented in an Excel-file. This means that all target words will be inserted in an Excel-file, with a short list of associated word below it. In the next column, a list of absolute numbers indicates how often each association was mentioned by the subjects. The following column gives percentages that present the amount of subjects that had this association in relation to the total amount of subjects. After the assortment of all tasks, the analysis of the associations can be performed. This analysis is crucial for the outcome of this study, because the selected associations will 39

determine the reaction time of all subsequent subjects in the RT experiment. This selection deals with all given associations to all the target words and they are inter-compared with each subject group. The NNSD-associations are studied and compared with associations by NSD s in order to select the association that least represents an association mentioned by a NSD. The same is done with the associations given by NNSD and NSE so that it will be words that best resemble an association given by monolingual native speakers of English and are therefore most suitable to prime NNSD. This selection process will further be discussed in the section 2.4. 2.4 WA task Analysis This section discusses how the best associations are selected by comparing them to NSD and NSE associations. Additionally, this section will elaborate on how the potential L2 transfer associations were selected out of the associations of the NNSD. The analysis is performed by comparing the results of the NNSD WA task with the results of the same WA performed by NSD. These associations had already been obtained for the Word Knowledge project. In order to expose the difference between Dutch and English associations, the NNSD results had to be compared to NSE associations for the same words in English. In order to perform this, the Dutch target words first have to be translated into English. The translation equivalents had already been obtained for a translation task performed by Dutch first-year students of English for the Word knowledge project (2007). These equivalents were used to retrieve NSE association out of the online EAT. All associations are closely analysed to choose the best association as a prime for a certain target word. The motivation for this close analysis will be given in the following paragraph. The selection of the prime words is not only important for outcome of the WA tasks, but also for the outcome of this study. The prime words will determine the reaction time of 40

the subjects in the RT experiment between prime words and the target words. These prime words will be subdivided into Dutch prime words, meaning that they were mentioned by NSD s in the WA task, and into English prime words that were mentioned by NSE in the online EAT. All in all, this means that the word selection determines an important part of the outcome of the study. In the Master course Word knowledge-project, the importance of selecting the right prime word became evident. In that study, it turned out at the end of the RT experiment that subjects appear to respond equally fast to the English prime and the Dutch prime of certain target words. For that project, the English primes were associations by NSE given to English words. The Dutch primes were given by NNSE to English words. For example, the target word feel had touch as its English prime and emotion as its Dutch prime. In those word association tasks, 30% of the NNSE responded to feel with emotion, only 2% of the NSE. Touch was mentioned by 20% of the NSE, but only by 3% of the NNSE. These results show clear discrepancies between the two subject groups, however, both groups reacted equally fast to those prime words in the RT experiment. Therefore, in this study, extra attention will be paid to the selection of the right word associations for the English and the Dutch primes and examples of prime selection will be discussed in the following paragraph. The results of all three WA s, presented NSE-associations, NSD-associations and NNSD-associations that were compared to one another in order to select two associations, a Dutch prime and an English prime, will be further discussed in the procedures of the RT methodology. The word association most associated with the target word should also have a discrepancy in meaning with the native Dutch associations. This word will serve as the English prime. A second association with the same target word in the NSD WA task is the word that is most often associated by the NSD, but preferably not associated at all by the 41

NNSD. However, when it is mentioned by the NNSD, it must be a minimal amount of NNSD or the chosen association is a word that is not mentioned by NSE, which points out that it is not a typical English association. The experiment is meant to tempt the subjects to respond fastest to primes that were associated most by NNSD in the WA and the associations are not likely to be mentioned by native speakers. The word selection process decides the participants recognition of the connection between the target word and the chosen prime-word, which will eventually determine the reaction time of the participants and in that manner influence the outcome of the study. The word-selection process is an important aspect of the experiment; therefore, the choice for the English primes and the Dutch primes for the target word will be explained in detail further on. The associations of both tests by all participants are added in the appendix of this study. All associations were tallied and put into descending frequency in percentages and absolute numbers. The WA originally consisted of 76 Dutch abstract verbs and nouns. However, 72 of them are used as targets for the response time experiment, because four remaining words did not receive satisfying associations to use for the response time experiment. For these reasons, these target words were no further analysed. Appendix II consists of all the target words with the selected associations mentioned by the NNSD and the NSD 1. In the fifth column next to the NNSD and the NSD associations is a column with the neutral primes, which are selected Dutch concrete nouns and verbs that will serve as filler-words in the RT experiment. Appendix III shows all the target words with their English primes that are likely to prime the NNSD and the percentages that determined why this prime was opted for. The appendix gives a motivation for the selection of the NNSD primes, but a further elaboration on that is necessary to compare the differences with the 1 These associations, from here on will be called NNSD primes and NSD primes. 42

prime words associated by the NSD. The decision for the chosen words for the NNSD primes is based on whether: a) The association of the NNSD is not typically associated by the NSD. b) The association should be mentioned by NSE in the online Edinburgh Associative Thesaurus (EAT). Criterion a is based on the assumption that an association not mentioned or mentioned by few of the NSD would mean that it is an association that is related to the L1 of the participant. Therefore, it will be an association in Dutch that is not associated by NSD and exposes a part of the intermingled concept of a NNSD. Criterion b is based on the motivation that when testing the conceptual knowledge of NNSD in a Dutch language experiment, the associated words should also occur in the associations given by monolingual speakers of L1. Associations that are mentioned by monolingual NSE as well show that these are concepts influenced by their L1. The NSD primes are associations that should preferably not be mentioned by the NNSD. In order to tempt the subjects of the following RT experiment to be primed to typical NSD associations, the NSD associations cannot be selected as NNSD primes. The purpose of the RT experiment is to prime the subjects to respond to several primes. The NNSD subjects are expected to respond faster to NNSD primes. These NNSD primes are associations mentioned in the WA task by speakers whose conceptual knowledge is influenced similarly. To exemplify this selection process, an example of a target word of the WA task will be discussed in the following paragraph. The selected NSD and NNSD primes can be viewed in appendix II. 43

The following discussion deals with the selection process of the first word all subjects had to associate with kracht, the Dutch word for strenght. The table below shows all associations of the NNSD WA task of Appendix V. absolute Procentuel 1 Kracht Meting 1 4% Spel 1 4% Macht 8 30% sterkte 8 30% spieren 2 7% sterk 3 11% strom (stroom) 1 4% Puur 1 4% spier 2 7% fysiek 1 4% 28 This table contains all the results, absolute numbers and percentages, of the WA task with 28 NNSD. In this example, both macht en sterkte are the most frequent words. Macht is Dutch for power, whilst sterkte is Dutch for strength or force. Sterkte or sterk however, are words associated by respectively 4% and 60% of the NSD (see appendix V). This associations is therefore very likely to prime both NNSD and NSD in the RT experiment; the purpose is however to let them respond fastest to associations belonging to the group that shares similar concepts. Therefore, sterkte does not seem to be the best option. In contrast, macht is not mentioned at all by NSD (see appendix V). Considering that macht is mentioned by 30% of the NNSD this association at first sight seems the best choice to represent the NNSD association with kracht. Additionally, the translation equivalent of kracht (power) was mentioned by the NSE in the online EAT by only two of the 98 subjects. However, even though these are only 2 of the 98 subjects, it does indicate that macht is related to the L1 of the NNSD. The confirmation of associations by L1 speakers was used because it has been proved (de Groot, 1992) that L2 learners react relatively faster on L1 inspired primes than native speakers of L2. Now that the establishment of the NNSD prime 44

has been explained, the choice of sterk (strong) as the NSD prime is easier to clarify. As was mentioned above, sterk (strong) was associated with kracht by 60% of the NSD. Therefore, this was the most frequent word mentioned. Sterk was also associated by 11% of the NNSD; it has nonetheless been selected as the NSD prime, because no bigger discrepancy in numbers can be found between the other mentioned associations. The only other high association next to sterk was spieren, mentioned by 10% of the NSD, but this association was also given by 7% of the NNSD. Therefore, this association was not likely to give a difference in response-time in the RT experiment, because it was a frequent association for both subject groups that would also prime both groups. The analysis of other results will be discussed in Chapter 4, the analysis and discussion of the WA tasks. Not all 72 target words will be extensively discussed, but some striking examples of particular English associations given by NNSD to Dutch target words will be highlighted. All the other prime words are motivated in appendices III and IV. 45

2. Reaction Time experiment Methodology The following RT experiment has as its purpose to validate the given word associations by the NSD and the NNSD in the WA tasks. Further, it attempts to prove with NSD and NNSD that the relation between the prime words and the target words from the word association tasks can be confirmed with another experiment as well. The main assumption is that reaction times to the inserted word associations show the influence of L1 on conceptual knowledge of the subjects. Other assumptions are that the outcome of the experiment proves the influence of the conceptual knowledge of L1 on the L2. This means for the experiment that NNSD are expected to respond fastest to prime words that are related to the target word in English, though not in Dutch. The experiment is to be performed by several native speakers of Dutch and several native speakers of English who have acquired Dutch as a second language. The following section first discusses the subjects of the experiment. 2.5 RT Subjects The subjects of the Reaction Time experiment were: 1. Non-native speakers of Dutch (NNSD) with L1 English: 18 non-native speakers of Dutch to respond to 150 different Dutch primes. 2. Native speakers of Dutch (NSD): 15 native speakers of Dutch to respond to 150 different Dutch primes. The 18 native speakers of English speak Dutch and they have lived in the Netherlands for an average amount of 8 years. Most of them are students at the University of Groningen. They should preferably be American and Canadian, because most NNSD in the WA task were American and Canadian. During the experiment, it turned out that there were not enough Americans or Canadians available who spoke Dutch as well, therefore NSD of different 46

English speaking nationalities were tested as well. They have lived in the Netherlands for an average amount of 19 years and they speak Dutch for an average amount of 21 years. The initial aim was to test 15 native speakers of English, but since this is a qualitative study, it would not harm to test as many native speakers as possible during the testing period. The fifteen native speakers of Dutch, who in general do not speak English during there working days, also performed the experiment. The results of the Dutch participants served to check whether NSD did in fact respond faster to Dutch prime. If this is not the case, selection process of the primes may not be performed adequately. This will be elaborated in the discussion of this study. In order to find out whether the native speakers of English tend to react faster to the English prime, it is necessary to determine whether the native speakers of Dutch react faster to the Dutch primes. 2.6 RT Materials In order to let the subjects perform the RT experiment, the data of the previous WA tasks needed further analysis. This process is described in the following section. To clarify how this RT experiment is set up and what it consists of, the following paragraph discusses the material used for it. The Response-time experiment that will be conducted is also known as a lexical decision task, because the subjects are asked to perform the task with a different purpose in mind than the above purpose mentioned. The subjects have a response box in front of them while they perform the experiment. They are told to respond to the words they see on a computer screen by clicking on one specific bottom in case the displayed word is an existing Dutch word. To make this purpose seem plausible, the experiment also needs to contain nonexisting Dutch words. The selection of these words is discussed later on. The subjects are asked to decide whether the displayed word is an existing Dutch word according to them. The 47

purpose of the experiment however, is to measure the response-time between the selected prime words and their target words. The faster the subject responds to a prime, the more likely it seems that this prime word is related to the target according to the conceptual knowledge of the subject. The following paragraph first gives some background information about lexical decision tasks in general and of the materials before the procedure of this lexical decision task is discussed. To find out more about the influence of the subjects L1 on the conceptual knowledge of their L2, the 72 abstract Dutch nouns and verbs and their prime words will be used to measure whether there is a conceptual relationship between the targets and the primes. After selecting the words that would serve as English and Dutch primes, a list with 72 concrete nouns and verbs is created, that are going serve as the neutral primes in the response time experiment. These words will serve as filler-words and as a variation to all the abstract nouns and verbs. The selection of these words is rather strict because they are not allowed to prime the subjects in any way nor relate to the word it is paired with and with which it appears on the screen; therefore, they should not be related to any of the target or prime words. Once selected, they are inserted in the experiment. Another list of 72 pseudo words is set up in order to present an equal number of existing Dutch words and pseudo words. This list of pseudo words consists of fictitious words; however, their form suggests they could be potential Dutch words. They closely resemble Dutch words because they are formed with Dutch onsets and suffixes, as for example, stroel, which would be the Dutch word for chair once the r is removed. These pseudo words served again as the primes to 72 other concrete nouns and verbs that give some variation in the word type (see appendix II). Now that the assembly process of these stimuli is described, the set up of the reaction time experiment is performed. First, many of the prime and target words occurred more than 48

once in the results of the WA tasks. Either they occurred as the target word itself, or they occurred as the prime of a target word, sometimes twice if mentioned for two different target words. In order to make sure that the subjects are not primed twice for the same word, target word or prime word, these double words are distributed over three separate experiments. All words are selected and divided into three groups in order to subdivide them over 3 experiments. From this subdivision onwards, the associations related to particular Dutch associations are referred to as NSD primes and the associations related to English as NNSD primes. The initial target words in WA tasks will remain target words in this RT experiment. All three experiments consist of two versions. One right-handed version and one lefthanded version. Handedness determines the reaction time of the subjects and because the results of this experiment depend on milliseconds, all possible influences are taken into account. More information about the workings of these right-handed and left-handed versions will be given below. All experiments consist of an introduction in which the subject is told what his or her task is. After the introduction, the subjects will be presented with a trial run of five pair words to get used to the procedure. All 72 target words are subdivided evenly over the three experiments so that each experiment will consist of 24 target words, 24 English primes, 24 Dutch primes, 24 concrete filler words and 72 pseudo words. The subjects will have to respond to 120 word pairs, which will take around 8 minutes. An intermission of 30 seconds is inserted in the middle of the experiment so that the subjects can rest and turn away from the screen for a while. Besides these word categories, additional information about the words and their word relations 2 is inserted in the RT experiment. First, an extra column is created next to the target words to indicate whether the target word is a noun or a verb, so that the results of the RT s 2 Word relations refer to the classifications that are inserted in the RT experiment. See also 3.2.1 49

can afterwards be analysed for its separate responses to all nouns and to all verbs. Secondly, the relationship between all target words and their English prime was analysed after the WA tasks. In order to find out whether subjects respond differently to word pairs such as antonyms, cognates, collocations, hyponyms, or synonyms, this information is inserted in an extra column next to English primes. Additionally, a third and a fourth column are added to indicate the number of syllables and the number of letters each target word consists of. Afterwards, any possible influence of this word information on the response time of the subjects is visible in the outcome of the experiment. The outcome of this study could be determined by this extra information or future studies could focus on a certain part of the outcome. In order to perform the experiment, the subjects are asked to come to the language laboratory at the university. Here they are asked to sit down in a soundproof laboratory booth with a computer and a response box. In contrast to the WA tasks, in this experiment it will be harder to gain suitable subjects because first, the subjects will have to come to the university building in Groningen and they should therefore live in Groningen or be willing to travel for the experiment. Secondly, they will have to be there at an arranged time and cannot just come and walk in when it suits them. Thirdly, it will not be easy to find at least 15 subjects whose native language is English and who speak Dutch as well. In order to make it easier to find subjects who perform the experiment, a laptop is used for the experiment as well. This way, the subjects can perform the experiment at home and will not have to travel to Groningen for it. In this case, the response box is not used. Instead of that, two keys on the keyboard of the laptop are programmed as the response keys. The subjects do not know the purpose of the experiment before they start. The subjects see a white screen in front of them on which a word in black letters appears for just a few milliseconds. After this flash, a second word appears. This word will remain visible until the 50

subject has responded by means of a response box. They are told to determine whether the latter word that appears on the screen is an existing Dutch word or not. In case the subject is right-handed, he or she is asked to push the right bottom on the response box in case the word is an existing Dutch word. If it is not an existing Dutch word, they are asked to push the left bottom on the response box. Left-handed subjects are given a different version of the experiment. In this version of the experiment, the left bottom of the response box indicates that the displayed word is an existing Dutch word and the right bottom of the response box indicates that the displayed word is a non-existing Dutch word. The first word that appears as a flash on the screen is always an existing Dutch word. This word serves to attract the attention for a while. The subject has just enough time to read it. Even though the subject is only supposed to react to the second word, he is however expected to read the first word and his response time depends on it. Subjects determine faster whether the second word is an existing word when it is related to the first word. This has been proved in previous RT studies and can be seen in the results of this study. In this study, the related target and prime words function to determine whether the NNSD s will respond faster to English primes, their native language, even though the words are in Dutch. In other words, they serve to determine whether the conceptual knowledge of NNSD s is still influenced by their L1 even though they have been immersed into their L2 for years. 2.7 RT procedures This section explains how the results of the RT experiments are acquired and how the experiments are performed. Subjects for the experiment are acquired mostly through e-mail and through the help of acquaintances. Some members of staff at the university are NSE who have worked and lived in Groningen for many years. They are contacted by e-mail, are informed about the experiment, and are asked to perform the 8-minute experiment at the language laboratory. A total amount of 18 NNSD with L1 English performed the experiment. 51

Subjects are invited for an appointment at the university or at their own place. They are carefully instructed only to respond after the second word popes up by indicating whether it is an existing word or not. They have to perform the experiment alone, without anything around them that might distract them. Afterwards, they are explained why the first word appeares as a flash and what its function is. Additionally, 15 NSD of Dutch are asked to perform the experiment. They are supposed to respond fastest to the Dutch primes and they serve as a means to check whether the Dutch primes do tempt them to respond faster when they are related to the first target word. Afterwards, all 33 experiments are analysed to see whether the subjects have performed the experiment as they were expected to and whether their data will be suitable for a further analysis. This analysis will be discussed in the following section. 2.8 Reaction Time Experiment Analysis The RT experiment will only give trustworthy results when all subjects respond properly and respond only as soon as they have read the second word of the word pair. It turns out that one of the subjects did not get the essence of the experiment and his reaction times are over 2000 milliseconds or below 200 milliseconds. This probably means that he did not know to what word he had to respond or he responded to both words. His data set will not be used for any further analysis. From here on all the response times of all the other 32 subjects are taken from the individual E-prime data sets and put next to each other in an Excel file. They are all checked for any outliers, exceptionally high or exceptionally low reaction times. Reaction times are deleted when they are above 2000 milliseconds or below 200 milliseconds and when they are out of the range of the standard deviation of 2.5. Reaction times above 2000 52

milliseconds are too slow to be considered as reaction times and reaction times below 200 are too fast to be considered as accurate responses after having even seen the second word. After all these outliers are taken out, all individual data sets are merged into one file in E-Merge. In this way, all data sets can be exported to SPSS in order to analyse the results. In SPSS, the results are analysed by means of repeated measures. A repeated measure is often used to analyse data that consists of three or more measurements of a variable required from a group of individuals. This study consists of one independent variable, the groups, and one dependent variable called prime types, which consists of three sublevels, namely Dutch primes, neutral primes and English primes. For this study, a repeated measures ANOVA analysis is most suitable because ANOVA measures all variables of study under a number of different conditions. The independent variable is exposed to each condition in turn, so that the measurement of the dependent variables is repeated for each condition. In order to find out whether the subjects react differently to different conditions, several ANOVA analyses are performed to expose the reaction times of the two subject groups to several stimulus types. They will be compared to all the prime words, to the verbs, the nouns, the individual five classifications, and the amount of syllables. The results of these analyses are documented in the following chapter. To summarise, this chapter has introduced the subjects of both experiments and their language background. The materials of both the WA tasks and the RT experiments have been described and the procedure of the experiments has been explained. The analysis that will be performed after both experiments has been described. The analysis of the WA tasks has led to the set up of the RT experiments. The results of the RT experiments will be used to confirm the results that have been obtained after the WA tasks by checking whether the results are significant. The RT s will confirm in a different manner, with different subjects, whether the 53

results of the WA s are likely to be the same for any similar WA task with different words and different subjects, which will become evident in the next chapters. 54

3. Results 3.1. Results WA tasks At the start of this study, the hypothesis stated that there is a difference between the conceptual knowledge of NSD and NNSD, because L2 learners are likely to be influenced by their L1. The following result of the WA tasks is a fragment of the results displayed in appendix V. The general results will be discussed in detail and analysed with examples in chapter 4. The example below of bevatten, one of the 75 target words, serves to show the differences in associations between NSD and NNSD. The chosen prime for the NNSD is ton and the prime for the NSD is begrijpen. Table 1. Associations to target word nr. 17 Table 2. Associations to target word nr. 17 by NSD by NNSD. 17 bevatten begrijpen 6 21% inhouden 5 18% binnen 1 4% omvatten 1 4% opsommen 1 4% inhoud 1 4% snappen 1 4% erin 1 4% helemaal 1 4% niet zien 1 4% inbegrepen 1 4% kennen 1 4% ton 1 4% inclusief 1 4% beseffen 1 4%? 1 4% doos 1 4% 17 bevatten begrijpen 13 28% snappen 13 28% inhouden 3 6% zien 3 6% inzien 2 4% hebben 2 4% realiseren 1 2% doorhebben 1 2% bezinnen 1 2% onwerkelijk 1 2% kist 1 2% blik soep 1 2% hoofd 1 2% helder 1 2% vol 1 2% emmer 1 2% heelal 1 2% 55

3.2 Results RT experiments The hypothesis of the study assumes that NNSD are expected to have a longer reaction time to Dutch primes in a reaction time experiment than NSD. NSD will consequently have a longer reaction time to the English primes than the learners of Dutch would. The NNSD are likely to respond fastest to the English primes, less fast to the Dutch primes and slowest to the neutral primes. The NSD are also expected to respond fastest to Dutch primes, less fast to the English primes and slowest to the neutral primes. However, the outcome of the experiment shows the subjects did not react to all prime words as they were expected to do (see table 3 below). In case the subjects do not vary significantly in their reaction times then the null hypothesis is true. The significance level of this experiment was set at 5%. The following results are the analyses of a repeated measure ANOVA in SPSS to test the equality of means. Table 3 below presents the reaction times in milliseconds of the NNSD and the NSD to the different primes in the RT experiment. Table 3. Mean RT (ms) and SD of NNSD and NSD for all three priming conditions Subjects Dutch primes (1) Neutral primes(2) English primes (3) RT (ms) SD RT(ms) SD RT(ms) SD NNSD 674,049 119,547 714,087 126,132 685,590 129,944 NSD 585,676 85,111 608,888 86,221 591,122 88,144 The reaction time of the groups is measured in milliseconds. The horizontal axis shows the reaction time to the Dutch primes (1), the neutral primes (2) and the English primes (3) for the NNSD and the NSD. The results show there was no violation of sphericity for the repeated 56

measures ANOVA as evaluated by Mauchly s test for sphericity (Mauchly s W=.966) with a significance at p=,602. Repeated measures ANOVA for the difference in reaction time of the prime classes between the 17 NNSD and the 15 NSD appeares to have no significant effect. (F[1,30]=5,4; p>.05). The analysis of the difference in reaction times among the different prime types did have a significant within the groups at (F[2,62]=8,2; p>,001). The difference in reaction times between the prime types and the groups within the groups is not significant at (F[2,62]=.349; p>0,05). Figure 1. Reaction times in milliseconds to the different prime types in Dutch by native speakers of Dutch and English learners of Dutch. Means of NNSD and NSD for all prime types 720,00 Group NSD NNSD 700,00 680,00 RT (ms) 660,00 640,00 620,00 600,00 580,00 1 2 3 prime 57

The analysis of variance in repeated-measures analysis of within-subjects effects has a significance in the quadratic trend of the primes at (F[1,31]=13,91; p=,001). The observations within the groups vary significantly, but they are too small to indicate the variance within the groups. The linear trend is not significant (F=1,33; p>.05). The interaction between the groups does not show significant trends at (F[2,62]=.349; p>.05), meaning that the null hypothesis for the variability between the groups is accepted. 3.2.1 Classification Table 4 below presents the reaction times in milliseconds of the NNSD and the NSD to the five different English prime classes that are subdivided into Antonyms, Cognates, Collocations, Hyponyms and Synonyms. The ANOVA analysis shows that the reaction times between-subjects-effects of the groups appear to be significant at (F [1,10]= 6,1; p=0,03). There is no significant trend within the subject groups. There appears to be a significant difference between the reactions to the collocations and the hyponyms with a mean difference of 82,644 and a standard deviation of 30,170 and p=0,02. No other significant results between the other classification primes are found. Table 4. Reaction time in milliseconds to five different prime classes Subjects Antonyms Synonyms Collocation Hyponym Cognates RT (ms) SD RT(ms) SD RT(ms) SD RT(ms) SD RT(ms) SD NNSD 726,24 194,367 726,24 202,850 864,548 156,332 751,484 134,062 692,429 156,298 NSD 603,97 108,710 532,734 94,409 642,450 134,303 563,678 93,816 600,200 198,904. 58

Figure 2. Reaction times in milliseconds by native speakers of Dutch and English learners of Dutch to five different classifications. Means of the reaction times of NSD and NNSD to different classifications of the English primes 900 Group NSD NNSD 800 RT (ms) 700 600 500 1 2 3 4 5 prime 1 Antonyms 2 Synonyms 3 Collocations 4 Hyponyms 5 Cognates This plot shows that NNSD react relatively slower to synonyms than to the other prime classes. They have a longer reaction time to the synonyms than to any of the other classes. The NSD seem to react relatively faster to the synonyms than to the other prime classes. The reaction times of both groups to the other classes are relatively similar. 59

3.2.2. Prime nouns and prime verbs compared Table 5a. Reaction time in milliseconds to the different prime nouns. Subjects Dutch prime nouns Neutral prime nouns English prime nouns RT (ms) SD RT(ms) SD RT(ms) SD NNSD 668,264 22,606 700,961 29,188 677,330 26,165 NSD 570,577 24,764 611,763 31,974 602,961 28,663 Table 5b. Reaction time in milliseconds to the different prime verbs. Subjects Dutch prime verbs Neutral prime verbs English prime verbs RT (ms) SD RT(ms) SD RT(ms) SD NNSD 669,980 28,554 701,810 27,495 679,829 28,615 NSD 595,609 31,279 606,297 30,120 585,948 31,346 The tables 5a and 5b above present the reaction times in milliseconds to the different verb and noun primes of the NSD and NNSD. A univariate test in the multifactorial analysis of variance in SPSS shows that the difference between the reactions to the target nouns was significant at (F[1,31]=8,5; p=0,007). The same analysis shows that the difference between the reactions of the subjects to the English prime verbs appears to be significant at (F[1,31]=4,9; p=0.03). The effect for the target verbs was not significant: (F[1,31]=3,1; p>.05) nor was it significant for the English prime nouns: (F[1,31]=3,7; p>.05). 60

3.2.3. Syllables Most of stimuli of the RT experiment consisted of two or three syllables. The following analysis was a repeated measures analysis of primes consisting of two or three syllables. There is a significant variability between the groups consisting of two and three syllables at (F[1,31]=4,6; p=0,04). Table 6 below displays the reaction times to the different primes with 2 syllables and 3 syllables in milliseconds of NSD and NNSD. Figure 3 shows the plots of the response of NSD and NNSD to 2 and 3 syllable words in milliseconds. Table 6. Reaction times and standard deviations NSD and NNSD for different prime words with 2 and 3 syllables. Primes with 2 and 3 syllables Groups Mean SD Dutch prime 2 NSD syllables 577.159 104.151 NNSD 654.069 114.233 Dutch prime 3 NSD syllables 588.892 84.583 NNSD 680.160 140.153 Neutral prime 2 NSD syllables 602.745 98.435 NNSD 670.598 116.721 Neutral Prime 3 syllables English prime 2 syllables NSD NNSD NSD 615.102 95.364 698.582 133.040 587.894 93.376 English prime 3 syllables NNSD 644.333 110.459 NSD 589.854 88.903 NNSD 684.717 148.124 61

Figure 3. Reaction times in milliseconds by native speakers of Dutch and English learners of Dutch to words with a length of 2 or 3 syllables. Means of NSD and NNSD for two and three syllable prime words 700,00 Group NSD NNSD 675,00 RT (ms) 650,00 625,00 600,00 575,00 1 2 3 4 5 6 prime Horizontal axis Prime 1 Prime 2 Prime 3 Prime 4 Prime 5 Prime 6 Explanation Dutch primes with 2 syllables Dutch primes with 3 syllables Neutral primes with 2 syllables Neutral primes with 3 syllables English primes with 2 syllables English primes with 3 syllables The subjects do not vary significantly in their reaction to different word length. The results presented here are elaborated on in the following discussion and possible causes for 62

these results are reviewed. Additionally, the discussion presents a few recommendations for future studies on this topic as well. 63

4. Analysis and discussion This chapter focuses on several aspects of this study. It mainly focuses on the apparent effects, the probable causes of the outcome, and it presents several aspects that can be improved in order to get results that are more accurate for future research. The next paragraph contains a general recapitulation of the aims of this study and henceforth the discussion is subdivided into a separate discussion about the WA tasks and a discussion about the RT experiments. Onwards, this chapter presents several arguments to explain the apparent effects. Further, it mentions the positive and the negative aspects of this study and it presents some points of improvement for future studies. The aim of this study is to gain insight into the organisation of conceptual representation of NNSD by comparing associations of advanced learners with native speaker associations. The results do not show a significant variability between the subjects and the primes. However, some of the results do show a significant difference in reaction times to specific primes by NSD and NNSD. These will be discussed below. This study started with WA tasks that have showed that NNSD are still influenced by the conceptual knowledge of their L1 (for example nieuwsgierigheid was associated by some with kat ). However, the RT experiment does not confirm that the results of these WA s are likely to be obtained with any other WA task. This could have several causes. The following paragraph will discuss several plausible causes. 4.1 Discussion and analysis WA tasks It is assumed that the associations given by NNSD differ from associations by NSD because their mother tongue and conceptual knowledge influences the concepts they have of Dutch words. The types of associations they mention also depend on their level of Dutch 64

proficiency. However, the majority of them are advanced speakers of Dutch. An important factor is that there usually is one label for a concept in L1, while in the L2 there are two related labels for NNSD; a synonym of the target word translated from L1 or an association with the Dutch target word that is related to either L1 or dependent of their L2 knowledge. NNSD will usually associate the target word with these synonyms more often that the L1 speakers. Below, some examples of item analyses for prime words clarify in which ways the Non-Native Speakers of Dutch may be influenced by their L1. The clarification for all other prime words is presented in appendices III and IV. The item analysis of bevatten presented in the results of chapter 3 above, shows that NNSD associate bevatten more often with to contain than NSD do. Bevatten has a double meaning in Dutch and could mean both to contain and to understand, while in English, contain has only one meaning. Strikingly, the results of this target word show that half of the NSD give begrijpen (28%) and snappen (28%) as their associations that both refer to understand. The NNSD give bevatten as an association for begrijpen (28%) and inhouden (18%), which shows that more NNSD subject associate bevatten with both meanings than the NSD. It is expected that NNSD translate the target word to their L1 and subsequently mention a translated association. This target word clearly shows that NNSD have acquired the Dutch concept of bevatten because the highest association is begrijpen, which is a Dutch concept. However, this association also shows the influence of their L1 on their L2, because they mention the second meaning of the target word more than NSD do. The fact that this second meaning is the only meaning of the English translation equivalent of the target word shows that their L1 still influences the Dutch concepts. Further, the analysis of the associations mentioned by the NNSD and by the NSD shows that the NNSD tend to associate more with collocations than the NSD do. NSD often mention possible examples for the target word as their first association. Examples of some 65

collocations mentioned by the NNSD are nieuwsgierigheid and kat, taken from the English proverb curiosity killed the cat, wraak and schip, because of the English collocation revenge ship and gouden and eeuw that is a strong collocation in both English and Dutch, meaning golden age. Dienst and plicht forms another collocation, better known in English as military service. Even though this study focuses on associations that are likely to prime the NNSD with associations that have a strong relation with the target word preferably, this tendency is an aspect that appears from the results of the highest mentioned associations in particular compared to the NSD associations (see for example target word 66, appendix V). The NSD on the other hand, often mention examples of the target words. For instance, zon (sun) is given as an association for genieten (to enjoy), something which one can enjoy. Trouw (faithful) is associated with the target word beloven (to promise), which is something one can promise. Geloof (religion) is associated most by the Dutch with God, which is an example of geloof in something. While the English prime is overtuiging (belief), which is an association that has a similar meaning as the target word has. The following paragraph will discuss a few target words with EN primes that are typical English collocations, have a strong relation in English or typical English associations that are not possible in Dutch. An example of a target word with a striking result is redden (to save). The most prominent association given by NNSD is sparen (to save money). This association clearly shows that some NNSD of Dutch have translated redden into to save, which is a good translation. However, following their train of thought, the next step they make is, sparen (to save money), does not have a relation with the Dutch target word redden. To save somebody and to save money are both possible in English while using the same verb. In Dutch, there are two different verbs that express the difference between both phrases namely redden and sparen. Sparen was mentioned by 7% of the NNSD and not mentioned by NSD. This shows that some NNSD have translated the target word into English in order to give a proper 66

association, which then turns out to be a collocation in English that is not possible in Dutch. Additionally, money was mentioned by 20% of the NSE in the EAT, which confirms sparen is a proper English association, because it confirms the relation that the NSE have with to save and money. Another prominent example of an English collocation is the target word nieuwsgierigheid (curiosity) EN prime kat (cat), even though kat was only mentioned by 4% of the NNSD. It seemed to be the best association to let the NNSD react fast to nieuwsgierigheid, because they recognise the English proverb curiosity killed the cat, without priming the NSD because the proverb does not exist in Dutch. This confirms the assumption that NNSD may associate the target words with words that have a relation with the target word in English. Other striking examples of target words with EN primes that have a strong relation, for instance collocations or synonyms, are bevatten (17), toevoegen () voordeel (), weten (71), and carrière (72). The explanation for all these relation is shown in appendix III. Unfortunately, I have not been able to find evidence in other studies that investigate a high associative trend for collocations in English. Strikingly, in this study the NNSD often mention collocations from English and give associations that form collocations with the target word in Dutch as mentioned above in the examples of wraak and schip, a collocation in English and gouden eeuw, a collocation in both languages. Dienstplicht is a collocation that cannot be translated literally to English and is therefore a Dutch collocation. These examples show that these NNSD are rather proficient in Dutch, because they do not simply translate everything to their L1, but they have a good knowledge of collocations in Dutch, which is an important development in acquiring an L2. A recent study on lexical network structures by Wolters (2006) shows that L1 lexical knowledge can be a help and a hindrance when L2 connections are created, particularly regarding collocations. The analysis of all the primes 67

turns out to have a certain pattern, in which the NNSD associate more often with collocations, while NSD mention more examples or effects of the target word. This difference in association could possibly prime the NNSD faster in the RT experiment, because it may be easier to find a synonym in your L1 and to respond to synonyms even in your L2. Conclusion results WA tasks Associations given by NNSD often have a strong semantical, proverbial or collocationial relation with the target word. This means that NNSD often give associations that cover the same meaning as the target word does and tend to refer more often to collocations and proverbs. Even though, associations by NNSD correspond with the NSD concept, they tend to give more word relations than the NSD do, because they translate the target word to their L1. Contrastingly, the Dutch often mention examples of certain target words, as is mentioned above with target word geloof and its NL prime God, which is an example of something one believes in, while the EN prime overtuiging is an equivalent of the target word. These primes seemed the best among all mentioned associations to prime both subject groups. Though these are the results of the WA tasks, it does not necessarily determine that this is a general tendency. This difference in the associative pattern between NNSD and NSD could be confirmed in the RT experiment as well by the fastness of the reactions, because the experiment serves to validate the results of the WA tasks. The outcome of the reaction time experiment mainly depends on the word selection of the word association tasks since this is an exploratory study with subjects of different levels of proficiency and because the word selection is a very precise process that takes a lot of time and effort. The following section will show and analyse the outcome of this process in the RT experiment 68

4.2 Discussion and analysis RT experiment The results do not show a significant variability between the subjects and the primes, meaning that the null hypothesis cannot be rejected because there is no statistical evidence that there is a difference between the two subject groups. However, the results presented in table one of chapter 3 show a striking result. Both the NSD and NNSD respond faster to the Dutch primes. The hypothesis of this study assumed that the NSD would react fastest to the Dutch prime and that NNSD would probably react faster to the English prime type that has a closer relation to their mother tongue. The NNSD had a mean reaction time of 674.04 to the Dutch primes and a reaction time of 685.59 milliseconds to the English primes. This is unexpected, because the NNSD are supposed to react faster to the English association with the target word than to the Dutch association with the target word. A possible explanation for this can be that the majority of the tested NNSD have lived in the Netherlands for an average of 8 years and they all have a different background. Some of them have Dutch parents and had already learned Dutch while they grew up surrounded by L1 English. Others found a Dutch partner, and acquired a near-native level of Dutch. The fact that they have lived here for many years may have caused their level of Dutch to be too high for this experiment, because they do not appear to be influenced anymore by their L1 when they deal with the Dutch language. The NSD reacted faster to all three prime types than NNSD. This is expected, because NSD perform the experiment in their L1 and therefore, they recognize the relationship between the target word and the prime word faster than NNSD. The NSD have a mean reaction time of 585.67 milliseconds to the Dutch primes, 5,446 milliseconds faster than their reaction time to the English primes of 591.1220 milliseconds. Their mean reaction time to the neutral primes was 608.88 milliseconds, slower than to the other primes, because there is no relation between the target word and the neutral prime. This suggests that the expectations for NSD are confirmed in this experiment because they respond as they are expected to. 69

The word selection for the RT experiment focuses on discrepancies between associations mentioned by the NSD and the NNSD. The analyses of the WA tasks (see appendix III) shows that the NNSD give more associations that are synonyms of the target word or had a similar meaning. The analysis in SPSS (table 2) shows that NNSD react slower to synonyms than to other prime classes and that the NSD react faster to synonyms than to other prime classes. This result is striking and contrasting when compared to the results of the WA analysis, which shows that NNSD mention many word associations that were synonyms of the target words. These slightly slower reaction times of the NNSD can possibly be explained by the fact that they notice the relation between the target word and the prime type, which causes them to reflect briefly on the relation instead of reacting immediately after they read the second prime word. The time they take to discover that both words have a similar meaning may slow down their reaction time, especially since it is not in their mother tongue and they take more time to process in general. Nevertheless, it remains striking that the reaction times of NNSD to synonyms are slower than to the other prime classes, because it seems that the subjects would need time to think about the relation between the target words and the other prime classes as well. This may indicate that there are more complex relations between synonyms than there are between other classifications. A study on the differences between hyponym and synonym decisions by Chaffin and Glass (1990) suggests that the relation between hyponyms may be simpler than the relationship between synonyms. Their result may be a possible explanation for the slower reaction times to synonyms, because of the complexity of a synonymous relationship. Few linguistic researches on synonymy have been done. A recent lexical research by Edmond and Hirst (2002) shows that is rather difficult to determine whether two words are proper synonyms. This difficulty could be the reason why the relationship between synonyms is more complicated; the speaker wants to determine whether the words are proper synonyms or whether another existing word can get closer to the 70

meaning of the (target) word. This process takes more time when it concerns synonyms in an L2. The data of this experiment shows that the relation between synonyms is likely to be a more complex relationship, especially for L2 learners, who took more time to react to words that have a synonymous relation than to other class relations. On the other hand, the reaction times of NNSD for cognates are fastest. NNSD react rather fast to cognates (table 2), especially in comparison to synonyms and collocations, while NSD do not react any faster to them compared to the other classifications. The theoretical background of this study discusses an RT experiment by Beauvillain and Grainger (1987). They performed an RT experiment that shows that lexicons do interact between languages. It also proved that cognates, words that are similar between languages, may have stronger relations. Considering the fast reaction times of the NNSD for cognates, it seems that the same results can be concluded for this experiment. The NNSD are influenced by L1 cognates while they perform the experiment, because the stimuli consisted of cognates that made them reacted faster because they know the meaning of the words from the conceptual knowledge of their L1. The differences in reaction times also show that there is a difference in the conceptual representation in the bilingual mind for nouns versus verbs. The results in chapter 3 show that there is a significant effect between the reaction times of the groups to verbs with English primes and to nouns with Dutch primes. The results in table 3a and 3b show that the NSD reacted faster to English prime verbs and to Dutch prime nouns. Strikingly, the reaction times of the NSD to a Dutch prime verb is not significant, though it would be likely that NSD would react faster to verbs connected to a Dutch association. A possible explanation for this significant effect is that it is caused by the selection of the prime words. The WA analysis in chapter 2.4 discusses that some associations were chosen as a suitable prime, even though it turned out to be suitable for both the English prime and the Dutch prime. As for example the 71

target word kiezen (to choose) and its English prime stemmen (to vote); the NSD did not mention stemmen in the WA task, but it seems very likely that NSD react fast to this English prime when it appears as a prime. Stemmen is a good Dutch synonym for the target word kiezen even though it is not a typical NSD association. The differences in reaction times to the verbs and the nouns in this case can possibly be explained by the selection of the right words as primes for the targets; some primes that coincidentally were related to verbs or nouns may have caused them to respond faster. The difference in syllable length appears to influence the reaction times as well (see table 3). For this experiment, not enough stimuli with one syllable or with more than two or three syllables are used. Therefore, these results only represent the analysis of words with two or three syllables. There is a significant effect between the reactions of the groups to the different syllable lengths. Figure 3 of chapter 3 shows that both groups reacted fastest to Dutch primes with two syllables. Both groups react slower to neutral primes with three syllables. Another prominent outcome was the reaction time of NNSD to the Dutch and English primes with two syllables. These results seem to show that the NNSD respond faster to shorter words in their L2. A logical explanation for this may be that shorter words take the subjects less time to read and process. The results also show that NNSD respond faster to English primes with two syllables than to Dutch primes with two syllables. This could be clarified by a possible influence of the English concept of the NNSD that influenced the Dutch concept. This causes the subjects to react faster to target words with English primes. This result seems to support the hypothesis of this study that L1 concepts influence L2 concepts and out of this can be concluded that the conceptual knowledge of bilinguals is one interactive system. 72

Another aspect that significantly influences the word selection was the fact that there are discrepancies among subjects in their level of Dutch. Their backgrounds are various and they are not tested on their level of Dutch in advance of the experiment. Further, many subjects had a good level of proficiency in Dutch, because of which they can hardly be distinguished from NSD. These final aspects do not only count for the WA tasks, but also for the RT experiments, because the reaction times of the subjects are determined by their level of Dutch. Even though, there are many remarks made about the experiments, it does appear that some positive results stand out. The results of the WA tasks do show that learners of Dutch are influenced by their L1 when they deal with Dutch. This is visible in for example their reaction to the Dutch word for curiosity, nieuwsgierigheid, when some of the subjects reply with kat (cat). This confirms the hypothesis of this study. Other important results are the slower reaction times of the NNSD to synonyms. It appears from previous studies (Edmond and Hirst, 2002) that the relationship between synonyms is complicated and is likely to slow down the subjects because they are tempted to think of a more suitable alternative. Those results are confirmed in this study. Further, NNSD reacted faster to cognates than to any other categories. Previous research (Beauvillain and Grainger, 1987) also confirms here that cognates have stronger relations because they are similar between languages. NNSD prove in this study that they use the conceptual knowledge of their L1 and therefore respond faster to cognates. This discussion shows the importance of selecting the right words in such an experiment. It turns out that NSD react faster to English prime verbs than to the Dutch variants. This may possibly be caused by flaws in the selection of word associations, because the selected associations prime the subjects for both prime types. The results of the reaction times for two or three syllable words show that NNSD respond faster to two syllabic words, and even faster to two syllabic words with an English 73

association. This indicates that they react faster to shorter words because it takes less time to process them. It also confirms the hypothesis of this study: learners of L2 are still influenced by their L1, and therefore still react faster to words that are related to each other in their L1. 4.3 Shortcomings of this study 4.3.1 Shortcomings word association tasks The study commenced with three WA tasks. Two groups, consisting of NSD and NNSD, were asked to fill out WA tasks. These associations were compared to associations given by NSD associations by first-year students of Dutch and by NSE assembled in the online Edinburgh National Corpus. The associations on this website were associations given by NSE living in the United Kingdom. The fact that these associations were compared to associations given by mostly American and Canadian subjects, may have influenced the selection of suitable prime words for the RT experiment. Further, the Edinburgh National Corpus did not contain associations of NSE for each target word; nine target words of this study could not be found in the ENC. Therefore, it was not possible to compare all WA tasks of Americans and Canadians to native speaker associations to see if their L1 had influenced their L2 associations and if their L2 had influenced their L1 associations. Moreover, the initial aim of the subject selection was to test only American and Canadian subjects. Many of the American and Canadian interpreters worked for the same company in the Netherlands that was willing to cooperate with this experiment. Later on, it appeared that more subjects with different nationalities were willing to fill out the WA task. Eventually, subjects with five different nationalities were tested instead of only American and Canadian subjects. The WA tasks were filled out by NNSD who all have a different background and a different level of proficiency in Dutch. The discrepancy between some subjects may have 74

influenced the selection of the English prime. It is likely that many subjects have an advanced level of Dutch and can therefore not be distinguished from NSD. Furthermore, some subjects have not lived in the Netherlands longer than four years and have possibly not yet required a level of Dutch in order to give an association for each target word. The cause for these discrepancies is that they were not tested on their level of Dutch before they performed the WA task. It appeared not to be easy to obtain sufficient NNSD with L1 English. It was not possible to test the subjects on their level of Dutch because of the size of this study. However, a proficiency test is recommended for future research. The word selection process was a precise and thorough process, though several mistakes in the word selection have been made that could not be prevented in this study. Some target words of the WA tasks were not used in the RT experiment, because it appeared that both the NSD and NNSD had reacted to them in similar ways. It was not possible to select proper associations that could function as its prime words because both groups would then respond equally fast to both primes, which would obstruct the effect of this experiment. Therefore, it seemed best to leave these target words out. However, some target words, such as voelen (to feel, nr. 54) and geluk (luck, nr. 44) were combined with a prime word that was likely to prime both subject groups. It appeared afterwards that those primes were likely to have primed both groups. Therefore, these reaction times have influenced the outcome of this study (see appendix III). All in all, the shortcomings of the WA tasks are caused by the fact that the WA tasks were filled out by many NNSD with various nationalities who have English as their mother tongue but all a different cultural background. Their associations were compared to British associations in the EAT that are associations that were given almost forty years ago and may have changed significantly. Further, not all the target words could be found in the Thesaurus, which slightly influenced the word selection process. This process was a rather difficult 75

process and it could not be avoided that some target words were combined with a prime word that was likely to prime both the NNSD and the NSD. 4.3.2 Shortcomings reaction time experiment An important point of discussion, which has already been briefly mentioned before, is that there seemed to be many individual discrepancies between the subjects. This point has already been made for the WA subject, and the same is true for the RT subjects. Some of the RT subjects have lived in the Netherlands since they were 8 years old and can be called bilingual. Not only subjects who have been living in the Netherlands since they were young were able to acquire a near-native level of Dutch, but also subjects who work often with Dutch people and who speak Dutch at home, have acquired a near-native level of Dutch. The fact that their proficiency is so advanced that they cannot be distinguished from natives causes them to respond equally fast to English primes and to Dutch primes, because their L1 no longer influences the conceptual knowledge of their L2. Others have only lived in the Netherlands for about 5 years and do not use Dutch in their private life. These subject differences cause many of the differences in the results. They are assumed the main reason for the lack of significant effects between the two subject groups and stimuli. Additionally, not all RT experiment were performed at the same location. Some subjects performed the experiment in a soundproof language laboratory at the university while others lived too far away from the university and they performed it at a laptop in their own house. These conditions, the different environment and equipment, could also have influenced the concentration of the subject and consequently influenced the reaction times. It seems that the shortcomings of the RT experiments are formed by the diversity in subjects, who have a different level of English, a different language and cultural background and have spent a different amount of years in the Netherlands. Additionally, not all the RT 76

experiments have been performed under the same conditions, which could have been of importance for the subjects concentration. All these factors may have influenced the results of this experiment and should be considered in future research. 77

5. Conclusion and suggestions 5.1 Conclusion This study attempted to gain more insight into the conceptual knowledge of learners of Dutch with L1 English. The goal of this study was to find out to what extent learners of Dutch are still influenced by their L1 English and to what extent they transfer elements of their L1 onto their L2. In order to find out the answers, several theories about the bilingual mind and studies on conceptual knowledge were discussed to set the theoretical background of this study. The first experiment of this study was a word association task. The results suggest that advanced learners of Dutch are still influenced by their conceptual knowledge and that they particularly associate Dutch words with collocations and other strong word relations, such as synonyms. After the results appeared to show this apparent effect, a reaction time experiment was conducted with the same stimuli for different subjects. The reaction time experiments served to confirm whether the results of the WA tasks show a significant effect. However, this result was not obtained. The reason why concepts are interesting for this study is that concepts are seen as dynamic, mental representations that exist separately from words. They display our experience and knowledge gained through the outside world. When learning another language, L2 learners with a different language and cultural background are likely to have different concepts than native speakers of a language. Learners transfer conceptual knowledge of their L1 onto their L2 by means of specific L1 elements and in this way they influence their L2. Previous research has shown that L2 learners are influenced by their L1. This study questions to what extent the L1 conceptual knowledge of native speakers of English still influences their L2 Dutch. Therefore, parts of the conceptual knowledge of non-native speakers of Dutch had to be exposed. This has been done by means of word association tasks. In a word association 78

task, concepts are activated upon presentation of a word. The association filled out by the subjects partly represents the concept of that subject. By looking at the responses of all subjects, the conceptual knowledge of a group of non-native speakers of Dutch was exposed. Subsequently, their associations were compared with associations by native speakers of Dutch and with associations by native speakers of English in an online database by entering translation equivalents. In this way, the conceptual knowledge of non-native speakers of Dutch could be determined. The analysis of the results suggests that advanced learners of L2 generally have obtained the L2 concept. However, they do occasionally show typical L1 elements in their concepts that they use in their L2, which means that their concepts are not completely near native. This study researches to what extent the learners transfer L1 concepts and therefore typically focuses on the type of association. It seems that NNSD tend to associate target words often with collocations, synonyms and other strong word relations, either typical English collocations or typically Dutch collocations. This is a striking outcome, because it means that they acquired the Dutch concept for some target words. This shows that the learners are in the process of acquiring near native concepts. It is striking that native speakers of English often give collocations as associations. They also give more associations that have a strong word relation with the target word, such as antonyms, synonyms, and cognates. Previous studies have shown this apparent effect, although it has not been proved. It might be that these word relations are important in the English language, which would explain why NNSD acquired some of the Dutch word relation very accurately. Additionally, native speakers of Dutch tend to give an association that is an example of the target word. This may make it harder for learners to acquire a native concept, particularly for learners with L1 English who seem to give associations that are collocations, 79

cognates, etc. This aspect was kept in mind whilst conducting the reaction time experiment and it was expected that the second experiment would prove the results of the word association tasks. Unfortunately, no significant results were obtained out of it. The reaction time experiment did not show any significant effect between the reaction times of NSD and NNSD. However, they did show prominent results for cognates. The NNSD responded faster to cognates than to the other classifications such as collocations and synonyms, while the NSD responded equally fast to all classifications. This is in line with previous research that proves that there are stronger relations between cognates. The same results were expected for collocations, because of their occurrence in the word association task, but they did not give any faster reaction times. 5.2 Shortcomings of this study The WA tasks do show that the non-native speakers of Dutch are influenced by their L1 when they use Dutch and specify to what extent they are influenced by their L1. However, the RT experiment does not prove that there is a significant effect between the subject groups and the selected prime words. This could have many different reasons and causes, and most of these can be defined as shortcomings of this study. The main shortcomings of this study are the discrepancies between the subjects. The subjects of both the WA tasks and the RT experiments were not tested on their level of proficiency due to lack of time, considering the size of this study. The difficulty in obtaining subjects caused the subjects to be of various backgrounds, proficiency levels and they had spent different periods in the Netherlands. Many subjects had an advanced level of Dutch, while others were beginners. This is likely to have influenced the selection of the prime words and the outcome of the RT experiment. Moreover, the fact that some subjects had acquired a native level of Dutch caused that they cannot be distinguished from native speakers of Dutch and they seem to have reacted 80

equally fast to English primes as to Dutch primes. When all subjects would have been at a similar level of Dutch and of a more similar language background, L1 influence at an advanced level of Dutch could have resulted into significant results. Further, there are other shortcomings, which may have influenced the results. The associations by native speakers of English were taken from the EAT, which was composed in the beginning of the 1970s, while this study was performed almost forty years later. Those years in between have probably influenced the concepts and experiences of people in general. Even though most of the stimuli were abstract words whose concepts are unlikely to have changed over the past forty years, it might be suggested that future research collect new association data from native speakers of English. All in all, in order to get more precise results out of a similar study, the discussed shortcoming of chapter 4 should be adapted in order to get significant result. The manner in which the obtained associations are selected for the right primes is of importance for the outcome of both experiments and eventually determines the outcome of the whole study. Additionally, subjects should be tested on their level of proficiency in order to determine whether they are suitable subjects for similar studies, because advanced speakers may be near-native speakers of Dutch who are indistinguishable from native speakers of Dutch. These aspects should be considered in order to get significant effects in future research. 5.3 Relevance of this study for language teaching The results of this study, in particular of the WA tasks show to what extent the L1 influences advanced learners of L2 Dutch. This suggests that teachers should take into account that learners are able to study translation equivalents, but that they do not pick up the differences in the conceptual knowledge of the two languages when they only study. This does not only count for teachers of Dutch but also for teachers of a foreign language in 81

general. It would be adequate for language teachers to pay attention to conceptual differences in the teaching of a foreign language, because in this study it appears that even advanced learners of Dutch are influenced by L2 concepts. If more attention would be paid to conceptual differences, the level of proficiency might be improved to a native level. Students themselves may not be aware of the possible meaning differences between translation equivalents, but if teachers would point out the differences, student may become aware of them. In a previous study on conceptual knowledge by S. van den Berg, she points out that learners could compare their own associations to an L2 word to native associations. In this manner, they might become aware of the differences and might understand them. This may help learners to reach a native level. 5.4 Suggestions for further research The results of the WA tasks and some of the results of the RT experiments show that learners of L2 are influenced by the conceptual knowledge of their L1 in particular by collocations, cognates, synonyms and antonyms. However, the fact that this study is an exploratory study causes many limitations. First, further research might have the possibility to spend more time on the selection of subjects so that they would all have a similar language and cultural background. Secondly, it might have more measures to acquire suitable subjects, for example by rewarding them. Furthermore, they might be able to have subjects perform a proficiency test before participation, so that their level of Dutch can be determined. Additionally, more attention could be paid on the analysis of all items and on the selection of the word associations for the RT experiment. Finally, it would be interesting to perform a similar study with a different L1 and L2 to compare the results. The assumption of native speakers of English who give more 82

collocations and other classifications as associations than other language groups could then be proved. It could also be proved if students of other language are influenced by the same elements of their L1 as advanced learners of Dutch. Thus, future research might improve our knowledge of conceptual transfer in the bilingual mind and it might give us more insight in the extent to which the L1 influences the conceptual knowledge of the L2. Additionally, it would inform us of differences and similarities between concepts and associations between languages. 83

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similarity in the acquisition of L2 propositions. In S. Niemeier and M. Achard (Eds.) Cognitive Linguistics, Second Language Acquisition, and Foreign Language Acquisition. Studies On Language Acquisition, 18. Berlin, New York: Mouton de Gruyter. 77-94. British National Corpus (2005). [WWW document]. URL www.natcorp.ox.ac.uk Science and Technology Facilities Council(1980). Edinburgh Association Thesaurus. [WWW document]. URL www.eat.rl.ac.uk Nijmegen Institute for Cognition and Information (2007). Research outline of the division of Psycholinguistics [WWW document]. URL http://www.nici.kun.nl/divisions/d1/info.html 88

Appendices Appendix I Word Association tasks for NSD and NNSD Hieronder zie je een lijst met 76 Nederlandse zelfstandige naamwoorden en werkwoorden. De bedoeling is dat je achter het Nederlandse woord 1 ander Nederlands woord invult dat als eerste bij je opkomt als je het woord ziet. Denk er niet te lang over na, maar vul direct het eerste woord dat je associeert bij het gevraagde woord (dit mag ook een antoniem, synoniem of persoonlijke associatie zijn, zoals je het maar associeert met het gevraagde woord). Er is geen fout antwoord. Wanneer je het niet weet of er gewoon niet op kan komen sla het woord dan over. Gebruik dus geen woordenboek of iets dergelijk, maar ga puur op je eerste idee/gevoel af. Voorbeeld: Roos Bloem Rijkdom Geld Voordat je begint aan de test zou ik graag een aantal dingen willen weten over je achtergrond met betrekking tot het Nederlands. Dit is voor mij van essentieel belang voor het verwerken van de uitslagen. Je naam wordt nergens voor gebruikt of in vermeld, maar het zou voor mij handig zijn om te weten in verband met het verwerken van de individuele uitslagen! Probeer zo eerlijk mogelijk te antwoorden. Het is voor mij niet belangrijk om zoveel mogelijk goede tweetalige sprekers te hebben. Het gaat me puur om de gedachten en ideeën tijdens het spreken van het Nederlands samen genomen met de achtergrond. Mocht je nog vragen hebben, aarzel niet om mij te mailen. Naam: Leeftijd: Nationaliteit: Geboorteplaats: Moedertaal: Leeftijd waarop je voor het eerst in contact kwam met het Nederlands: Hoe lang woon je in Nederland: Ik spreek Nederlands: 89

Ik spreek vrijwel altijd Nederlands, ik denk meestal in het Nederlands. Dagelijks, tijdens het werk en in de huishouding, in winkels, eventueel ook met partner. Dagelijks, tijdens het werk en in winkels. Aantal malen per week wanneer dat zo uitkomt/niet anders kan. Ik spreek vrijwel niet, maar gebruik het Nederlands vooral passief in de media en mijn omgeving. Anders, namelijk. Indicatie over je eigen niveau in het Nederlands: Beginner Intermediate Advanced Kracht Waarnemen Verdriet Toevoegen Invloed Lelijkheid Ontdekken Ontwikkelen Beloven Herkennen Nieuwsgierigheid Geloof Ontspannen Voordeel Wraak Bestaan Bevatten Vrijheid Veranderen Lafheid Toegeven Onderscheiden Leren Toestaan Genieten Bewijzen Moed Plicht Eigendom Twijfel Ontmoeten Wijsheid Toepassen Denken 90

Beslissen Emotie Onderwijs Voorbereiden Geheugen Gemak Voorkomen Eeuw Ambitie Geluk Verschillen Overwegen Armoede Redden Verwachten Kiezen Opmerken Schoonheid Voorstellen Voelen Gerechtigheid Kans Goedheid Dienen Begrijpen Verliezen Noemen Onthouden Waarheid Vertrouwen Lachen Toekomst Eenzaamheid Storen Weigeren Verlaten Weten Carrière Onderzoek Taak Vergeten 91

Appendix II Primes and Classification EN primes The following table was selected based on the acquired data of the WA tasks by NSD and NNSD. The third column contain all the classifications between the target word and the EN prime, the fifth column contains the neutral primes that were used in the RT experiment as concrete filler words in order to vary with all the abstract target words. Target words EN Prime Classification NL Neutral Pseudo words Prime Primes 1 Kracht Macht Hyponym Sterk Kaart gnisten 2 Waarnemen Observeren Hyponym Zien Kat straiken 3 Verdriet Triest Hyponym pijn Bord stroos 4 Toevoegen Zout Collocation Aanvullen Meisje braap 5 Invloed Effect Hyponym Ouders Plant clammen 6 Lelijkheid Schoonheid Antonym vies Steen fusk 7 Ontdekken Reizen Collocation zien Vork slont 8 Ontwikkelen Uitwerken Hyponym maken Lied wef 9 Beloven Toezeggen Hyponym trouw Raam pud 10 Herkennen Gezicht Collocation mensen Olie flauzen 11 Nieuwsgierigheid Kat Collocation kind Wekker spragen 12 Geloof Overtuiging Collocation God Suiker sprilen 13 Ontspannen Loslaten Hyponym Lezen Ster braals 14 Voordeel Baat Synonym nadeel Lamp warbig 15 Wraak Schip Collocation eer Inspecteur frous 16 Bestaan Recht Collocation God Leraar snorm 17 Bevatten Ton Hyponym Begrijpen Deur smool 18 Vrijheid Beeld Collocation blijheid Sneeuw drien 19 Veranderen Wijzigen Cognate anders Regen taas 92

20 Lafheid Moed Antonym Zwak Spiegel Gurm 21 Toegeven Opbiechten Synonym gelijk Keuken Haust 22 Onderscheiden Categoriseren Hyponym anders Werk Spraam 23 Leren Lesgeven Antonym Studeren Vloer Gehamd 24 Toestaan Permitteren Cognate Mogen Huis Klaat 25 Genieten Plezier Hyponym Zon Bureau sproomen 27 Moed Oorlog Hyponym Kracht Borstel Grat 28 Plicht Dienst Collocation Taak Computer Plaut 29 Eigendom Huis Hyponym Bezit Tennis Fiels 30 Twijfel Voordeel Collocation Moeilijk Tijdschrift Tunks 31 Ontmoeten Kennis maken Cognate Mensen Meubels Glonken 32 Wijsheid Intelligentie Hyponym slim Vuur Prolen 33 Toepassen adapteren Hyponym doen Bier Dwoos 34 Denken Peinzen Hyponym Hoofd Munt Snorp 35 Beslissen uitvoeren Hyponym Keuze Melk Twopen 36 Emotie Liefde Hyponym verdriet Doos Brils 37 Onderwijs Educatie Synonym leren Vinger Sliek 38 Voorbereiden klaarmaken Hyponym School Krant Bluimen 39 Geheugen gedachten Hyponym Ont- Vis Stouken houden 40 Gemak comfortabel Hyponym lui Appel Scorten 41 Voorkomen Gebeuren Hyponym genezen Televisie Struilten 42 Eeuw Gouden Collocation Lang Roos Snorgen 43 Ambitie Verlangen Hyponym Carriere Flat Sporgen 93

44 Geluk Blij Hyponym Klavertjevier Uitrusting Splents 45 Verschillen Afwijken Cognate Onder- Stoep Noep scheid 46 Overwegen estimeren Hyponym twijfel Zand Paust 47 Armoede Gebrek Hyponym Geld Postbode Moud 48 Redden Sparen Cognate leven Telefoon Blat 49 Verwachten Anticiperen Cognate denken Fiets Moos 50 Kiezen Stemmen Hyponym keuze Boom Reven 51 Opmerken observeren Hyponym Zien Winkel Kuid 52 Schoonheid Ideaal Collocation mooi Lopen Hoept 53 Voorstellen Suggestie Hyponym In- Jas Mas denken 54 Voelen Emoties Hyponym pijn Brood Sfier 56 Kans gelegenheid Hyponym procent Riem Kors 57 Goedheid Puur Hyponym Sinterklaas Stoeptegel Brap 58 Dienen Serveren Cognate slaaf Park Drus 59 Begrijpen Verstaan Hyponym verstand Koffer Worken 60 Verliezen Vinden Collocation balen Universiteit Slareken /hyponym 61 Noemen Aanwijzen Hyponym Naam Sieraad gnach 62 Onthouden Herinneren Cognate weten Geit brulk 63 Waarheid Leugen Hyponym eerlijk Winnaar traul 64 Vertrouwen Oplichten Hyponym liefde Muziek speem 65 Lachen giechelen Hyponym blij Peer stilp 66 Toekomst Verleden Antonym Perspectief Deken bouf 67 Eenzaamheid Rust Hyponym alleen Tafel klum 68 Storen onderbreken Hyponym Irritant Kaars pris 94

69 Weigeren 70 Verlaten Vertrekken Hyponym alleen Glas houg 71 Weten informatie Collocation leren Hond schrieten / hyponym 72 Carrière Loopbaan Hyponym ambitie Eten wreets 73 Onderzoek Studie Hyponym kennis Trein plaudig 74 Taak werk Hyponym straf Pan stral 75 Vergeten Verloren Hyponym stom Bestuurder klir 95

Appendix III Motivation for the EN primes The following table shows what words were used in the word association task (target words) and what words became the primes that were associated by NNSD. The fourth column mentions their classification, which refers to the relationship between the target word and the prime word. Column 5, Motivation for English Primes, explains the choice for the selection of the English prime words. All the primes were chosen according to certain standards. First, the word that was associated most by the NNSD was compared to the associations of the Dutch natives. Preferably, the chosen prime was mentioned most by the NNSD and was not mentioned by any of the NSD. In this way, the distance between the associations of both groups would be biggest. If not possible, the next word opted for was a word that was associated less by the NNSD but was preferably not associated by the NSD. The plausible primes were also compared to the associations of NSE to support the belief that it was a particular English association. 1 2 3 4 5 Target words English Prime Classification Motivation for English Primes Clarification why this prime serves as the best English prime to which many Non-Native Speakers of Dutch are likely to respond and to which Native Speakers of Dutch 1 Kracht (strength) are not likely to respond. Macht Hyponym Macht was mentioned by 30% of the NNSD it was not mentioned by NSD. Sterkte was highly associated as well, mentioned by 30% of the NNSD, but Sterk was mentioned by 60% of the NSD and sterkte by 4% of the NSD and would therefore not be as suitable as an English prime as macht was. Macht (might) seems to be mentioned as an English association for kracht (power) because they are a rhyming pair. This type of association could also be explained by a difference in culture that causes the NNSD to have a concept of kracht that refers to somebody who has kracht, 96

2 Waarnemen (to perceive) 3 Verdriet (grief) 4 Toevoegen (to add) 5 Invloed (infuence) 6 Lelijkheid (ugliness) would automatically also have macht. It could also be explained because it seems that NSE tend to associate more with collocations and word pairs like this one that happens to rhyme. Observeren Hyponym Observeren seemed to serve best as the English prime here because it was mentioned by 21% of the NNSD and only mentioned by 2% of the NSD. The word that was associated most was zien (28%), but this was also mentioned by 80% of the NSD. It seems that in English to perceive has a more precise meaning than the Dutch word waarnemen. NNSD associate it with observeren (to observe), while the Dutch connect it to zien (to see). In English, the concept may refer to waarnemen as taking a closer look and not just to see something. Triest Hyponym Triest (sad) was the highest association for the NNSD (25%), but it was not mentioned by NSD. Additionally, sorrow was associated by 29% of the NSE, which makes it a good English association. Triest makes it seem as if the concept of NNSD is linked with the state of being of verdriet and the Dutch association pijn (pain) deals more with its influence and effect. Huilen was also associated by 21% of the NNSD, but also mentioned by 57% of the NSD. Zout Collocation Zout was associated by 4% of the NNSD and not mentioned by the NSD. To add salt seems to be a particular English association, because add salt is colloquial in English, but in Dutch one would not say it, it is rather formal in Dutch and would mostly be mentioned in recipes. Plus was another high association mentioned by 15% of NNSD, but was also mentioned by 10% of the NSD. The same goes for erbij (doen) which was mentioned by 11% of NNSD, but also by 17% of the NSD and both would probably react faster to this word. Effect Hyponym Effect (effect) is a very suitable English prime, because it was mentioned by 22% of the NNSD and was not mentioned by the NSD. Even though the word associated most was macht (might 26%), but this was also mentioned by 53% of the NSD. Invloed and effect seem to point out that the English mention more synonyms for the target words than the NSD do. NNSD search for words that have a similar meaning, while the Dutch mention ouders (parents) which is an example of invloed (influence). Schoonheid Antonym 22% of the NNSD mentioned schoonheid (beauty) and it was not mentioned by the NSD. Another high association was mooi (beautiful; 15%), but it was also mentioned by 18% of the NSD. Additionally, 29% of the NSE mentioned beauty, which proves it a good English association and shows that NNSD tend to mention associations that have a close relation to the target word. The Dutch mention vies (dirty), which is an example of 97

7 Ontdekken (to discover) 8 Ontwikkelen (to develop) 9 Beloven (to promise) 10 Herkennen (to recognise) 11 Nieuwsgierig heid (curiosity) 12 Geloof (faith) 13 Ontspannen (to relax) 14 Voordeel (advantage) the target word. Reizen Hyponym Reizen (to travel) was best associated by 26% of the NNSD and by 9% of the NSD. Ontdekken + reizen could be synonyms because one discovers new lands by travelling. On the other hand, they could be a collocation because ontdekken + reizen refer to ontdekkingsreizen (to explore). Another high association was vinden (to find; 15%), but this was also mentioned by 13% of the NSD. The NSD mention zien (to see), which is the effect of ontdekken. Uitwerken Hyponym Uitwerken (to produce) was mentioned by 7% of the NNSD and was not mentioned by the NSD. This association created the biggest difference between the associations of the two groups. Uitwerken seems to show that NNSD were looking for a synonym of ontwikkelen. Another high association was groeien (to grow) by 15% of the NNSD, but it was also mentioned by 18% of the NSD. Toezeggen Synonym Toezeggen (to promise/vow) was mentioned by 22% of the NNSD and only be 2% of the NSD. No other outstanding associations found for this target word. The Dutch prime trouw (faithful) is an example of something one can promise. Gezicht Collocation Gezicht (face) was most suitable here because it was mentioned by 15% of the NNSD and by only 2% of the NSD. To recognise a face and een gezicht herkennen are collocations in both languages. Zien (to see) was another high association (11%), but it was also mentioned by 48% of the NSD. Kat Collocation Kat (cat) was the best English association here because it was mentioned by 4% of the NSE and by none of the NSD. It is a typical English association, because it refers to the proverb: Curiosity killed the cat. It is another association based on a collocation. This proverb does not exist in Dutch. Benieuwd was also associated by 19%, but also by 10% of the NSD. Overtuiging Collocation Overtuiging (conviction) was mentioned by 7% of the NNSD and not mentioned by the NSD. Geloof + overtuiging are a collocation in Dutch = geloofsovertuiging. This seems to confirm that the NNSD tempt to associate often with collocations. All other significant associations were also mentioned by the NSD. Kalm Hyponym Kalm (quiet) was mentioned by 4% of the NNSD and not by the NSD. It refers to the state of being relaxed. Another high association was relaxen (to relax; 30%) but was also mentioned by 14% of the NSD. Baat synonym Baat (benefit) was mentioned by 11% of the NNSD and was not mentioned by the NSD. It is a clear synonym of 98

15 Wraak (revenge) voordeel. It suggests that NNSD mention associations of a strong relation with target word. Nadeel (disadvantage) was associated most by the NNSD (15%) but was also associated by 27% of the NSD. Schip Collocation Schip (ship) was mentioned by 4% of the NNSD and by none of the NSD. It was the best option here because it is an English collocation and not a Dutch one. Haat (hate) was also mentioned by 11% of the NNSD, but also by 13% of the NSD and therefore likely to prime both groups. The Dutch mention eer (honour) which is also a collocation in Dutch: eerwraak (revenge the honour). 16 Bestaan (to exist) 17 Bevatten (to contain) 18 Vrijheid (freedom) Recht Collocation Recht (right) was mentioned by only 4% of the NNSD, but not by the NSD. However, it was set as the English prime because it is close to a collocation. Bestaan+recht = bestaansrecht in Dutch. Additionally, bestaan is a recht (right) and one has the right to exist as well. The Dutch association is God, which can be seen as an example of the reason for the existence of human beings or it question the existence of God himself. Other high associations for both groups were leven (to live) and zijn (to be). Ton Hyponym Ton (barrel) was mentioned by 4% of the NNSD and not by the NSD. This is a very typical English association because the word bevatten (to contain) has one meaning in English but two meanings in Dutch. The NNSD show that the word to contain only refers to the content of something while the Dutch word bevatten could also mean to comprehend. This is why the Dutch association is begrijpen (to understand) in order to prime more NSD for this prime. Beeld Collocation Beeld (statue) was associated by 4% of the NNSD and by none of the NSD. It seemed to be the best option because statue was mentioned by 15% of the NSE in the EA Thesaurus and it is a typical collocation in English. 19 Veranderen (to change) Wijzigen Synonym Wijzigen (to alter) was mentioned by 19% of the NNSD and not by the NSD. To alter was the highest association for the NSE in the EAT (10%). The NNSD chose an association that has a close relation to the target word. The Dutch prime, anders, is a result of veranderen. 20 Lafheid (cowardice) Moed Antonym Moed (courage) was the highest association mentioned by 19% of the NNSD and by only 2% of the NSD. Also associated with 11% was slap (dull/flat), but this was also mentioned by 9% of the NSD and therefore not suitable. The NNSD tend to translation the target words and present an association that is closely connected to the target word in their L1. This prime (moed) is one of the examples. 21 Toegeven (to Opbiechten Synonym Toegeven and opbiechten have similar meanings. 99

admit) 22 Onderscheid en (to distinguish) 23 Leren (to learn) 24 Toestaan (to permit) 25 Genieten (to enjoy) 26 Bewijzen (to prove) 27 Moed (courage) Opbiechten (to confess) was mentioned by 7% of the NNSD and not by the NSD. To confess was the highest NSE associations with 9%. Categoriseren Hyponym Categoriseren (to sort) was mentioned by 4%, it was not mentioned by the NSD. To sort was also mentioned by the NSE in the EAT and therefore seemed to be a typical English association. Onderscheid and categoriseren have a similar meaning or refer to dividing things by means of different aspects. Other associations of the NNSD were als mentioned by the NSD, e.g. verschil (difference) and lintje Lesgeven Antonym Lesgeven (to teach) was mentioned by 11% and not mentioned by the NSD. School was the highest association (30%) but was also mentioned by 8% of the NSD. Additionally, to teach was mentioned by 27% of the NSE for English words in the EAT and therefore a particular native English association. Leren and lesgeven are antonyms, but they also complement each other in a certain way because learning could be done while you are being taught and teaching is making somebody else learn something. Synonym Permitteren (to permit) was mentioned by 29% of NNSD Permitteren and not mentioned by the NSD. Other high associations mentioned by both groups were toelaten (to allow) and accepteren (to accept). Additionally, to allow was also mentioned by 47% of NSE in the EAT. Plezier Hyponym Plezier (pleasure) was mentioned by 32% of the NNSD and only 4% of the NSD and this association created the biggest difference among the groups. Another high association was lol (fun; 11%) but was also mentioned by 2% of the NSD. X X This word was left out of the experiment because the associations of both groups were too similar in order to distinguish between the two groups. Oorlog Hyponym Oorlog (war) was mentioned by 4% of the NNSD and was not mentioned by the NSD. It is an association that exemplifies the target word. Another high association was dapper/dapperheid (brave/bravery) which was mentioned by 22% of the NNSD, but also by 24% of the NSD and therefore not suitable. 28 Plicht (duty) Dienst Collocation Dienst (duty) was mentioned by 4% of the NNSD and not by the NSD. This typical Dutch collocation supports the belief that the English associate more with collocations that the NSD. Dienstplicht in Dutch stands for military service 29 Eigendom (property) Huis Hyponym Huis (house) was mentioned by 19% of the NNSD and not by the NSD. House was also associated by 10% of the NSE in the EAT to this target word, which suggests that it is a typical English association of eigendom. Bezit 100

30 Twijfel (doubt) (possession) was mentioned by 22% of the NNSD, but also by 46% of the NSD and therefore NSD were likely to respond faster to bezit. Voordeel Collocation Voordeel (advantage) is mentioned by 8% of the NNSD and by none of the NSD. Onzeker (unsure) was the word with the most associations (19%) but was this was also mentioned by 9% of the NSD and therefore not used. The NSD could react fast to voordeel as well, but it is striking that they had not mentioned it. This suggests that the 31 Ontmoeten (to meet) Kennis maken Synonym 32 Wijsheid (wisdom) 33 Toepassen (to apply) 34 Denken (to think) 35 Beslissen (to decide) Intelligentie Hyponym NNSD are more likely to associate with collocations. Kennis maken (to meet) was mentioned by 14% of the NNSD and by only 2% of the NSD. Tegenkomen (to encounter) was also mentioned by 14% of the NNSD, but associated by 9% of the NSD. Intelligentie (intelligence) was mentioned by 7% of the NNSD and not by the NSD. The highest association was kennis (knowledge; 19%), but was mentioned by 16% of the NSD. Adapteren Hyponym Adapteren (to adapt) was mentioned by 4% of the NNSD and not by the NSD. It is a literal translation and not a word that most NSD would mention. The highest NNSD association was gebruiken, (44%), but this was also mentioned by 9% of the NSD. Peinzen Hyponym Peizen (to ponder) was mentioned by 7% of the NNSD and was not mentioned by the NSD. It s close to being a synonym of denken. The highest associations by NNSD, hersens (brains; 15%) and doen (to do; 11%) were also mentioned by the NSD (24% and 19%). Uitvoeren Hyponym (to decide -> to act) Uitvoeren was mentioned by 4% of the NNSD and not mentioned by the NSD. Another high association was kiezen (to choose; 22%) and also mentioned by the NSD (5%). Beslissen and uitvoeren are linked because uitvoeren is the action that follows after beslissen, even though to decide and act is not a real collocation in English, they are often mentioned together. Therefore, NNSD are likely to respond faster to this combination. 36 Emotie (emotion) Liefde Hyponym Liefde was mentioned by 22% of the NNSD and by 2% of the NSD. The highest association mentioned by the NNSD was gevoel (feeling; 48%) but this was also mentioned by 35% of the NSD and therefore not used. 36. Liefde is mentioned by NNSD as an example of emotie (emotion). NSD are likely to respond to, but it is not a typical association by NSD. 37 Onderwijs (education) Educatie Synonym Educatie was mentioned by 11% of the NNSD and was not mentioned by the NSD. Two other high associations were school (22%) and leren (learn; 19%) but they were also mentioned by the NSD (30% and 32% respectively). 101

38 Voorbereide n (to prepare) 39 Geheugen (memory) 40 Gemak (ease) 41 Voorkomen (to prevent) 42 Eeuw (century) 43 Ambitie (ambition) Klaarmaken Hyponym (prepare dinner) This association was translated literally from education. The Dutch would probably react to this as well, but are not likely to respond equally fast. Klaarmaken (to prepare) was mentioned by 22% of the NNSD and by 4% of the NSD. Other associations were mentioned by only 2 or less of the NNSD. In English voorbereiden is to prepare, which is a collocation with to prepare dinner. It seems like the NNSD translated it to English and translated again their English association into Dutch: klaarmaken, because in Dutch, the same collocation would be eten klaarmaken. Gedachten Hyponym Gedachten (thoughts 11%) was mentioned by the NNSD and not by the NSD. Herinneren (to remember) was mentioned by 19% of the NNSD, but also by 4% of the NSD. Comfortabel Hyponym Comfortabel was mentioned by 11% of the NNSD but not by the NSD. It was also mentioned by 7% of NSE. The highest association was makkelijk (easy; 19%) but could not be used because it was also mentioned by 19% of the NSD. Gebeuren Hyponym Gebeuren (to happen) was mentioned by 11% of the NNSD and was not mentioned by the NSD. The two highest associations were preventie (prevention; 15%) and genezen (to heal; 20%) but they were also mentioned by the NSD (15% and 20% respectively. Voorkomen (to prevent) and gebeuren (to happen) is a collocation in English (to prevent something from happening). The Dutch version, voorkomen dat iets gebeurd, is not as strong as the English collocation because in Dutch genezen (to heal) is more common ( voorkomen is beter dan genezen ). Gouden Collocation Gouden (golden) was mentioned by 19% of the NNSD and only by 2% of the NSD. Tijd (time) is another high association mentioned by 11% of the NNSD, but also by 11% of the NSD and would most likely prime both groups. Even though gouden eeuw (golden age) is a collocation in both languages, it was selected as the English prime because so few NSD associated eeuw with gouden. Verlangen Hyponym Verlangen (to long) was associated by 4% of the NNSD and not mentioned by the NSD. This association was the strongest discrepancy between the two groups. The highest association was carrière (career; 22%), but this was also mentioned by 20% of the NSD. 44 Geluk (luck) Blij Hyponym Blij (happy) was associated by 11% of the NNSD, and by 14% of the NSD. This turned out to be a mistake in the selection process, because both groups will react rather fast to this English prime. No other outstanding associations are found 102

45 Verschillen (to differ) 46 Overwegen (to consider) 47 Armoede (poverty) 48 Redden (to save) 49 Verwachten (to expect) 50 Kiezen (to elect) 51 Opmerken (to notice) 52 Schoonheid (beauty) 53 Voorstellen (to propose) 54 Voelen (to feel) Afwijken Synonym Afwijken was mentioned by 7% of the NNSD, and by 2% of the NDS. The most mentioned association was anders (different; 26%) but this was also mentioned by 29% of the NSD. Estimeren Hyponym Peinzen (to ponder) was mentioned by 7% of the NNSD and not by the NSD. Estimeren (to estimate) was mentioned by 4% of the NNSD and not by the NSD. Other high associations were nadenken and denken (to think; 44% and 15%) but they were also mentioned by 19% and 17% of the NSD Gebrek Hyponym Gebrek (lack) was mentioned by 15% of the NNSD and by 2% of the NSD. Another high association was rijkdom (wealth; 15%), but it was also mentioned by 9% of the NSD. Sparen Synonym Sparen (to save money) was mentioned by 7% of the NNSD and not by the NSD. Another high association was helpen (to help; 19%), but this was also mentioned by 7% of the NSD. Additionally, money was mentioned by 20% of the NSE in the EAT, which determines it to be a good English association. To save somebody and to save money are both possible in English while using the same verb. In Dutch there are two different verbs that express the difference between both phrases namely redden and sparen. The NNSD responded to this target word by first translating redden to English and afterwards referring to sparen which has no equivalent meaning with redden. Anticiperen Synonym Anticiperen was mentioned by 11% of the NNSD and not by the NSD. The highest association was hopen (to hope; 19%) but was also mentioned by 9% of the NSD. Stemmen Hyponym Stemmen (to vote) was mentioned 7% of the NNSD and by 5% of the NSD. The highest association was beslissen (to decide; 22%), also by 5% of the NSD. Observeren Hyponym Observeren was mentioned by 4% of the NNSD and not by the NSD. The highest association was zeggen (to say; 44%) but it was also mentioned by 7% of the NSD. Ideaal Collocation Ideaal (ideal) was mentioned by 4% of the NNSD and was not mentioned by the NSD. The highest association was mooi (beautiful; 37%), but it was also mentioned by 5% of the NSD. Suggestie Hyponym Suggestie (suggestion) was mentioned by 4% of the NNSD and was not mentioned by the NSD. Other high associations were introduceren (to introduce; 26%) and bedenken (to think of/invent; 15%) but they were both also mentioned by 4% of the NSD. Emoties Hyponym This prime seems to be a flaw in the association selection. Emotie/s was also mentioned by 19% of the NSD of Dutch and therefore not a typical English prime because both subject groups are likely to respond equally fast to this prime. This prime is one of the flaws that the chapter 4 deals with. 103

55 Gerechtighei d (justice) 56 Kans (opportunity) 57 Goedheid (goodness) 58 Dienen (serve) 59 Begrijpen (to understand) 60 Verliezen (to lose) 61 Noemen (to mention) 62 Onthouden (to remember) 63 Waarheid (truth) 64 Vertrouwen (confidence) X X This word was left out of the experiment due to rather similar associations for both groups, e.g. the highest associations for both groups were recht (right), justitie (justitia) and eerlijk(heid) (honesty). Other associations were only mentioned by one or two of the NNSD. Gelegenheid Hyponym Gelegenheid (opportunity) was mentioned by 11% of the NNSD and was not mentioned by the NSD. The highest association mogelijkheid (possibility; 33%) was also mentioned by 23% of the NSD. Puur Hyponym Puur (pure) was mentioned by 7% of the NNSD and was not mentioned by the NSD. Another association was aardig (kind; 7%) which was also mentioned by 5% of the NSD. Serveren Cognate Serveren (to serve) was mentioned by 11% of the NNSD and was not mentioned by the NSD. The highest association was moeten (to have to; 11%) and was also not mentioned by the NSD. It turns out that the latter could have been the better option. Verstaan Hyponym Verstaan was mentioned by 33% of the NNSd and was only mentioned by 4% of the NSD. Another high associations was snappen (to comprehend; 15%) which was also mentioned by 31% of the NSD. Vinden Hyponym Vinden (to find) was mentioned by 4% of the NNSD and was not mentioned by the NSD. Another high association was kwijt (lost; 22%) which was also mentioned by 4% of the NSD. Aanwijzen Hyponym Aanwijzen (to indicate) was mentioned by 11% of the NNSD and was not mentioned by the NSD. The highest association was naam (name; 32%) which was also mentioned by 49% of the NSD Herinneren Cognate Herinneren (to remember) was mentioned by 33% of the NNSD and was not mentioned by the NSD. Another high association was geheugen (memory; 15%) but this was also mentioned by 24% of the NSD Leugen Hyponym Leugen (to lie) was mentioned by 19% of the NNSD and was mentioned by 10% of the NSD. Other associations were not outstanding and mentioned by both groups. Oplichten Hyponym Oplichten (to swindle) was mentioned by 4% of the NNSD and not by NSD. Although 4% is little, however it was chosen as the English prime word because it was not mentioned by NSD at all and it is therefore more likely to prime the NNSD and not the NSD. 65 Lachen (to laugh) Giechelen Hyponym Giechelen (to giggle) was mentioned by 12% of the NNSD and not by the NSD. Another high association was glimlach(en) (to smile; 30%), which was not mentioned by the NSD, but the NSD were assumed to respond to this prime as fast as the NNSd. The NNSD are therefore likely to react faster to this English prime giechelen that the NSD. 66 Toekomst Verleden Antonym Verleden (the past) was mentioned by 22% of the NNSD 104

(future) and was mentioned by 8% of the NSD. Additionally, 42% of the NSE mentioned past. Past and future are very strong associations in English. It seems to be a more common collocation in English than the Dutch equivalents verleden and toekomst. Therefore, NNSD are likely to react faster to this collocation than NSD. 67 Eenzaamheid (loneliness) 68 Storen (to disturb) 69 Weigeren (to refuse) 70 Verlaten (to abandon) 71 Weten (to know) Rust Hyponym Rust (quietness) was mentioned by 4% of the NNSD and by none of the NSD. The highest asscociation was alleen (alone; 59%) but this was also mentioned by 51% of the NSD. Eenzaamheid has a rather negative association in Dutch, but in English, the equivalent solitude does not. In English, it could be associated with rust, which is Dutch for quietness. It is therefore likely that NNSD will react faster to rust that NSD Onderbreken Hyponym Onderbreken was mentioned by 11% of the NNSD, while it was only mentioned by 2% of the NSD. Disturb (storen) and onderbreken (interrupt) are semantically more similar than in Dutch. Toezeggen X Not used in the RT experiment because the subjects associated similarly and variously so that no suitable primes could be detected. Vertrekken Hyponym Vertrekken was mentioned by 7% of the NNSD and by none of the NSD. To leave was also mentioned by 40% of the NSE, which confirms that it is an English association and that NNSD are likely to react faster to this prime. The English association with abandon often involves a personal relation; you abandon somebody (an abandoned child). In Dutch, it is more likely to refer an empty place/space (een verlaten strand). Another high association was alleen (alone; 19%) but this was also mentioned by 22% of the Dutch. Informatie Hyponym/ collocation Informatie (information) was mentioned by 4% of the NNSD but by none of the NSD. Another high association was kennis (knowledge; 37%) but this was mentioned by 36% of the NSD as well.to know information is a possible English collocation, however, the Dutch equivalent informatie weten is not possible. Therefore information is a good English association for the Dutch verb weten to determine whether NNSD would respond faster to this prime than NSD would. 72 Carrière (career) Loopbaan Hyponym Loopbaan was mentioned by 14% of the NNSD, whilst it was mentioned by only one (2%) of the NSD. One of the NNSD mentioned levensloop (course of life), which confirms that the NNSD associate carrière with a lifelong period of working or the accumulation of all gained experiences throughout life. The NSD associate it mostly with baan (job), ambitie (ambition) and werk (work), because to them a carriere is something for which you need to have ambition and put a lot of effort in. 73 Onderzoek Studie Hyponym 38% of the NNSD mentioned studie (study). Only 2% of 105

(to research) NSD mentioned it. The Dutch words onderzoek and studie are not as similar in meaning as research and study are in English In English research and study are synonyms. In Dutch, onderzoek is a term that is a broader term that can involve any kind of research; any type of research that would be referred to with words as investigation in English. The NNSD are therefore more likely to be primed faster to studie than NSD. 74 Taak (task) Werk Hyponym In English, task is a broader term than the Dutch taak. Therefore, it is more likely that the NNSD would associate faster with werk (work) as they did with 23% than the NSD would (9%). Their work is their task, whilst in Dutch a task is more often associated with a part of the 75 Vergeten (to forget) job, a particular (personal) assignment. Verloren Hyponym Verloren (to lose) is mentioned by 11% of the participants and not by the Dutch. 18% of both the NNSD and the NSD associated vergeten with onthouden (to remember), which would prime both groups. 11% of the NNSD associated with verloren (lost). 106

Appendix IV Motivation for the NL primes Target words NL Prime Motivation for the choice of NL Primes 1 Kracht Sterk Mentioned by 60% of NSD, however, also by 41% NNSD. This turns out to be a mistake in the word selection process 2 Waarnemen Zien 80% NSD, 27% NNSD 3 Verdriet Pijn 11% NSD, x NNSD 4 Toevoegen aanvullen 12% NSD x NNSD 5 Invloed Ouders 7% NSD x NNSD 6 Lelijkheid Vies 15% NSD 4% NNSD 7 Ontdekken Zien 17% NSD 4% NNSD 8 Ontwikkelen Maken 14% NSD 4% NNSD 9 Beloven trouw 11% NSD 4% NNSD 10 Herkennen mensen 5% NSD x NNSD 11 Nieuwsgierigheid Kind 5% NSD x NNSD 12 Geloof God 36% NSD 11% NNSD 13 Ontspannen lezen 2% NSD x NNSD 14 Voordeel nadeel 27% NSD 15% NNSD 15 Wraak Eer 9% NSD 4% NNSD 16 Bestaan God 4% NSD x NNSD 17 Bevatten begrijpen 28% NSD x NNSD 18 Vrijheid blijheid 15% NSD x NNSD 19 Veranderen anders 28% NSD - and anders worden 4% NNSD 20 Lafheid zwak 19% NSD - 4% NNSD 21 Toegeven gelijk gelijk (hebben) 7% NSD - x NNSD 22 Onderscheiden anders 16% NSD x NNSD 23 Leren studeren 15% NSD 7% NNSD 24 Toestaan mogen 27% NSD 4% NNSD 25 Genieten Zon 14% NSD x NNSD 26 Bewijzen politie 7% NSD x NNSD (left out of RT experiment because both groups were likely to respond fast to the prime.) 27 Moed kracht 20% NSD 4% NNSD 28 Plicht Taak 9% NSD 4% NNSD 29 Eigendom bezit 44% NSD -22% NNSD 30 Twijfel moeilijk 7% NSD x NNSD 31 Ontmoeten mensen 7% NSD 4% NNSD 32 Wijsheid Slim 32% NSD 7% NNSD 33 Toepassen doen 33% NSD - x NNSD 34 Denken hoofd 12% NSD - 4% NNSD 35 Beslissen keuze 23% NSD keus + keuze 11% NNSD 36 Emotie verdriet 10% NSD x NNSD 37 Onderwijs leren 32% NSD 18% NNSD 107

38 Voorbereiden school 26% NSD - x NNSD 39 Geheugen onthouden 11% NSD 4% NNSD 40 Gemak Lui NSD - 4% NNSD 41 Voorkomen Genezen 20% NSD 11% NNSD 42 Eeuw Lang 23% NSD - 7% NNSD 43 Ambitie Carrière 20% NSD 25% NNSD (even though carrière was mentioned by more NNSD, it was chosen as the NL prime because it is a typical NL association. 44 Geluk klavertjevier 14% NSD - 4% NNSD 45 Verschillen onderscheid 7% NSD 11% onderscheiden + onderscheidingen NNSD (flaw in the word selection) 46 Overwegen Twijfel 12% NSD- x NNSD 47 Armoede Geld 20% NSD - 48 Redden Leven 9% NSD x NNSD 49 Verwachten Denken 9% NSD - x NNSD 50 Kiezen Keuze 36% NSD 4% NNSD 51 Opmerken Zien 45 % NSD 4% by NNSD 52 Schoonheid Mooi 51% NSD - 36% NNSD 53 Voorstellen indenken 7% NSD x NNSD 54 Voelen Pijn 11% NSD x NNSD 55 Gerechtigheid Left out of RT experiment 56 Kans Procent 7% NSD x NNSD 57 Goedheid sinterklaas 9% NSD x NNSD 58 Dienen Slaaf 16 % NSD - xnnsd 59 Begrijpen verstand 7% NSD x NNSD 60 Verliezen balen 7% NSD x NNSD 61 Noemen naam 49% NSD 34% NNSD 62 Onthouden weten 13% NSD 4% NNSD 63 Waarheid eerlijk 24% eerlijk + eerlijkheid NSD 15% eerlijk + eerlijkheid NNSD 64 Vertrouwen liefde 9% NSD 4% NNSD 65 Lachen Blij 17% NSD 7% NNSD 66 Toekomst perspectief 6% NSD x NNSD 67 Eenzaamheid alleen 51% NSD 57% NNSD (only mentioned by 10% of NSE) 68 Storen irritant 11% NSD - 4% NNSD 69 Weigeren Left out of RT experiment 70 Verlaten alleen 22% NSD - 21% NNSD flaw in word selection because both groups will react fast to this prime. 71 Weten leren 11% NSD - x NNSD 72 Carrière ambitie 13% NSD - NNSD 73 Onderzoek kennis 7% NSD - NNSD 74 Taak Straf 11% NSD - x NNSD 75 Vergeten Stom 4% NSD - x NNSD 108

Appendix IV The following Excel file contains all the results of the two WA tasks, one by NNSD and one by NSD. The column on the left side contains all 75 target words and the associations by NNSD. The column on the right side contains all associations by NSE acquired from the online Edinburgh National Thesaurus. Starting from page 129, the results of the WA tasks by NSD are presented. These results are divided over both columns. The results display the target word in the most left column, the associations mentioned in the next column, the absolute number or times the association was mentioned and the procentual number, as a percentage of the total amount of WA tasks filled out by the subjects. WA Tasks by learners of Dutch Edinburgh Associative Thesaurus target word associations by NNSD abs. % target word associations NSE abs. % 1 Kracht macht 8 30% 1 Strength weakness 17 17% sterkte 8 30% muscle 9 9% sterk 3 11% weak 9 9% spier 2 7% force 4 4% spieren 2 7% arm 2 2% spel 1 4% god 2 2% meting 1 4% guinness 2 2% strom (stroom) 1 4% muscles 2 2% puur 1 4% power 2 2% fysiek 1 4% samson 2 2% 28 strong 2 2% white 2 2% 98 2 waarnemen zien 8 27% 2 perceive see 42 42% observeren 6 20% notice 6 6% kijken 2 7% look 3 3% geloven 2 7% think 3 3% observatie 1 4% understand 3 3% politie 1 3% experience 2 2% perceptie 1 3% eyes 2 2%? 1 3% follow 2 2% noemen 1 3% future 2 2% identificeren 1 3% know 2 2% ontdekken 1 3% perception 2 2% verantwoordelijkheid 1 3% 96 mee maken 1 3% aanwezig zijn 1 3% ontdekkken 1 3% ogen 1 3% 30 3 verdriet triest 7 24% 3 grief sorrow 29 29% huilen 6 21% death 10 10% droevigheid 2 7% tears 6 6% 109

triestheid 2 7% pain 5 5% tranen 2 7% sad 4 4% treurigheid 1 3% stricken 4 4% treurig 1 4% anguish 3 3% depressie 1 4% good 3 3% melancholie 1 4% anxiety 2 2% onblij 1 4% glory 2 2% verlies 1 4% joy 2 2% triste 1 4% sadness 2 2% traan 1 4% tragedy 2 2% droevig 1 3% 99 voelen 1 4% 29 4 toevoegen plus 4 14% 4 add subtract 45 45% erbij doen 3 11% up 12 12% bijvoegen 2 7% maths 4 4%? 2 7% together 4 4% erbij 2 7% plus 3 3% meer 2 7% sum 3 3% aan 1 4% machine 2 2% samenvoegen 1 4% number 2 2% bijtellen 1 4% one 2 2% bij doen 1 4% something 2 2% zout 1 4% sums 2 2% bijgeven 1 4% total 2 2% mee doen 1 4% 99 plakken 1 4% waarde 1 4% aanvullen 1 4% recept 1 4% samen 1 4% tekst 1 4% 28 5 invloed macht 7 25% 5 influence NOT IN EAT other effect 6 21% NSE associations: uitoefenen 2 7% power 1 hebben 1 4% persuade 1 sterk 1 4% negatief 1 4% kracht 1 4% veranderen 1 4% influentie 1 4% sfeer 1 4% voorbeeld 1 4% op 1 4% beinvloed 1 4% onmacht 1 4% rijkdom 1 4% beslissen 1 4% 28 6 lelijkheid schoonheid 6 21% 6 ugliness beauty 28 29% mooi 4 14% fat 3 3% uiterlijk 3 11% horrible 3 3% 110

gezicht 2 7% prettiness 3 3% spuug 1 4% sin 3 3% vertonen 1 4% dirt 2 2% niet aantrekkelijk 1 4% duck 2 2% bah 1 4% face 2 2% onaangenaam 1 4% pity 2 2% architectuur 1 4% pretty 2 2% naar 1 4% 95 afschuw 1 4% niet mooi 1 4% vooroordelen 1 4% vies 1 4% eendje 1 4% dik 1 4% 28 7 ontdekken reizen 8 29% 7 discover find 40 40% vinden 4 14% america 5 5% uitvinden 3 11% columbus 4 4% ondernemen 1 4% explore 2 2% schippen 1 4% island 2 2% waarnemen 1 4% something 2 2% spannend 1 4% treasure 2 2% ontdekkingsreiziger 1 4% 100 zien 1 4% weten 1 4% uitspitten 1 4% zie 1 4% kleuters 1 4% achterkomen 1 4% leren 1 4% merken 1 4% 28 8 ontwikkelen groeien 4 14% 8 develop grow 12 12% leren 2 7% film 9 9% ontplooien 2 7% print 6 6% uitwerken 2 7% bust 5 5% werven 1 4% make 3 3% tijd 1 4% mature 3 3% verbeteren 1 4% muscle 3 3% creeeren 1 4% muscles 3 3% uitbreiden 1 4% photograph 3 3% film 1 4% breasts 2 2% vormgeven 1 4% increase 2 2% ontwerpen 1 4% photos 2 2% markt 1 4% power 2 2% uitvinden 1 4% 97 maken 1 4% vorderen 1 4% vormen 1 4% opbouwen 1 4% uitvinding 1 4% fotografie 1 4% meer 1 4% progressie 1 4% 111

28 9 beloven toezeggen 6 21% 9 promise break 7 7% zeggen 2 7% keep 6 6% eerlijk 2 7% me 5 5% zweren 2 7% lie 4 4% te (..iets) 1 4% swear 4 4% zien 1 4% to 4 4% verheugen 1 4% beg 3 3% huwelijk 1 4% broken 3 3% garanderen 1 4% oath 3 3% eer 1 4% true 3 3% houden 1 4% truth 3 3% cadeau 1 4% vow 3 3% weigeren 1 4% faithful 2 2% vertrouwen 1 4% forget 2 2% nakomen 1 4% give 2 2% verbinden 1 4% marriage 2 2% ede 1 4% never 2 2% doen 1 4% 97 trouw 1 4% karakter 1 4% 28 10. herkennen gezicht 5 18% 10 recognize see 30 31% zien 3 11% know 23 24% onderkennen 2 7% friend 9 9% kennen 2 7% realise 3 3% erkennen 2 7% hallo 2 2% identificeren 2 7% meet 2 2% herinneren 1 4% someone 2 2% dood 1 4% 96 bekend 1 4% bekend voorkomen 1 4% bekende 1 4%? 1 4% weten 1 4% ah ha! 1 4% nostalgie 1 4% herzien 1 4% vroeger 1 4% 28 11 nieuwsgierig benieuwd 5 18% 11 curiosity NOT IN EAT heid other NSE interesse 2 7% associations leergierigheid 2 7% wonder 1 aap 2 7% cat 1 geinteresseerd 1 4% graven 1 4% willen weten 1 4% openheid 1 4% curieus 1 4% belangstelling 1 4% curiositeit 1 4% vragen 1 4% 112

rondnozen 1 4% curiosity 1 4% neus 1 4% kat 1 4% krant 1 4% benieuwdheid 1 4% leren 1 4% aapje 1 4% roddel 1 4% 28 12 geloof religie 12 43% 12 faith hope 27 27% kerk 3 11% religion 12 12% godsdienst 2 7% god 10 10% overtuiging 2 7% belief 9 9% waarden 1 4% charity 7 7% gevoel 1 4% church 4 4% joods 1 4% healer 3 3% atheisme 1 4% full 4 4% god 3 11% healing 3 3% trouw 1 4% trust 2 2% christelijk 1 4% 99 28 13 ontspannen relaxen 8 29% 13 relax sleep 17 18% relaxed 2 7% rest 8 8% loslaten 2 7% chair 7 7% strand 1 4% bed 5 5% kalm 1 4% easy 4 4% gevoel 1 4% lie 4 4% inspannen 1 4% comfort 3 3% meditatie 1 4% calm 2 2% uitgerust 1 4% ease 2 2% lekker 1 4% sit 2 2% vrije tijd 1 4% 96 chillen 1 4% relax 1 4% vrij 1 4% sporten 1 4% niks 1 4% relaxt 1 4% rugmassage 1 4% muziek 1 4% 28 14 voordeel nadeel 4 14% 14 advantage NOT IN EAT other baat 3 11% NSE associations goedkoop 2 7% benefit 1 benefiet 2 7% lead 1 beter 2 7% avantage 1 4% profijt 1 4% ondervinden 1 4% meegenomen 1 4% pluspunt 1 4% uitverkoop 1 4% 113

aanbieding 1 4% bonus 1 4% bon 1 4% Cruiff 1 4% meevaller 1 4% uitkoop 1 4% sparen 1 4% besparen 1 4% vooroordeel 1 4% 28 15 wraak haat 3 11% 15 revenge hate 9 10% boosheid 2 7% sweet 9 10% revanche 2 7% ship 6 6% toorn 1 4% anger 4 4% gevoelens 1 4% tragedy 4 4% spijt 1 4% avenge 3 3% geweld 1 4% murder 3 3% bos 1 4% vendetta 3 3% eer 1 4% enemy 2 2% retributie 1 4% fight 2 2% voldoening 1 4% nasty 2 2% woede 1 4% stupid 2 2% kwaadheid 1 4% vengeance 2 2% oorlog 1 4% 94 gram 1 4% gemeen 1 4% wreed 1 4% boos 1 4% wrok 1 4% boot 1 4% schip 1 4% vijand 1 4% wraakneming 1 4% kwaad 1 4% 28 16 bestaan leven 13 46% 16 exist live 31 33% zijn 8 29% be 8 8% recht 1 4% life 5 5% er is 1 4% survive 3 3% existeren 1 4% alone 2 2% wezen 1 4% are 2 2% ben 1 4% die 2 2% aanwezig 1 4% exit 2 2% vroeger 1 4% there 2 2% 28 95 17 bevatten begrijpen 6 21% 17 contain hold 24 24% inhouden 5 18% box 7 7% binnen 1 4% tin 5 5% omvatten 1 4% container 4 4% opsommen 1 4% water 3 3% inhoud 1 4% carry 2 2% snappen 1 4% full 2 2% erin 1 4% glass 2 2% helemaal niet 1 4% has 2 2% 114

zien 1 4% keep 2 2% inbegrepen 1 4% oneself 2 2% kennen 1 4% 98 ton 1 4% beseffen 1 4%? 1 4% doos 1 4% hebben 1 4% begip 1 4% inclusief 1 4% 28 18 vrijheid blijheid 7 25% 18 liberty freedom 46 47% leven 2 7% statue 15 15% vrij 1 4% free 9 9% keuzes 1 4% equality 3 3% uiting 1 4% bell 2 2% gelukkig 1 4% bodice 2 2% onvankelijkheid 1 4% justice 2 2% heerlijk 1 4% peace 2 2% zelf beslissen 1 4% valence 2 2% genieten 1 4% 97 meningsuiting 1 4% beeld 1 4% west 1 4% slavernij 1 4% Frankrijk 1 4% bevrijden 1 4% onafhankelijkheid 1 4% democratie 1 4% strijden 1 4% statue of liberty 1 4% onvrijheid 1 4% 28 19 veranderen wijzigen 5 18% 19 change money 19 20% nieuw 2 7% alter 10 10% wisselen 2 7% clothes 6 6% veranderlijk 2 7% different 4 4% anders worden 1 4% over 4 4% blijven 1 4% better 2 2% leven 1 4% cash 2 2% aanpassen 1 4% dress 2 2% metamorphose 1 4% partners 2 2% leren 1 4% rest 2 2% transformeren 1 4% weather 2 2% omzetten 1 4% 97 stilstaan 1 4% ontplooien 1 4% vastzitten 1 4% omschakelen 1 4% omgooien 1 4% wijzig 1 4% aanpassen 1 4% evolueren 1 4% omdraaien 1 4% 115

28 20 lafheid moed 5 18% 20 cowardice NOT IN EAT other slap 3 11% NSE associations niet dapper 2 7% run 1 lafaard 2 7% scared 1 durf 1 4% bang 1 4% zwak 1 4% NSB 1 4% watje 1 4% verachtelijkheid 1 4% zot 1 4% lef 1 4% vrees 1 4% klein 1 4% leeuw 1 4% laffard 1 4% lui 1 4% min 1 4% weglopen 1 4% 28 21 toegeven verontschuldigen 2 7% 21 admit confess 9 9% opbiechten 2 7% defeat 6 6% bekennen 2 7% allow 5 5% ok 2 7% to 5 5% akkoord gaan 1 4% deny 4 4% ja 1 4% say 4 4% inwilligen 1 4% enter 3 3% overstag 1 4% guilt 3 3% moed 1 4% one 3 3% geven 1 4% own 3 3% verzwijgen 1 4% yes 3 3% mag 1 4% concede 2 2% accepteren 1 4% fault 2 2% er bij 1 4% truth 2 2% compromis 1 4% 97 aankondigen 1 4% opgeven 1 4% admitteren 1 4% zwakte 1 4% biecht 1 4% flexibel 1 4% toezeggen 1 4% fout 1 4% akkoord 1 4% 28 22 onder- verschil 8 29% 22 distinguish NOT IN EAT other NSE scheiden lintje 2 7% associations 116

delen 1 4% sort 1? 1 4% perceive 1 supporteeren 1 4% verschillen 1 4% verschil maken 1 4% categoriseren 1 4% prijzen 1 4% differentieren 1 4% divers 1 4% prijs 1 4% verschillend 1 4% discrimineren 1 4% anders 1 4% vereren 1 4% apart zetten 1 4% lint 1 5% 28 23 leren school 8 29% 23 learn teach 26 38% boek 3 11% read 6 9% lesgeven 3 11% book 4 6% lezen 2 7% forget 3 3% studeren 2 7% how 3 3% werken 2 7% knowledge 3 3% boeken 2 7% lesson 3 3% ontdekken 1 4% school 3 3% onderwijs 1 4% to 3 3% opleiden 1 4% understand 3 3% doceren 1 4% about 2 2% weten 1 4% educate 2 2% les 1 4% knowledge 2 2% groeien 1 4% live 2 2% 28 nothing 2 2% think 2 2% 24 toestaan permitteren 5 18% 24 permit allow 47 47% toelaten 4 14% fishing 5 5% accepteren 3 11% licence 5 5% toegeven 2 7% bus 3 3%? 1 4% let 3 3% ramp 1 4% pass 3 3% toestemming 1 4% visa 3 3% meegeven 1 4% frontier 2 2% verbieden 1 4% hermit 2 2% gedogen 1 4% holder 2 2% mag 1 4% travel 2 2% mogen 1 4% work 2 2% laten 1 4% 99 vergunning 1 4% geven 1 4% tolerantie 1 4% toleren 1 4% toestaan 1 4% 28 25 genieten plezier 9 31% 25 enjoy life 13 13% 117

lol 3 10% hate 7 7% leuk 2 7% love 7 7% vakantie 2 7% sex 7 7% plezier hebben 2 7% pleasure 6 6% liefde 1 3% like 5 5% biertje 1 4% yourself 5 5% lachen 1 4% amuse 4 4% gezellig 1 4% fun 4 4% lijden 1 4% it 4 4% mate 1 4% happy 3 3% plezierig 1 4% dislike 2 2% gelukkig 1 4% laugh 2 2% lachen 1 4% 98 vreugde 1 4% zich vermaken 1 4% 29 26 bewijzen laten zien 5 18% 26 prove disprove 8 8% aantonen 4 14% it 8 8% tonen 4 14% theory 5 5% demonstreren 1 4% nothing 3 3%? 1 4% proof 3 3% confirmeren 1 4% test 3 3% waarheid 1 4% conclude 2 2% slimmer 1 4% experiment 2 2% getuigen 1 4% fact 2 2% het beste zijn 1 4% guilty 2 2% aangeven 1 4% law 2 2% experiment 1 4% point 2 2% juridisch 1 4% proven 2 2% overtuigen 1 4% science 2 2% bewijs 1 4% something 2 2% bewijsstukken 1 4% to 2 2% papier 1 4% wrong 2 2% vinger 1 4% 97 28 27 moed lef 4 14% 27 courage NOT IN EAT dapper 3 10% other NSE associations dapperheid 3 11% fight 1 durf 2 7% bravery 1 leger 1 4% moedig 1 4% wrede 1 4% character 1 4% niet bang 1 4% sterk 1 4% deugd 1 4% bikkel 1 3% courage 1 4% held 1 4% fier 1 4% wilskracht 1 4% kracht 1 4% doorzetting 1 4% 118

wil 1 4% medaille 1 4% oorlog 1 4% 29 28 plicht verantwoordelijkheid 3 11% 28 duty bound 5 5% moet 3 11% free 5 5% moeten 3 11% responsibility 5 5% eer 2 7% customs 3 3% recht 2 7% must 3 3% eis 2 7% none 3 3% dienst 1 4% obligation 3 3% trouw 1 4% to 3 3% verzuim 1 4% deed 2 2% moeten doen 1 4% first 2 2% taak 1 4% job 2 2% rechten 1 4% need 2 2% inburgeren 1 4% obedience 2 2% normbesef 1 4% of 2 2% verantwoord 1 4% police 2 2% obligatie 1 4% soldier 2 2% opdracht 1 4% task 2 2% werk 1 4% tax 2 2% ethiek 1 4% 96 28 29 eigendom bezit 6 21% 29 property house 10 10% huis 5 18% land 7 7% mijn 3 11% mine 6 6% recht 2 7% lost 5 5% hebben 2 7% own 5 5% eigenaar 1 4% owner 4 4% propriete 1 4% ownership 3 3% mijne 1 4% capitalist 2 2% succes 1 4% development 2 2% macht 1 4% estate 2 2% prive 1 4% goods 2 2% land 1 4% government 2 2% goederen 1 4% home 2 2% van jezelf 1 4% houses 2 2% bezet 1 4% lawyer 2 2% 28 market 2 2% money 2 2% owners 2 2% theft 2 2% 99 30 twijfel onzeker 6 21% 30 doubt fear 7 7% aarzeling 4 14% worry 6 6% zekerheid 2 7% certainty 4 4% onzekerheid 2 7% disbelieve 3 3% keuzes 1 4% doubtful 3 3% misschien 1 4% it 3 3% dubio 1 4% not 3 3% ondervinden 1 4% thought 3 3% dubieus 1 4% uncertainty 3 3% voordeel 1 4% about 2 2% 119

verschrikkelijk 1 4% dubious 2 2% nadenken 1 4% full 2 2% doubt 1 4% hesitate 2 2% vraagteken 1 4% if 2 2% besluiteloos 1 4% less 2 2% aarzel 1 4% no 2 2% denk 1 4% none 2 2% voordeel van de 1 4% ponder 2 2% 28 question 2 2% sorrow 2 2% sure 2 2% think 2 2% 99 31 ontmoeten tegenkomen 4 14% 31 meet see 8 8% kennismaken 4 14% people 7 7% zien 3 11% encounter 4 4% treffen 2 7% hounds 4 4% leren kennen 2 7% girl 3 3% kennis 1 4% hunt 3 3% mensen 1 4% together 3 3% gezellig 1 4% arrange 2 2% introductie 1 4% at 2 2% hallo 1 4% friend 2 2% afspraak 1 4% greet 2 2% afspreken 1 4% him 2 2% kennen leren 1 4% me 2 2% begroet 1 4% part 2 2% vrienden 1 4% person 2 2% nieuw 1 4% there 2 2% vriend 1 4% up 2 2% hand geven 1 4% 98 28 32 wijsheid kennis 5 18% 32 wisdom tooth 13 13% ouderdom 2 7% wise 12 12% intelligentie 2 7% norman 8 8% slim 2 7% knowledge 7 7% oud 2 7% truth 6 6% studieren 1 4% teeth 5 5% vroom 1 4% sage 4 4% domheid 1 4% solomon 4 4% welbedacht 1 4% age 3 3% professor 1 4% brains 2 2% eeuwig 1 4% clever 2 2% slimheid 1 4% folly 2 2% wetenschap 1 4% intelligence 2 2% ouderen 1 4% old 2 2% rijp 1 4% sagacity 2 2% vader 1 4% socrates 2 2% dom 1 4% stupidity 2 2% ouwe Jaap 1 4% 98 leeftijd 1 4% verstand 1 4% 28 33 toepassen gebruiken 12 43% 33 apply job 12 13% 120

gebuik 2 7% use 8 8%? 2 7% within 6 6% theorie 1 4% do 4 4% horen bij 1 4% try 4 4% flexibiliteit 1 4% ask 3 3% implementeren 1 4% forms 3 3% inzetten 1 4% pressure 3 3% inbrengen 1 4% put 3 3% software 1 4% address 2 2% relevant 1 4% enter 2 2% passen 1 4% mathematics 2 2% aanpassen 1 4% paint 2 2% adapteren 1 4% science 2 2% regel 1 4% stick 2 2% 28 want 2 2% 96 34 denken hersens 4 14% 34 think thought 10 10% doen 3 11% brain 9 9% brein 3 11% mind 7 7% vinden 2 7% work 5 5% peinzen 2 7% hard 4 4% filosophie 1 4% act 2 2% weten 1 4% cogitate 2 2% geloven 1 4% fast 2 2% menen 1 4% idea 2 2% cognitie 1 4% norman 2 2% gedachte 1 4% nothing 2 2% denker 1 4% ponder 2 2% hoofd 1 4% quick 2 2% think 1 4% reason 2 2% wezen 1 4% tank 2 2% zien 1 4% 98 tijd nemen 1 4% menen 1 4% plezier 1 4% 28 35 beslissen kiezen 6 21% 35 decide decision 14 14% knoop doorhakken 2 7% now 7 7% besluiten 2 7% to 7 7% keuze 2 7% think 5 5% keuzes maken 1 4% what 5 5% conclusie 1 4% choose 4 4% keus 1 4% mind 3 3% uitvoeren 1 4% on 3 3% weten 1 4% yes 3 3% manager 1 4% act 2 2% treuzelen 1 4% answer 2 2% nu 1 4% know 2 2% samen 1 4% make 2 2% duidelijk 1 4% question 2 2% beslissing 1 4% whether 2 2% daadkrachtig 1 4% 98 aarzel 1 4% uitmaken 1 4% 121

dilemma 1 4% baas 1 4% 28 36 emotion love 31 32% 36 emotie gevoel 13 46% feeling 10 10% liefde 6 21% cry 8 8% gevoelens 3 11% sex 2 2% voelen 1 4% tears 3 3% onstabiel 1 4% fear 2 2% verstand 1 4% hate 2 2% tranen 1 4% paint 2 2% gezichtsuitdrukking 1 4% sad 2 2% 28 strong 2 2% 98 37 onderwijs school 6 21% 37 education school 31 32% leren 5 18% university 7 7% educatie 3 11% work 4 4% leraar 3 11% good 3 3% opleiding 2 7% learning 3 3% wetenschap 1 4% sex 3 3% pedagogy 1 4% teacher 3 3% scholing 1 4% committee 2 2% voortgezet 1 4% learn 2 2% onderzoek 1 4% 96 leraren 1 4% MBO 1 4% saai 1 4% docent 1 4% 28 38 voorbereiden klaarmaken 6 21% 38 prepare ready 13 13% prepareren 2 7% make 7 7% klaar 2 7% for 6 6% maken 2 7% to 5 5% vooraf 2 7% food 4 4% organisatie 1 4% meal 4 4% preparatie 1 4% dinner 3 3% aanvangen 1 4% get ready 3 3% inpakken 1 4% yourself 3 3% werk 1 4% before 2 2% gereedmaken 1 4% cook 2 2% goed op weg 1 4% die 2 2% tevoeren 1 4% doom 2 2% klaarstaan 1 4% finish 2 2% kant en klaar 1 4% get ready 2 2% werken 1 4% thyself 2 2% thuiswerk 1 4% work 2 2% klaarzetten 2 7% 98 28 39 geheugen herinneren 5 18% 39 memory mind 10 10% gedachten 3 11% test 9 9% hersens 2 7% forget 7 7% hersenen 2 7% think 5 5% steun 2 7% lane 4 4% brein 2 7% loss 4 4% 122

verleden 2 7% remember 4 4% herinnering 2 7% thought 4 4% onthouden 1 4% bad 3 3% vertaalbank 1 4% brain 3 3% hypnosis 1 4% aid 2 2% memorie 1 4% good 2 2% denkcapaciteit 1 4% head 2 2% grijze cellen 1 4% lost 2 2% slecht 1 4% recall 2 2% denk 1 4% training 2 2% 28 97 40 gemak makkelijk 5 18% 40 ease difficulty 8 8% comfortable 3 11% leisure 8 8% dient 1 4% comfort 7 7% WC 1 4% easy 7 7% tevreden 1 4% rest 5 5% eten 1 4% chair 4 4% comfort 1 4% hard 3 3% eenvoud 1 4% help 3 3% simpel 1 4% relax 3 3% vlotheid 1 4% at 2 2% lui 1 4% ill 2 2% kant-en-klaar 1 4% out 2 2% moeite 1 4% pleasure 2 2% gebak 1 4% slip 2 2% prettig 1 4% speed 2 2% geen moeite 1 4% 98 plezier 1 4% fijn 1 4% leuk 1 4% gemakkelijkheid 1 4% ontspannen 1 4% luiheid 1 4% 28 41 voorkomen preventie 4 14% 41 prevent stop 49 51% genezen 3 11% hinder 5 5% gebeuren 3 11% allow 3 3% rechtbank 2 7% cure 3 3% geval 1 4% pill 3 3% overleven 1 4% accident 2 2% voorkennis 1 4% accidents 2 2% gezicht 1 4% crime 2 2% impressie 1 4% disaster 2 2% uiterlijk 1 4% happening 2 2% indruk 1 4% shop 2 2% eerder 1 4% 96 vermijden 1 4% niet laten doen 1 4% stoppen 1 4% probleem 1 4% niet 1 4% tegenhouden 1 4% zorgen 1 4% 28 123

42 eeuw gouden 5 18% 42 century hundred 13 14% tijd 3 11% year 9 9% lang 2 7% cricket 8 8% jaren 2 7% time 7 7% jaar 2 7% twentieth 6 6% honderd 2 7% decade 5 5% honderd jaar 2 7% old 5 5% tijdperk 1 4% 20th 5 5% altijd 1 4% years 4 4% eeuwigheid 1 4% epoch 3 3% vorige 1 4% 20th 3 3% de 1 4% age 2 2% eeuwig 1 4% roman 2 2% kwart 1 4% 96 twintigste 1 4% honderd jaren 1 4% 100 jaar 1 4% 28 43 ambitie carriere 7 25% 43 ambition none 13 14% streven 2 7% aim 9 9% doelstelling 2 7% want 5 5% willen 2 7% career 3 3% doelen 1 4% money 3 3% grote 1 4% power 3 3% verlangen 1 4% desire 2 2% geld 1 4% future 2 2% strebenheid 1 4% goal 2 2% succes 1 4% greed 2 2% doorzettingsvermogen 1 4% hopes 2 2% hoop 1 4% job 2 2% droom 1 4% life 2 2% doelen 1 4% success 2 2% drijfveer 1 4% teacher 2 2% duwen 1 4% work 2 2% bankier 1 4% 95 bedrijf 1 4% futloosheid 1 4% 28 44 geluk blijheid 4 14% 44 luck good 20 21% blij 3 11% fortune 11 11% gelukkig 1 4% bad 9 9% blijschap 1 4% chance 6 6% relatie 1 4% charm 3 3% vrede 1 4% lady 3 3% familie 1 4% happy 2 2% blij zijn 1 4% less 2 2% voorspoed 1 4% lucky 2 2% opkunnen 1 4% none 2 2% hebben 1 4% pot 2 2% glimlach 1 4% 97 scherven 1 4% toeval 1 4% zoeken 1 4% tevreden 1 4% 124

grijns 1 4% klavertjevier 1 4% licht 1 4% lachen 1 4% lach 1 4% speels 1 4% 28 45 verschillen anders 7 25% 45 differ NOT IN EAT other NSE afwijken 2 7% associations overeenkomsten 2 7% change 1 onderscheiden 2 7% odd 1 lijken 1 4% van 1 4% oneenigheid 1 4% kleuren 1 4% andere 1 4% anders zijn 1 4% anderen 1 4% variaties 1 4% mensen 1 4% diverse 1 4% apart 1 4% onderscheidingen 1 4% tussen 1 4% zwart/wit 1 4% evenwicht 1 4% 28 46 overwegen nadenken 12 43% 46 consider think 33 34% denken 4 14% it 5 5% peinzen 2 7% this 4 4% beslissen 2 7% contemplate 3 3% reflecteren 1 4% meal 2 2%? 1 4% reflect 2 2% estimeren 1 4% thought 2 2% erover nadenken 1 4% 96 of 1 4% 47 poverty poor 24 25% over nadenken 1 4% stricken 9 9% tolerantie 1 4% hunger 5 5% afwegen 1 4% slum 5 5% 28 rich 4 4% 47 armoede rijkdom 4 14% slums 4 4% gebrek 4 15% misery 3 3% Afrika 2 7% wealth 3 3% honger 2 7% bread 2 2% geld 2 7% degradation 2 2% stille 1 4% dirt 2 2% zielig 1 4% money 2 2% triest 1 4% riches 2 2% dakloos 1 4% 95 moeilijkheid 1 4% pain 1 4% jammer 1 4% bijstand 1 4% 125

rijk 1 4% blut 1 4% mager 1 4% sterven 1 4% vodden 1 4% America 1 4% 28 48 redden helpen 5 18% 48 save money 26 27% helden 2 7% life 12 12% sparen 2 7% help 4 4% zwemmen 2 7% queen 4 4% boten 2 7% spend 4 4% held 2 7% water 4 4% hulp 1 4% drown 3 3% halen 1 4% it 3 3% reddingsboten 1 4% bank 2 2% beschermen 1 4% children 2 2% succes 1 7% me 2 2% verlost 1 4% soul 2 2% boot 1 4% 98 oceaan 1 4% Titanic 1 4% verlossen 1 4% halen 1 4% Middeleeuwen 1 4% brandweer 1 4% 28 49 verwachten hopen 5 18% 49 expect hope 12 12% toekomst 3 11% anticipate 9 9% anticiperen 3 11% baby 7 7% baby 2 7% wait 7 7% vooruitzicht 2 7% mother 4 4% zwangerschap 1 4% nothing 4 4% verlangen 1 4% want 4 4% kind 1 4% await 3 3% patronen 1 4% pregnant 3 3% morgen 1 4% money 2 2% expectaties hebben 1 4% not 2 2% aannemen 1 4% soon 2 2% klok 1 4% to 2 2% komen 1 4% us 2 2% zwanger 1 4% 99 plannen 1 4% tijd 1 4% willen 1 4% 28 50 kiezen beslissen 6 21% 50 elect vote 27 28% delen 3 11% choose 14 14% selecteren 2 7% president 9 9% stemmen 2 7% council 3 3% nemen 1 4% representative 3 3% democratie 1 4% select 3 3% prefereren 1 4% appoint 2 2% kiezel 1 4% candidate 2 2% 126

regering 1 4% chosen 2 2% mogelijkheden 1 4% election 2 2% deelnemen 1 4% general 2 2% verkiezingen 1 4% politics 2 2% keuze 1 4% superior 2 2% willen 1 4% 98 stemmer 1 4% verkiezing 1 4% tanden 1 4% campagne 1 4% kiezen 1 4% 28 51 opmerken zeggen 12 43% 51 notice board 38 39% opvallen 2 7% see 15 15% commentaar 2 7% paper 3 3% noteren 1 4% sign 3 3% bizonder 1 4% bill 2 2% reageren 1 4% it 2 2% dat 1 4% not 2 2% commentaar hebben 1 4% observe 2 2% antwoorden 1 4% poster 2 2% voorstel 1 4% read 2 2% reactie 1 4% that 2 2% zien 1 4% 98 observeren 1 4% ogen 1 4% aanmerken 1 4% 28 52 schoonheid mooi 10 36% 52 beauty beast 24 26% ideaal 1 4% girl 9 10% troost 1 4% ugly 6 6% uiterlijke 1 4% face 3 3% cosmetica 1 4% ugliness 3 3% aantrekkelijkheid 1 4% country 2 2% puurheid 1 4% love 2 2% pracht 1 4% sleeping 2 2% natuur 1 4% woman 2 2% eeuwig 1 4% 94 prettig 1 4% prachtig 1 4% dame 1 4% salon 1 4% specialist 1 4% lelijkheid 1 4% gezicht 1 4% miss verkiezingen 1 4% glimlach 1 4% 28 53 voorstellen introduceren 7 25% 53 propose NOT IN EAT other bedenken 4 14% NSE associations introductie 2 7% suggest 2 moeilijk 1 4% aan 1 4% 127

ontmoeten 1 4% zien 1 4% drama 1 4% vrienden 1 4% verbeelden 1 4% willen 1 4% propositie 1 4% inbeelden 1 4% toneel 1 4% imagine 1 4% suggestie 1 4% groep 1 4% voordragen 1 4% 28 54 voelen aanraken 4 14% 54 feel touch 21 22% emoties 3 11% sense 12 12% huid 3 11% good 9 9% gevoelens 2 7% happy 3 3% emotie 2 7% bad 2 2% tasten 2 7% emotion 2 2% denken 2 7% felt 2 2% hart 1 4% fine 2 2% merken 1 4% hand 2 2% gevoelig 1 4% it 2 2% betasten 1 4% stupid 2 2% zintuig 1 4% 97 vingers 1 4% zacht 1 4% hand 2 7% beleven 1 4% 28 55 gerechtig- justitie 4 14% 55 justice law 19 19% heid recht 3 11% peace 15 15% hof 2 7% judge 8 8% rechtvaardigheid 2 7% court 7 7% onrecht 2 7% injustice 7 7% eerlijkheid 2 7% scales 4 4% gelijk 2 7% good 3 3% wet 1 4% done 2 2% fair 1 4% fair 2 2% rechts 1 4% freedom 2 2% integer 1 4% order 2 2% plicht 1 4% right 2 2% eerlijk 1 4% trial 2 2% wraak 1 4% truth 2 2% vrede 1 4% 100 blinddoek 1 4% in balans 1 4% gebouw 1 4% 28 56 kans mogelijkheid 9 32% 56 opportunity knocks 37 37% gelegenheid 3 11% chance 26 26% casino 2 7% luck 5 5% maken 1 4% job 4 4% 128

hebben 1 4% knock 2 2% probabiliteit 1 4% missed 2 2% mag 1 4% taken 2 2% geluk 1 4% 99 moment 1 4% bedreiging 1 4% berekening 1 4% spelen 1 4% hoopvol 1 4% pluk 1 4% gokken 1 4% spel 1 4% spelletje 1 4% 28 57 goedheid puur 2 7% 57 goodness gracious 27 28% aardig 2 7% badness 9 9% mens 1 4% kindness 7 7% bidden 1 4% mercy 5 5% god 1 4% god 3 3% integer 1 4% heart 3 3% karakter 1 4% honey 3 3% aardigheid 1 4% bad 2 2% voorkomendheid 1 4% evil 2 2% zelve 1 4% gracious me 2 2% lief 1 4% heavens 2 2% boze 1 4% love 2 2% kwaadheid 1 4% mercy 2 2% nobel 1 4% nice 2 2% aard 1 4% purity 2 2% moeder 1 4% 97 slechtheid 1 4% christen 1 4% puurheid 1 4% mimi 1 4% aard 1 4% godelijk 1 4% barmhartigheid 1 4% zachtaardig 1 4% moeder theresa 1 4% pastoor 1 4% 28 58 dienen serveren 3 11% 58 serve dinner 9 9% moeten 3 11% food 5 5% helpen 2 7% slave 5 5% bedienen 1 4% tennis 4 4% rijkdom 1 4% wait 4 4% aanbieden 1 4% county 3 3% mens 1 4% dish 3 3% onderwerpen 1 4% help 3 3% geven 1 4% meal 3 3% altruist 1 4% obey 3 3% steunen 1 4% service 3 3% leger 1 4% eat 2 2% zorgen 1 4% give 2 2% 129

monarchie 1 4% ice 2 2% service 1 4% king 2 2% behulpzaam 1 4% meals 2 2% helper 1 4% servant 2 2% ober 1 4% 98 dienblad 1 4% functioneren 1 4% bediende 1 4% dienst 1 4% 28 59 begrijpen verstaan 5 18% 59 understand comprehend 24 24% verstaan 4 14% know 14 14% snappen 4 15% think 4 4% weten 2 7% misunderstand 3 3% doorhebben 1 4% no 3 3% horen 1 4% feel 2 2% empathie 1 4% get 2 2% aha 1 4% never 2 2% voorkomendheid 1 4% read 2 2% zien 1 4% see 2 2% meeleven 1 4% 98 luisteren 1 4% sympathie 1 4% inzicht 1 4% bevatten 1 4% taal 1 4% medelijden 1 4% 28 60 verliezen kwijt 6 21% 60 lose find 24 24% kwijt raken 5 18% win 13 13% spel 3 11% lost 8 8% winnen 2 7% money 8 8%? 1 4% search 3 3% verdriet 1 4% gain 2 2% spel 1 4% me 2 2% missen 1 4% out 2 2% vinden 1 4% time 2 2% wedstrijd 1 4% 98 jammer 1 4% gemis 1 4% nederlaag 1 4% zicht 1 4% zoon 1 4% misplaatsen 1 4% 28 61 noemen naam 10 34% 61 mention NOT IN EAT other zeggen 4 14% NSE associations aanwijzen 3 10% say 2 benoemen 2 7% identificeren 1 4% babies 1 4% woorden 1 4% vermelden 1 4% 130

benamen 1 4% namen 1 4% roepen 1 4% wijzen 1 4% opsommen 1 4% voorstellen 1 4% 29 62 onthouden herinneren 9 32% 62 remember forget 37 38% geheugen 5 18% me 7 7% vergetten 3 11% think 7 7% voor altijd 1 4% no 3 3% niet doen 1 4% always 2 2% nalaten 1 4% exam 2 2% kuisheid 1 4% november 2 2% seks 1 4% thought 2 2% wachten 1 4% 98 stoppen 1 4% remember 1 4% opslaan 1 4% kramp 1 4% weten 1 4% 28 63 waarheid leugen 5 18% 63 truth lie 25 26% eerlijk 3 11% lies 11 11% echtheid 2 7% false. 5 5% echt 2 7% honesty 4 4% koe 1 4% drug 3 3% belonen 1 4% falsehood 2 2% ethic 1 4% good 2 2% feit 1 4% honesty 2 2% eerlijkheid 1 4% light 2 2% communistisch 1 4% peace 2 2% realiteit 1 4% youth 2 2% rechtbank 1 4% 96 krant 1 4% gevoel 1 4% vertellen 1 4% trouw 1 4% recht 1 4% valsheid 1 4% leugens 1 4% deugd 1 4% 28 64 vertrouwen vrienden 2 7% 64 confidence self 12 13% hebben 1 4% friend 5 5% altijd 1 4% trick 5 5% oplichten 1 4% trickster 5 5% geloof 1 4% trust 5 5% oprecht 1 4% secret 4 4% bond 1 4% sure 3 3% moeder 1 4% doctor 2 2% in iemand geloven 1 4% faith 2 2% gemoedsrust 1 4% none 2 2% kramp 1 4% strength 2 2% 131

weten 1 4% success 2 2% liefde 1 4% 93 schenken 1 4% geruststelling 1 4% vrouw 1 4% vriendschap 1 4% bouwen op 1 4% trust 1 4% geloven 1 4% zeker 1 4% stellen 1 4% comfortabel 1 4% wantrouwen 1 4%? 1 4% close 1 4% vriend 1 4% betrouwbaar 1 4% 29 65 lachen glimlach 5 18% 65 laugh cry 28 29% glimlachen 3 11% smile 10 10% blij 2 7% happy 7 7% huilen 2 7% giggle 5 5% giggelen 1 4% joke 5 5% lol maken 1 4% at 3 3% giegel 1 4% mouth 3 3% ha 1 4% fun 2 2% gelukkig 1 4% loud 2 2% giechelen 1 4% shout 2 2% grappig 1 4% 97 grijns 1 4% breed 1 4% melig 1 4% mond 1 4% humor 1 4% tevreden 1 4% lief 1 4% hard 1 4% grapje 1 4% 28 66 toekomst verleden 6 21% 66 future past 42 42% morgen 4 14% present 5 5% later 2 7% time 5 5% vooruitkijken 2 7% life 4 4% verder 2 7% bright 3 3% vooruit 1 4% 100 overmorgen 1 4% aanstaande 1 4% uitzicht 1 4% ooit 1 4% hopen 1 4% lang 1 4% kalender 1 4% straks 1 4% binnenkort 1 4% 132

kust 1 4% horizon 1 4% 29 67. eenzaam- alleen 16 57% 67 loneliness alone 10 10% heid solitaire 2 7% solitude 8 8% rust 1 4% sad 7 7% tranen 1 4% old 4 4% afzondering 1 4% runner 4 4% gemeenschap 1 4% fear 3 3% troost 1 4% afraid 2 2% triest 1 4% empty 2 2% gezelligheid 1 4% isolated 2 2% eentje 1 4% life 2 2% één 1 4% misery 2 2% verdriet 1 4% quiet 2 2% 28 self 2 2% tired 2 2% unhappy 2 2% void 2 2% 96 68. storen onderbreken 3 11% 68 disturb annoy 12 13% geluid 2 7% don't 6 6% lawaai 2 7% upset 6 6% sorry! 2 7% awake 5 5% lastig vallen 2 7% interrupt 4 4% kletsen 1 4% noise 4 4% telefoon 1 4% peace 4 4% irriteren 1 4% sleep 4 4% irritant 1 4% destroy 2 2% vergadering 1 4% mentally 2 2% ontregelen 1 4% move 2 2% aankloppen 1 4% wake 2 2% ICT 1 4% waken 2 2% vragen 1 4% worry 2 2% vervelend zijn 1 4% 95 niet 1 4% ergeren 1 4% gesprek 1 4% interrumperen 1 4% hindernis 1 4% tussen komen 1 4% irritatie 1 4% 28 69. weigeren nee 9 32% 69 refuse rubbish 10 10% nee zeggen 2 7% accept 9 9% niet 1 4% no 8 8% afwijzen 1 4% bin 6 6% niet luisteren 1 4% deny 6 6% toezeggen 1 4% reject 5 5% eigenwijs 1 4% it 4 4% acceptabel 1 4% to 4 4% ontnemen 1 4% dirt 3 3% niet doen 1 4% dust-bin 3 3% niet starten 1 4% give 3 3% 133

ontkennen 1 4% collector 2 2% afstoten 1 4% don't 2 2% refuseren 1 4% object 2 2% dienst 1 4% stop 2 2% vertikken 1 4% tip 2 2% stoppen 1 4% 99 dienstplicht 1 4% weglopen 1 4% 28 70. verlaten weggaan 11 39% 70 abandon leave 40 40% alleen 6 21% ship 7 7% vertrekken 2 7% give up 6 6% onmiddellijk 1 4% baby 5 5% dag 1 4% hope 4 4% gaan 1 4% lost 3 3% vaarwel 1 4% forsake 2 2% weg 1 4% gay 2 2% verafscheiden 1 4% lose 2 2% weglopen 1 4% 100 uitgestorven 1 4% achter 1 4% 28 71 weten kennis 10 36% 71 know how 12 12% zeker 2 7% knowledge 12 12% kennen 7 25% nothing 5 5% wijsheid 1 4% think 5 5% zekerheid 1 4% all 3 3% meten 1 4% learn 3 3% informatie 1 4% not 3 3% voelen 1 4% understand 3 3% wetenschap 1 4% about 2 2% niet weten 1 4% facts 2 2% opleiding 1 4% knew 2 2% begrijpen 1 4% ledge 2 2% 28 no 2 2% sense 2 2% thyself 2 2% to 2 2% why 2 2% 99 72 carriere baan 5 18% 72 career job 43 45% loopbaan 4 14% girl 5 5% job 2 7% woman 5 5% werk 2 7% future 3 3% maken 2 7% life 3 3% vak 2 7% money 3 3% werken 1 4% profession 3 3% levensloop 1 4% choice 2 2% levenswerk 1 4% teacher 2 2% droom 1 4% teaching 2 2% omhoog 1 4% work 2 2% beroep 1 4% 96 plannen 1 4% mantelpak 1 4% 134

knokken 1 4% vrouw 1 4% voorbij 1 4% 28 73 onderzoek studie 11 39% 73 research student 10 10% wetenschap 3 11% work 7 7% research 3 11% scientist 6 6% ziekenhuis 1 4% science 5 5% enquete 1 4% chemist 4 4% uitvinden 1 4% money 3 3% recherche 1 4% development 2 2% promotie 1 4% disease 2 2% onderwijs 1 4% find 2 2% verrichten 1 4% idea 2 2% uitzoeken 1 4% lab 2 2% droog 1 4% PhD 2 2% TU 1 4% project 2 2% universiteit 1 4% station 2 2% 28 study 2 2% worker 2 2% 97 74 taak werk 6 21% 74 task job 26 26% opdracht 6 21% work 22 22% klus 2 7% force 17 17% baan 2 7% master 9 9% plicht 2 7% hard 4 4% doel 1 4% burden 3 3% doen 1 4% difficult 2 2% werkzaamheid 1 4% duty 2 2% verantwoordelijkheid 1 4% mask 2 2% terugdeinzen 1 4% 100 vraag 1 4% vervullen 1 4% huishouden 1 4% uitvoeren 1 4% 28 75 vergeten onthouden 5 18% 75 forget remember 44 46% verloren 3 11% me-not 12 13% verliezen 2 7% memory 6 6% niet herinneren 1 4% me 3 3% oops 1 4% think 3 3% alzheimer 1 4% what 2 2% niet meer weten 1 4% 95 geheugen 1 4% hoofd 1 4% ontschoten 1 4% sleutels 1 4% sorry 1 4% ongedaan 1 4% herinneren 1 4% vergeven 1 4% even 1 4% verleden 1 4% achterwege laten 1 4% 135

slecht 1 4% foutje 1 4% mislopen 1 4% 28 NSD associations by first-year students of Dutch target words associations NSD abs.% 1. kracht sterk 29 60% 40. gemak makkelijk 9 19% spieren 5 10% comfort 4 9% man 2 4% lui 4 9% spieren 2 4% luxe 3 6% sterkte 2 4% simpel 3 6% liefde 1 2% luiheid 2 4% meting 1 2% easy 2 4% passie 1 2% fijn 2 4% bodybuilder 1 2% ontspanning 2 4% emacipatie 1 2% taart 1 2% arm 1 2% gemakkelijk 1 2% moed 1 2% zuchtig 1 2% wil 1 2% laks 1 2% 48 relax 1 2% 2. waarnemen zien 37 80% normaal 1 2% ogen 3 7% snel 1 2% oog 1 2% thuis 1 2% bekijken 1 2% bank 1 2% psycholoog 1 2% dient de mens 1 2% observeren 1 2% zucht 1 2% visie 1 2% ontspannen 1 2% beweging 1 2% eenvoud 1 2% 46 ongemak 1 2% 3. verdriet huilen 26 57% stoel 1 2% pijn 7 15% eerlijk 1 2% traan 5 11% 47 tranen 1 2% 41. voorkómen genezen 9 20% emotie 1 2% preventie 7 15% treurig 1 2% tegengaan 2 4% zielig 1 2% ongeluk 2 4% droefheid 1 2% tegenhouden 2 4% rouw 1 2% beter 2 4% drama 1 2% rechtbank 1 2% vreugde 1 2% alarm 1 2% 46 laten 1 2% 4. toevoegen erbij 7 17% voorzien 1 2% aanvullen 5 12% uitblijven 1 2% extra 4 10% zijn 1 2% plus 4 10% stoppen 1 2% add 3 7% redden 1 2% meer 3 7% proberen 1 2% woord 2 5% voorzichtig 1 2% 136

bijvoegen 1 2% verhelpen 1 2% yoghurt 1 2% EHBO 1 2% bijdragen 1 2% helm 1 2% msn 1 2% handig 1 2% mixen 1 2% vermijden 1 2% mengen 1 2% ramp 1 2% bijzetten 1 2% vooruitzien 1 2% bouwen 1 2% voorbereiden 1 2% erbij doen 1 2% gondel 1 2% geven 1 2% niets 1 2% fruit 1 2% er voor zijn 1 2% makkelijk 1 2% oplettend 1 2% bij 1 2% 46 41 42. eeuw lang 11 23% honderd 6 13% jaar 5 11% 100 jaar 5 11% 5. invloed macht 23 53% tijd 5 11% doen 3 7% geschiedenis 2 4% ouders 3 7% jaren 2 4% water 2 5% Middeleeuwen 2 4% mening 1 2% periode 2 4% geld 1 2% era 1 2% uitoefenen 1 2% gouden 1 2% rijk 1 2% deze 1 2% rood 1 2% jaartelling 1 2% handig 1 2% vader 1 2% leven 1 2% 21e 1 2% druk 1 2% vroeger 1 2% kracht 1 2% 47 zee 1 2% overvloed 1 2% 43. ambitie carrière 9 20% idee 1 2% streven 7 15% veel 1 2% doel 4 9% 43 ambitieus 2 4% 6. lelijkheid mooi 7 18% wilskracht 2 4% vies 6 15% baan 2 4% neus 2 5% goed 2 4% verdriet 1 3% wil 2 4% pukkel 1 3% school 1 2% eend 1 3% proberen 1 2% gedrocht 1 3% werken 1 2% onmacht 1 3% positief 1 2% puisten 1 3% gedreven 1 2% trol 1 3% zakenleven 1 2% rimpels 1 3% loos 1 2% onnodig 1 3% eerzucht 1 2% innerlijk 1 3% kracht 1 2% uiterlijk 1 3% paasie 1 2% eendje 1 3% ideen 1 2% slecht 1 3% macht 1 2% lichaam 1 3% rood 1 2% pukkels 1 3% geld 1 2% nacht 1 3% studeren 1 2% 137

eend 1 3% veel 1 2% jammer 1 3% 46 hoofd 1 3% 44. geluk blij 6 14% afstotend 1 3% klavertje vier 6 14% grauw 1 3% liefde 4 9% krom 1 3% blijheid 3 7% bloed 1 3% fijn 2 5% spiegel 1 3% lachen 2 5% 39 mooi 2 5% 7. ontdekken zien 8 17% vrijheid 2 5% vinden 6 13% nu 1 2% reizen 4 9% plezier 1 2% nieuw 4 9% mens 1 2% columbus 4 9% kennis 1 2% speurtocht 1 2% succesvol 1 2% schatkaart 1 2% strooien 1 2% ervaren 1 2% genieten 1 2% schat 1 2% lot 1 2% uitvinden 1 2% goed 1 2% hemel 1 2% volmaaktheid 1 2% wereld 1 2% zon 1 2% onderzoek 1 2% geld 1 2% boot 1 2% ongeluk 1 2% leuk 1 2% mazzel 1 2% cruise 1 2% verdriet 1 2% spannend 1 2% gezond 1 2% discover 1 2% keuze 1 2% ruimte 1 2% 44 herkennen 1 2% eiland 1 2% 45. verschillen anders 12 29% reis 1 2% onderscheid 3 7% leren 1 2% ras 2 5% boomhut 1 2% multicultureel 1 2% napoleon 1 2% afwijken 1 2% 46 geld 1 2% 8. ontwikkelen groeien 9 18% ongelijk 1 2% maken 7 14% tien 1 2% leren 3 6% zwart 1 2% foto's 3 6% maatschappij 1 2% wetenschap 3 6% verrijking 1 2% vooruitgang 2 4% kleur 1 2% kind 2 4% cijfers 1 2% leven 1 2% overbrugbaar 1 2% verder 1 2% Nederland 1 2% foto 1 2% oplossen 1 2% ontplooien 1 2% klassen 1 2% groter 1 2% groepen 1 2% studeren 1 2% anderen 1 2% wiel 1 2% ruzie 1 2% afrika 1 2% onderling 1 2% nieuw 1 2% omgang 1 2% zien 1 2% overeenkomst 1 2% creeren 1 2% zijn 1 2% doen 1 2% tweeling 1 2% 138

concept 1 2% veranderen 1 2% periode 1 2% maken 1 2% productie 1 2% 41 wol 1 2% cultuur 1 2% 46. overwegen nadenken 8 19% mens 1 2% denken 7 17% baby 1 2% twijfel 5 12% 49 keuze 2 5% 9. beloven belofte 8 18% piekeren 2 5% doen 6 13% dubben 2 5% trouw 5 11% keuzes 2 5% nakomen 3 7% kiezen 2 5% eed 2 4% bedenken 2 5% gelofte 2 4% overdenken 2 5% vertrouwen 2 4% doen 1 2% plicht 1 2% weegschaal 1 2% verzekeren 1 2% wegen 1 2% toezeggen 1 2% opties 1 2% moeder 1 2% overpeinzen 1 2% zeggen 1 2% aarzelen 1 2% geloof 1 2% twijfelen 1 2% wolken 1 2% samen 1 2% eerlijk 1 2% 42 vriendschap 1 2% 47. armoede geld 9 20% waarmaken 1 2% Afrika 5 11% schuld 1 2% rijkdom 4 9% erewoord 1 2% arm 3 7% zweren 1 2% honger 3 7% gedicht 1 2% 3e wereld 1 2% toekomst 1 2% Sterfte 1 2% spijt 1 2% Mensen 1 2% zien 1 2% weinig geld 1 2% 45 Treurig 1 2% 10. herkennen zien 20 48% Ach 1 2% ogen 2 5% Sloeber 1 2% mensen 2 5% Paarden 1 2% geheugen 2 5% Droog 1 2% bekenden 1 2% Krottenwijk 1 2% ah 1 2% Geldgebrek 1 2% kennis 1 2% Pover 1 2% gezicht 1 2% Bijstand 1 2% film 1 2% Vuil 1 2% herkenning 1 2% Zielig 1 2% groeten 1 2% Lompen 1 2% gezichten 1 2% Oneerlijk 1 2% verbazing 1 2% Beperking 1 2% vroeger 1 2% Zwerver 1 2% he 1 2% Vreden 1 2% enthousiast 1 2% Kind 1 2% leren 1 2% Rijk 1 2% bekenden 1 2% 46 kennen 1 2% 48. redden Held 5 11% moeilijk 1 2% Zee 4 9% 42 Leven 4 9% 139

11. nieuwsgierig benieuwd 4 10% Water 3 7% heid weten 3 7% Helpen 3 7% kind 2 5% baywatch 3 7% leren 2 5% Boei 2 5% krant 1 2% Zwemmen 2 5% leven 1 2% Greenpeace 2 5% drang 1 2% ambulance 2 5% onderzoek 1 2% moedig 2 5% kennis 1 2% geluk 1 2% weten 1 2% moedig 1 2% wijsneus 1 2% reddingsvest 1 2% spreken 1 2% zwemverst 1 2% ontdekken 1 2% overstroming 1 2% eigenschap 1 2% dapper 1 2% luid 1 2% save 1 2% vragen 1 2% drenkeling 1 2% irritant 1 2% dankbaar 1 2% ontdekking 1 2% touw 1 2% ik 1 2% verdrinken 1 2% gezond 1 2% boot 1 2% jong 1 2% 44 journalist 1 2% 49. verwachten hoop 4 9% aages 1 2% hopen 4 9% alwetendheid 1 2% denken 4 9% vervelend 1 2% verwachting 2 5% neus 1 2% toekomst 2 5% vragen 1 2% baby 2 5% oogjes 1 2% krijgen 2 5% nieuws 1 2% kind 1 2% hebzucht 1 2% voorgevoel 1 2% kat 1 2% overkomen 1 2% luisteren 1 2% visite 1 2% met neus erboven op 1 2% niks 1 2% pers 1 2% zenuwen 1 2% stom 1 2% spanning 1 2% 42 leven 1 2% 12. geloof God 17 37% zwanger 1 2% religie 5 11% voldoen 1 2% kerk 3 7% vooraf 1 2% christendom 2 4% spannend 1 2% moeilijk 2 4% beloven 1 2% bidden 2 4% idee 1 2% hoop 1 2% zien 1 2% trouw 1 2% ideeën hebben 1 2% ongeloof 1 2% verplichten 1 2% alwetend 1 2% oven 1 2% bijbel 1 2% inzien 1 2% hervormd 1 2% doorhebben 1 2% moeder 1 2% verspilling 1 2% inspiratie 1 2% wederkomst 1 2% gevoel 1 2% zinloos 1 2% christelijk 1 2% 43 vragen 1 2% 50. kiezen keuze 16 36% Christus 1 2% moeilijk 5 11% 140

hoop 1 2% delen 2 5% oma 1 2% tanden 2 5% 45 stemmen 2 5% 13. ontspannen relaxen 6 14% beslissen 2 5% relaxen 4 9% twijfel 2 5% slapen 3 7% doen 1 2% relaxed 2 5% veranderen 1 2% chillen 2 5% keuzes 1 2% rust 2 5% lastig 1 2% lezen 1 2% stembus 1 2% vakantie 1 2% of delen 1 2% gemak 1 2% taart 1 2% fijn 1 2% beslissing 1 2% ruimte 1 2% twee 1 2% rust 1 2% verkiezingen 1 2% boek 1 2% dubben 1 2% vrije tijd 1 2% zien 1 2% bank 1 2% politiek 1 2% heerlijk 1 2% 44 stress 1 2% muziek 1 2% 51. opmerken zien 20 45% relaxt 1 2% commentaar 3 7% msn 1 2% zeggen 3 7% sauna 1 2% opvallen 2 5% stoel 1 2% herkennen 2 5% niks doen 1 2% slim 2 5% rustig 1 2% kritiek 1 2% slaap 1 2% nuances 1 2% gemak 1 2% kritisch 1 2% plezier 1 2% weten 1 2% massage 1 2% inzien 1 2% water 1 2% eigenwijs 1 2% coktailcocktail 1 2% zeggen mooi 1 2% lekker 1 2% gezien worden 1 2% 44 oplettendheid 1 2% 14. Voordeel nadeel 12 27% helder 1 2% supermarkt 3 7% mooi 1 2% positief 3 7% precies 1 2% geld 3 7% 44 pluspunt 2 4% gratis 2 4% 52. schoonheid mooi 23 51% korting 2 4% spiegel 2 4% beloning 1 2% model 2 4% voetbal 1 2% wit 1 2% bonus 1 2% prinses 1 2% baan 1 2% Richard 1 2% gunstig 1 2% glans 1 2% meevaller 1 2% beauty 1 2% aanbieding 1 2% haar 1 2% pre 1 2% van binnen 1 2% plus 1 2% wow 1 2% profiteren 1 2% zee 1 2% winst 1 2% vrouw 1 2% praxis 1 2% godin 1 2% 141

plus 1 2% liefde 1 2% reclame 1 2% lelijkheid 1 2% gemak 1 2% zacht 1 2% extra 1 2% stralen 1 2% advantage 1 2% natuur 1 2% handig 1 2% pracht 1 2% 45 lang 1 2% 15. wraak zoet 7 16% 45 haat 6 13% eer 4 9% 53. voorstellen zien 6 13% gemeen 3 7% handen 3 7% boosheid 2 4% ontmoeten 3 7% ruzie 2 4% inbeelden 3 7% dood 1 2% indenken 3 7% donker 1 2% naam 3 7% slecht 1 2% aangenaam 2 4% eerwraak 1 2% ontmoeting 2 4% kwaad 1 2% introduceren 2 4% negatief 1 2% bedenken 2 4% moeite 1 2% hand geven 2 4% begrijpelijk 1 2% kennismaken 2 4% giftig 1 2% dromen 1 2% invest 1 2% doen 1 2% woede 1 2% imaginatien 1 2% jafar (haddan) 1 2% groeten 1 2% boos 1 2% muze 1 2% liefde 1 2% inbeelding 1 2% vechten 1 2% droom 1 2% jaloezie 1 2% beeld 1 2% geweld 1 2% fantasie 1 2% rood 1 2% nieuw 1 2% wraaknemen 1 2% vergadering 1 2% waarom 1 2% theater 1 2% pijn 1 2% hand 1 2% 45 46 16. bestaan leven 23 50% 54. voelen emotie 8 17% zijn 9 20% pijn 5 11% God 2 4% gevoelens 3 7% wereld 1 2% huid 3 7% geboorte 1 2% gevoel 3 7% onsnapbaar 1 2% zintuigen 2 4% existentie 1 2% handen 2 4% leren 1 2% stof 1 2% niet eeuwig 1 2% betasten 1 2% voorkomen 1 2% ervaren 1 2% mens 1 2% zacht 1 2% hier 1 2% vingers 1 2% denken 1 2% hand geven 1 2% wezen 1 2% partner 1 2% aarde 1 2% warmte 1 2% 46 intens 1 2% 17. bevatten begrijpen 13 28% leen 1 2% snappen 13 28% liefde 1 2% inhouden 3 6% aanraken 1 2% 142

zien 3 6% emoties 1 2% inzien 2 4% aanraking 1 2% hebben 2 4% medeleven 1 2% realiseren 1 2% overal 1 2% doorhebben 1 2% tasten 1 2% bezinnen 1 2% hand 1 2% onwerkelijk 1 2% zintuig 1 2% kist 1 2% energie 1 2% blik soep 1 2% 46 hoofd 1 2% 55. gerechtig- eerlijk 8 17% helder 1 2% heid justitia 5 11% vol 1 2% rechter 5 11% emmer 1 2% rechter 4 9% heelal 1 2% justitie 3 7% 47 eerlijkheid 2 4% 18. vrijheid blijheid 7 16% straf 2 4% vijf mei 3 7% onrecht 2 4% Nederland 2 5% gelijkheid 2 4% vogel 2 5% goed 1 2% vlag 2 5% mooi 1 2% oorlog 2 5% dieren 1 2% geluk 2 5% rechtbank 1 2% leven 2 5% God 1 2% vast 1 2% onzin 1 2% vreugde 1 2% gerecht 1 2% vrij zijn 1 2% ver te zoeken 1 2% juichen 1 2% eer 1 2% open 1 2% vrijheid 1 2% heerlijk 1 2% rechten 1 2% wind 1 2% zwaard 1 2% bevrijdingsfestival 1 2% dwaling 1 2% denken 1 2% 46 festival 1 2% 56. kans mogelijkheid 10 23% dubbel 1 2% procent 3 7% beperkt 1 2% geluk 3 7% ongebonden 1 2% gokken 2 5% slingers 1 2% loterij 2 5% alweer 1 2% grijpen 2 5% tijd 1 2% kind 1 2% gevangen 1 2% kanskaart 1 2% los 1 2% Unicef 1 2% vlam 1 2% gok 1 2% mening 1 2% geven 1 2% lucht 1 2% arm 1 2% rare 1 2% hier 1 2% 44 lotto 1 2% 19. veranderen anders 12 28% gelijkheid 1 2% metamorfose 4 9% krijgen 1 2% in 2 5% rekenen 1 2% aanpassen 2 5% twijfel 1 2% verschil 2 5% standaard 1 2% jaren 1 2% tentamen 1 2% jezelf 1 2% geluk 1 2% sterken 1 2% chance 1 2% 143

nieuw 1 2% baan 1 2% goed 1 2% spel 1 2% moed 1 2% tweede 1 2% leven 1 2% aangrijpen 1 2% mooier 1 2% wil 1 2% cosmetische chirurgie 1 2% rijk 1 2% transfiguratie 1 2% 44 verandering 1 2% 57. goedheid Sinterklaas 4 9% andra (zweeds) 1 2% slechtheid 3 7% ontwikkelen 1 2% eerlijk 2 5% kleur 1 2% mens 2 5% verbeteren 1 2% lief 2 5% progressie 1 2% aardig 2 5% waarom 1 2% mooi 2 5% tijd 1 2% kind 2 5% verbeteren 1 2% geloof 2 5% transformeren 1 2% vrienden 1 2% proces 1 2% juist 1 2% 43 liefhebben 1 2% 20. lafheid zwak 8 19% zijn 1 2% slap 4 9% positief 1 2% angst 3 7% hart 1 2% hond 2 5% solidariteit 1 2% bang 2 5% gul 1 2% eng 2 5% liefde 1 2% vluchten 2 5% recht 1 2% mietje 2 5% lach 1 2% meelopen 2 5% Theresa 1 2% sukkel 1 2% kern 1 2% kind 1 2% menselijkheid 1 2% weglopen 1 2% God 1 2% haat 1 2% deugd 1 2% afhankelijk 1 2% belangrijk 1 2% jongen 1 2% ouders 1 2% rennen 1 2% eerlijkheid 1 2% slappeling 1 2% moed 1 2% anti-held 1 2% pijn 1 2% meerderheid van de mensen 1 2% kwaadheid 1 2% zwakte 1 2% 43 blond 1 2% 58. dienen slaaf 7 16% zwakkeling 1 2% dienaar 3 7% kwetsen 1 2% onderdanig 3 7% zielig 1 2% bedienen 2 4% moed 1 2% soldaat 2 4% 43 bediende 2 4% 21. toegeven oke 5 11% God 2 4% ja 4 9% werk 1 2% mening 2 4% politie 1 2% gelijk 2 5% onderdaan 1 2% lafheid 2 5% helpen 1 2% schuld 2 4% doen 1 2% verliezen 2 5% dienblad 1 2% eerlijk 2 5% geloof 1 2% overgeven 2 5% ober 1 2% 144

makkelijk 2 5% ondergeschikt 1 2% vernedering 1 2% hulp 1 2% terugtrekken 1 2% tafel 1 2% gelijk hebben 1 2% misdienaar 1 2% hebben 1 2% leger 1 2% ritje 1 2% plicht 1 2% toegift 1 2% vampier 1 2% goedheid 1 2% beknotting 1 2% bezwijken 1 2% afwassen 1 2% sorry 1 2% geven 1 2% zwak 1 2% schoonmoeder 1 2% meegaand 1 2% Christus 1 2% fout 1 2% liefhebben 1 2% eerlijk 1 2% religie 1 2% instemmen 1 2% nederig 1 2% schaamte 1 2% wreed 1 2% nadenken 1 2% 45 aanpassen 1 2% 59. begrijpen snappen 14 31% lef 1 2% weten 4 9% onverzettelijk 1 2% verstand 3 7% aan 1 2% zien 3 7% 45 verstaan 2 4% 22. onder- verschil 8 20% knikken 1 2% scheiden anders 7 17% kunnen 1 2% bijzonder 2 5% a ha 1 2% verschillen 2 5% studiestof 1 2% groepen 2 5% college 1 2% hokjes 2 5% boek 1 2% belonen 1 2% mooi 1 2% zien 1 2% mensen 1 2% lintje 1 2% bevatten 1 2% onderscheid maken 1 2% inzicht 1 2% maken 1 2% inzien 1 2% menigte 1 2% vatten 1 2% slim 1 2% kennis 1 2% verdelen 1 2% begrip 1 2% afval 1 2% luisteren 1 2% elite 1 2% kennen 1 2% kleding 1 2% intelligentie 1 2% onderscheiden 1 2% herkennen 1 2% opvallen 1 2% best 1 2% origineel 1 2% 45 medaille 1 2% 60. verliezen pijn 3 7% delen 1 2% spel 3 7% toekenning 1 2% balen 3 7% keuze 1 2% kwijt 2 4% 41 wedstrijd 2 4% 23. leren studeren 7 15% missen 2 4% kennis 4 8% jammer 2 4% school 4 8% verdriet 2 4% boek 3 6% vernedering 1 2% studie 3 6% winnaar 1 2% fouten 2 4% voetbal 1 2% boeken 2 4% verloven 1 2% 145

denken 2 4% relativeren 1 2% lezen 2 4% kind 1 2% moeilijk 2 4% kwijt raken 1 2% opstaan 1 2% ongeluk 1 2% college 1 2% loser 1 2% weten 1 2% dood 1 2% slim 1 2% spelletje 1 2% wijsheid 1 2% verdergaan 1 2% taak 1 2% laten 1 2% onderwijzen 1 2% wennen 1 2% leuk 1 2% winnen 1 2% uiteindelijk 1 2% geliefden 1 2% ontwikkelen 1 2% ring 1 2% huiswerk 1 2% falen 1 2% leven 1 2% zonder 1 2% succes 1 2% AZ 1 2% hersens 1 2% sport 1 2% woordjes 1 2% leven 1 2% doen 1 2% suiker 1 2% wijzer 1 2% verlies 1 2% 48 oog 1 2% 24. toestaan mogen 12 27% gat 1 2% toegeven 3 7% 45 goed 2 4% 61. noemen naam 23 49% laten 2 4% zeggen 4 9% ja 2 4% benoemen 4 9% accepteren 2 4% benamen 2 4% ok 2 4% kennen 2 4% doen 2 4% dingen 1 2% toelaten 1 2% mond 1 2% groen 1 2% baby 1 2% moeder 1 2% spreken 1 2% leraar 1 2% woord 1 2% gewillig 1 2% heten 1 2% laten gebeuren 1 2% tellen 1 2% weigeren 1 2% kind 1 2% toestemming 1 2% onthouden 1 2% vrij 1 2% praten 1 2% mooi 1 2% lezen 1 2% instemmen 1 2% aan 1 2% macht 1 2% 47 ingeven 1 2% 62. onthouden geheugen 11 24% openen 1 2% weten 6 13% gedogen 1 2% leren 4 9% regels 1 2% vergeten 3 7% goed vinden 1 2% hersens 2 4% contant 1 2% denken 2 4% 45 lastig 1 2% 25. genieten zon 6 14% denken 1 2% leven 3 7% kennis 1 2% plezier 3 7% cijfers 1 2% blij 3 7% agenda 1 2% vrijheid 2 5% hoofd 1 2% heerlijk 2 5% memory 1 2% 146

geluk 2 5% gedachte 1 2% fijn 2 5% olifant 1 2% relaxen 1 2% handig 1 2% lol 1 2% begrijpen 1 2% geluk 1 2% cijfer 1 2% vrije tijd 1 2% kennen 1 2% feesten 1 2% plaatjes 1 2% witbier 1 2% training 1 2% strawberrycheese- 1 2% lijstje 1 2% cake liefde 1 2% briefje 1 2% terras 1 2% vasthouden 1 2% vakantie 1 2% 46 eten 1 2% 63. waarheid eerlijk 7 17% zonnetje 1 2% leugen 4 10% feesten 1 2% eerlijkheid 3 7% voedsel 1 2% trouw 3 7% vrij 1 2% liegen 3 7% lente 1 2% echt 3 7% loslaten 1 2% waar. 2 5% wijn 1 2% boeken 1 2% lekker 3 7% subjectief 1 2% 44 doen 1 2% 26. bewijzen aantonen 4 10% spreken 1 2% bewijs 3 8% licht 1 2% politie 3 7% leugendetector 1 2% juist 2 5% recht 1 2% alibi 1 3% Bijbel 1 2% bewijsstuk 1 2% fijn 1 2% recht 1 2% vertrouwen 1 2% aangeven 1 2% getrouw 1 2% drang 1 2% graag 1 2% kracht 1 2% vast 1 2% argument 1 2% onduidelijk 1 2% CSI 1 2% kennis 1 2% competitie 1 2% werkelijkheid 1 2% proof 1 2% Liefde 1 2% vinger 1 2% 42 rechtzaak 1 2% 64. vertrouwen vrienden 5 11% moeite 1 2% Liefde 4 9% detective 1 2% vriend 4 9% zie je wel 1 2% Trouw 2 5% onderzoeken 1 2% sterkte 2 5% jong 1 2% gevoel 2 5% shit 1 2% vriendschap 2 5% cijfers 1 2% relatie 2 5% gelijk 1 2% beperkt 1 2% eer 1 2% belofte 1 2% v. 1 2% geloof 1 2% beloven 1 2% onmisbaar 1 2% (bewijs)last 1 2% gemoedsrust 1 2% strijden 1 2% geven 1 2% moeilijk 1 2% golflengte 1 2% wilskracht 1 2% Weten 1 2% 147

proef 1 2% makkelijk 1 2% tonen 1 2% hand 1 2% paspoort 1 2% iemand 1 2% laten zien 1 2% Jas 1 2% 39 In 1 2% 27. moed dapper 10 24% eerlijkheid 1 2% kracht 8 20% God 1 2% sterk 4 10% moeder 1 2% held 4 10% hulpverlener 1 2% lef 3 7% moeder 1 2% durf 3 7% Trust 1 2% doen 1 2% schaden 1 2% bravoure 1 2% geloven 1 2% schoenen 1 2% 44 doorzetter 1 2% 65. lachen Blij 8 17% geloof 1 2% Mond 4 8% moedig 1 2% Lol 3 6% cowboy 1 2% Huilen 3 6% volhouden 1 2% vrolijk 3 6% standvastigheid 1 2% Leuk 3 6% 41 Geluk 2 4% 28. plicht moeten 14 31% Haha 2 4% taak 4 9% tanden 2 4% verplicht 4 9% smile 2 4% recht 4 9% plezier 2 4% verplichting 3 15% salvo 1 2% werk 2 4% vreugde 1 2% meester 1 2% altijd 1 2% politie 1 2% blijheid 1 2% negatief 1 2% tanden 1 2% moeilijk 1 2% heerlijk 1 2% belofte 1 2% lach 1 2% doen 1 2% geluid 1 2% afzien 1 2% hihi 1 2% vast 1 2% stralen 1 2% verantwoordelijkheid 1 2% graag 1 2% deugd 1 2% gericht 1 2% naar 1 2% grap 1 2% tentamen 1 2% 48 klote 1 2% 66. toekomst onzeker 3 6% duty 1 2% verleden 3 6% 45 perspectief 3 6% 29. eigendom bezit 20 44% geluk 2 4% mijn 6 13% later 2 4% van mij 3 7% beeld 2 4% huis 2 4% nu 2 4% mij 1 2% vooruitdenken 1 2% hebben 1 2% spannend 1 2% eigen 1 2% verleden 1 2% dingen 1 2% verder 1 2% van 1 2% studie/werk 1 2% kamer 1 2% werken 1 2% eigen 1 2% school 1 2% geld 1 2% studeren 1 2% 148

afblijven 1 2% restaurant 1 2% voorwerp 1 2% hierna 1 2% paspoort 1 2% mode 1 2% diefstal 1 2% hoop 1 2% ik 1 2% onzekerheid 1 2% lichaam 1 2% oud 1 2% 45 somber 1 2% 30. twijfel onzekerheid 5 11% mooi 1 2% denken 4 9% donker 1 2% onzeker 4 9% droom 1 2% angst 3 7% nabij 1 2% aarzeling 3 7% leegte 1 2% moeilijk 3 7% succes 1 2% ik 2 4% idealen 1 2% keuze 2 4% morgen 1 2% stoppen 1 2% ver 1 2% lafheid 1 2% kansen 1 2% keuzes 1 2% groot 1 2% beslissen 1 2% laten 1 2% twijfel 1 2% vaag 1 2% dubio 1 2% nieuw 1 2% geen idee 1 2% heden 1 2% vraagtekens 1 2% 47 wikken 1 2% 67. eenzaam- alleen 23 51% tsja 1 2% heid verdriet 3 7% lot 1 2% naar 1 2% ja/nee 1 2% wanhoop 1 2% woordassociatie 1 2% angst 1 2% nadenken 1 2% kamer 1 2% stom 1 2% moeilijk 1 2% geloof 1 2% heerlijk 1 2% bijten 1 2% grijs 1 2% vraag 1 2% arm 1 2% niet weten 1 2% soms 1 2% 45 leven 1 2% 31. ontmoeten zien 10 22% kou 1 2% nieuw 4 9% zelfmoord 1 2% tegenkomen 4 9% saai 1 2% mensen 3 7% zielig 1 2% vrienden 3 7% kut 1 2% elkaar 1 2% oud 1 2% hoi 1 2% ik 1 2% ontmoeting 1 2% vrees 1 2% leren kennen 1 2% bang 1 2% herkennen 1 2% 45 vrij 1 2% 68. storen irritant 5 12% afspreken 1 2% lastig vallen 3 7% kennis maken 1 2% rust 2 5% date 1 2% vervelend 2 5% drempel 1 2% studeren 1 2% afspraak 1 2% kamer 1 2% praten 1 2% ongemak 1 2% sociaal 1 2% herrie 1 2% hand 1 2% fout 1 2% 149

aangenaam 1 2% interruptie 1 2% ontdekken 1 2% ergenis 1 2% kennen 1 2% irritatie 1 2% liefde 1 2% binnenvallen 1 2% hallo 1 2% ergelijk 1 2% iemand zien 1 2% deur 1 2% rendeze-vous 1 2% ergens 1 2% 45 bordje 1 2% 32. wijsheid slim 14 32% onderbreken 1 2% kennis 7 16% inbreuk 1 2% kracht 3 7% grenzen 1 2% oud 3 7% kloppen 1 2% professor 1 2% ergeren 1 2% schrift 1 2% verbeterd 1 2% mens 1 2% professor 1 2% weten 1 2% deurhanger 1 2% baard 1 2% geheim 1 2% feiten 1 2% interrupperen 1 2% Socrates 1 2% werk 1 2% tijd 1 2% vervelen 1 2% denken 1 2% drilboor 1 2% tovenaar 1 2% moeilijk 1 2% Salomo 1 2% onverwachts 1 2% geleerdheid 1 2% lastig 1 2% groots 1 2% 42 opa 1 2% 69. weigeren nee 11 33% filosofie 1 2% niet willen 2 6% lezen 1 2% niet 2 5% pacht 1 2% tegenstand 2 5% 44 rood 1 3% 33. toepassen doen 15 33% accepteren 1 2% praktijk 5 11% afdoen 1 2% gebruiken 4 9% asielzoeker 1 2% kennis 3 7% schudden 1 2% wiskunde 2 4% staken 1 2% rekenen 1 2% nee zeggen 1 2% onderwijs 1 2% tegendraads 1 2% kennis 1 2% hakken 1 2% skil 1 2% begrijpelijk 1 2% kunnen 1 2% toestaan 1 2% bewerken 1 2% douane 1 2% invoegen 1 2% blokkade 1 2% werken 1 2% laten 1 2% slim 1 2% moeilijk 1 2% HBO 1 2% ambtenaar 1 2% uitvinding 1 2% sterk 1 2% techniek 1 2% afwijzen 1 2% zoeken 1 2% afweren 1 2% aanpassen 1 2% deurhanger 1 2% aanvullen 1 2% dienstplicht 1 2% relatief 1 2% willen 1 2% 45 afslaan 1 2% 34. denken doen 8 19% terugtrekken 1 2% hersenen 5 12% vervelend 1 2% 150

hersens 5 12% durven 1 2% hoofd 5 12% eerlijk 1 2% leren 2 5% 33 filosofie 2 5% 70. verlaten alleen 10 28% dromen 2 5% weggaan 8 22% oneindig 1 2% angst 5 11% nadenken 1 2% weg 4 11% weten 1 2% eenzaam 2 6% moeilijk 1 2% huis 2 4% slim 1 2% alleen gelaten 1 3% keuzes 1 2% kamer 1 3% ratio 1 2% verdriet 1 2% veel 1 2% weglopen 1 2% verstandig 1 2% onhandig 1 2% moeizaam 1 2% leegte 1 2% fantaseren 1 2% afscheid 1 2% praten 1 2% gaan 1 2% ingekeerd 1 2% eenzaamheid 1 2% lezen 1 2% pijn 1 2% 43 vertrek 1 2% 35. beslissen keuze 10 23% moeilijk 1 2% doen 5 11% bang 1 2% besluit 4 9% eiland 1 2% moeilijk 4 9% grot 1 2% weten 2 5% 36 twijfel 2 5% 71. weten kennis 17 57% beslissing 2 5% kennen 6 20% kiezen 2 5% leren 5 17% knoop 1 2% denken 1 3% maken 1 2% snappen 2 7% keuze maken 1 2% slim 2 4% keuzes 1 2% begrijpen 2 4% moeten 1 2% meten 1 2% eruit zijn 1 2% laten 1 2% mening 1 2% hoofd 1 2% doorslag 1 2% bereiken 1 2% kiezen 1 2% zeker 1 2% twijfelen 1 2% wetenschap 1 2% overdenken 1 2% beseffen 1 2% impuls 1 2% Groningen 1 2% politiek 1 2% veel 1 2% 44 lezen 1 2% 36. emotie gevoel 17 35% hersenen 1 2% verdriet 5 10% studeren 1 2% blij 4 8% 30 huilen 3 6% 72. carrière baan 8 18% tranen 1 2% werk 6 13% blijheid 1 2% ambitie 6 13% rood 1 2% toekomst 4 9% zijn 1 2% werken 3 7% snik 1 2% geld 3 7% geluk 1 2% maken 2 4% emotioneel 1 2% school 1 2% lach 1 2% geluk 1 2% 151

heftig 1 2% geen 1 2% woede 1 2% doel 1 2% blijdschap 1 2% stropdas 1 2% stoicijnen 1 2% yes! 1 2% mens 1 2% loopbaan 1 2% voelen 1 2% zaken 1 2% persoon 1 2% zakenleven 1 2% liefde 1 2% lui 1 2% complex 1 2% succesvol 1 2% verstand 1 2% markt 1 2% moeilijk 1 2% vrouw 1 2% pijn 1 2% 45 49 73. onderzoek wetenschap 5 11% 37. onderwijs leren 15 32% universiteit 4 9% school 14 30% kennis 3 7% kennis 2 4% studie 2 4% leraar 2 4% papier 2 4% voorspoed 1 2% werk 2 4% boek 1 2% school 1 2% leven 1 2% doen 1 2% leren kennen 1 2% eng 1 2% studeren 1 2% ontdekken 1 2% nodig 1 2% werken 1 2% universiteit 1 2% professor 1 2% leuk 1 2% witte jas 1 2% kinderen 1 2% geld 1 2% studie 1 2% saai 1 2% basisschool 1 2% vragen 1 2% plicht 1 2% experiment 1 2% recht 1 2% buisjes 1 2% college 1 2% lab 1 2% 47 denken 1 2% 38. voor- school 14 32% promoveren 1 2% bereiden leren 4 9% latjes 1 2% werken 3 7% vervelend 1 2% huiswerk 3 6% uitzoeken 1 2% prepareren 3 6% moeizaam 1 2% studeren 2 5% ziekenhuis 1 2% goed 2 4% irritant 1 2% klaar maken 2 4% uitslag 1 2% eerst 1 2% gedoe 1 2% tentamen 1 2% vertrouwen 1 2% tijdig 1 2% taai 1 2% inlezen 1 2% handig 1 2% koken 1 2% proefjes 1 2% college 1 2% 45 les 1 2% 74. taak opdracht 7 15% presentatie 1 2% doen 5 11% zenuwachtig 1 2% plicht 5 11% voorbereiden 1 2% straf 5 11% grondig 1 2% werk 4 9% inleiden 1 2% verplichting 3 7% omkleden 1 2% maken 2 4% verstandig 1 2% moeten 1 2% 152

reeks 1 2% dienen 1 2% vmbo 1 2% werken 1 2% tijd 1 2% huis 1 2% maken 1 2% helpen 1 2% doen 1 2% geen zin 1 2% terdege 1 2% huiswerk 1 2% vanzelf 1 2% schoonmaken 1 2% 44 team 1 2% 39. geheugen hersenen 8 17% opgelegd 1 2% onthouden 5 11% papier 1 2% denken 3 7% rekenen 1 2% hersens 3 7% recht 1 2% herinneren 2 4% kwijten 1 2% herinnering 2 4% schrijven 1 2% training 1 2% slim 1 2% 75. vergeten onthouden 5 11% kennis 1 2% geheugen 4 8% hersen 1 2% niet weten 2 4% hoofd 1 2% ouderdom 2 4% weten 1 2% stom 2 4% steun 1 2% o shit 1 2% brein 1 2% hoofd 1 2% verstand 1 2% weten 1 2% wijsheid 1 2% verstand 1 2% interessant 1 2% niet willen 1 2% geest 1 2% niet kunnen 1 2% goed 1 2% herinneren 1 2% korte termijn geheugen 1 1 2% afspraak 1 2% werkt 1 2% hersenen 1 2% harde schijf 1 2% jongens 1 2% mind 1 2% agenda 1 2% spel 1 2% te laat 1 2% steun 1 2% dom 1 2% nadenken 1 2% loslaten 1 2% ongeluk 1 2% opa 1 2% olifant 1 2% oeps 1 2% doolhof 1 2% uitbannen 1 2% 46 kwijt 1 2% sleutel 1 2% weg 1 2% balen 1 2% oude mensen 1 2% dementie 1 2% dan 1 2% vervelend 1 2% druk 1 2% stress 1 2% domheid 1 2% spullen 1 2% onhandig 1 2% 45 153