A Simulation-Based lntroduction Using Excel

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Transcription:

Quantitative Finance A Simulation-Based lntroduction Using Excel Matt Davison University of Western Ontario London, Canada CRC Press Taylor & Francis Croup Boca Raton London New York CRC Press is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business A CHAPMAN & HALL BOOK

Contents Preface, xvii Author, xix CHARTER 1 Introduction 1 CHARTER 2 Intuition about Uncertainty and Risk 5 2.1 CHARTER SUMMARY 5 2.2 INTRODUCTION 5 2.3 INDIVIDUAL ATTITUDES TOWARD RISK 6 2.4 THE ST. PETERSBURG PARADOX 11 2.4.1 Resolving the Paradox with Utilities 12 2.4.2 Resolving the Petersburg Paradox with Risk Exposure 13 2.4.3 Other Ways to Resolve the Paradox 13 2.5 LOOKING FORWARD TO CHAPTER 3 13 EXERCISES 14 FURTHER READING 15 CHARTER 3 The Classical Approach to Decision Making under Uncertainty 17 3.1 CHAPTER SUMMARY 17 3.2 MAP TO THE FUTURE 21 EXERCISE 21 FURTHER READING 21

vi Contents CHARTER 4 Valuing Investment Opportunities: The Discounted Cash Flow Method 23 4.1 CHARTER SUMMARY 23 4.2 DISCOUNTED CASH FLOW METHOD FOR EVALUATING INVESTMENT OPPORTUNITIES 24 4.2.1 Example of a Discounted Cash Flow Technique 24 4.2.2 Choosing the Discount Rate P 24 4.2.3 Philosophical Problems with DCF 25 4.2.4 Why Ulis Is a Good Approach Despite Its Uncertain Philosophical Status 26 4.3 CONCLUSIONS 26 EXERCISES 26 FURTHER READING 27 CHARTER 5 Repaying Loans over Time 29 5.1 CHAPTER SUMMARY 29 5.2 INTRODUCTION 30 5.3 REPAYING A LOAN OVER TIME: EXCEL 31 5.4 REPAYING A LOAN OVER TIME: MATH EM ATICS 33 5.5 FIRST-ORDER DIFFERENCE EQUATIONS 34 5.6 SOLVING THE LOAN REPAYMENT DIFFERENCE EQUATION 35 5.6.1 Loan Repaid "Quickly" 37 5.6.2 Loan Repaid Continuously 38 5.7 MORE EXAMPLES OF USING DIFFERENCE EQUATIONS TO FIND LOAN PAYMENTS 41 5.8 WRITING THE DIFFERENCE EQUATION IN FORWARD VERSUS BACKWARD FORMS 45 5.9 BRIDGESTOTHE FUTURE 46 EXERCISES 46 FURTHER READING 46

Contents vii CHARTER 6 Bond Pricing with Default: Using Simulations 49 6.1 CHAPTER SUMMARY 49 6.2 MODELING A DEFAULTABLE BOND OR LOAN 49 6.3 FINANCIAL INSIGHTS 55 6.4 SIMULATING LOAN PORTFOLIOS 56 6.5 WHAT HAPPENS IF THERE ARE A LARGE NUMBER OF INDEPENDENT LOANS? 60 6.6 BRIDGE TO THE FUTURE 66 EXERCISES 66 FURTHER READING 67 CHARTER 7 Bond Pricing with Default: Using Difference Equations 69 7.1 CHAPTER SUMMARY 69 7.2 RISKY BONDS 69 7.3 USING DIFFERENCE EQUATIONS TO FIND C 71 7.4 EXPLORING THE INSIGHTS ARISING FROM EQUATION 7.5 74 7.5 DETERMINING RECOVERY RATES 75 7.6 DETERMINING THE PROBABILITY OF DEFAULT 76 7.7 A BRIDGE TO THE FUTURE 76 EXERCISES 76 FURTHER READING 76 CHARTER 8 Difference Equations for Life Annuities 79 8.1 CHAPTER SUMMARY 79 8.2 INTRODUCTION 79 EXERCISES 87 FURTHER READING 88 CHARTER 9 Tranching and Col lateral ized Debt Obligations 89 9.1 CHAPTER SUMMARY 89 9.2 COLLATERALIZED DEBT OBLIGATIONS 90

viii Contents 9.3 TRANCHED PORTFOLIOS 91 9.4 THE DETAILED CALCULATION 93 9.4.1 Pricing a Bond with Two Default Events 93 9.4.2 Finding the "Fair" Coupon for Tranche B 94 9.5 CORRELATION OF TWO IDENTICAL BONDS 96 9.6 CONCLUSION 102 EXERCISES 102 FURTHER READING 103 CHARTER 10 Bond CDOs: More than Two Bonds, Correlation, and Simulation 105 10.1 CHAPTER SUMMARY 105 10.2 INTRODUCTION 105 10.3 USING AN EXCEL SIMULATION TO ANALYZE CDOs WITH MORE THAN TWO BONDS 106 10.4 COLLATERALIZED DEBT OBLIGATIONS: AN EXAMPLE OF FINANCIAL ENGINEERING 108 10.5 THE BINOMIAL SIMPLIFICATION 111 10.6 CORRELATED DEFAULTS 114 EXERCISES 118 FURTHER READING 119 CHARTER 11 Fundamentals of Fixed Income Markets 121 11.1 CHAPTER SUMMARY 121 11.2 WHAT ARE BONDS? 121 11.2.1 Debt Markets versus Borrowing from Small Number of Large Entities 122 11.2.2 Different Types of Bonds 122 11.3 GETTING DOWN TO QUANTITATIVE DETAILS 122 11.3.1 Interest Rate Conventions 124 11.3.2 Discount Factor Conventions 126 11.4 SIMPLEST BOND PRICING EQUATION 126

Contents ix 11.5 HOW BONDS ARE TRADED IN CANADA 128 11.5.1 BondAuctions 128 11.5.2 After Auction Trading of Bonds 129 11.6 CLEAN AND DIRTY BOND PRICES 129 11.6.1 Day Count Convention (or, the Dirty Secret of Clean Prices) 132 11.6.2 Dirty Price, Clean Price, and Invoice Price 133 11.7 CONCLUSION AND BRIDGE TO THE NEXT CHAPTER 133 EXERCISES 134 FURTHER READING 134 CHARTER 12 Yield Curves and Bond Risk Measures 137 12.1 CHAPTER SUMMARY 137 12.2 INTRODUCTION 137 12.2.1 Computing Yield to Maturity from Bond Prices 139 12.2.2 Other Yield Measures 139 12.3 CONSTRUCTING YIELD CURVES FROM BOND PRICES 139 12.3.1 Linear Interpolation 141 12.4 BOND PRICE SENSITIVITIES TO THE YIELD 142 12.4.1 Example Duration Calculation for a Zero Coupon Bond 144 12.4.2 Curvatures or "Convexities" 145 EXERCISES 146 FURTHER READING 148 CHARTER 13 Forward Rates 149 13.1 CHAPTER SUMMARY 149 13.2 INTRODUCTION 149 13.3 RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN FORWARD RATES AND THE YIELD CURVE 150

x Contents 13.4 YIELD CURVES, DISCOUNT FACTORS, AND FORWARD RATES 153 13.5 INTERPRETING FORWARD CURVES 154 EXERCISES 155 FURTHER READING 155 CHARTER 14. Modeling Stock Prices 157 14.1 CHAPTER SUMMARY 157 14.2 WH AT ARE STOCKS? 157 14.3 SIMPLE STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF REAL STOCK DATA 157 EXERCISES 161 FURTHER READING 162 CHARTER 15 Mean Variance Portfolio Optimization 163 15.1 CHAPTER SUMMARY 163 15.2 SELECTING PORTFOLIOS 163 15.2.1 Basic Model Assumptions 164 15.2.2 Turning Our Model Setting into an Optimization Problem 166 15.2.3 Studying the Formula in a Spreadsheet 172 15.2.4 Data Requirements 174 15.3 CAPM AND MARKOWITZ 174 EXERCISES 177 FURTHER READING 180 CHARTER 16 A Qualitative Introduction to Options 181 16.1 CHAPTER SUMMARY 181 16.2 STOCK OPTION DEFINITIONS 181 16.3 USES FOR PUT AND CALL OPTIONS 182 16.4 QUALITATIVE BEHAVIOR OF PUTS AND CALLS 184 EXERCISES 185 FURTHER READING 185

Contents xi CHARTER 17. Value at Risk 187 17.1 CHAPTER SUMMARY 187 17.2 INTRODUCTION TO VALUE AT RISK 187 17.3 PITFALLS OF VaR 191 17.4 SUMMARY 191 EXERCISES 191 FURTHER READING 192 CHARTER 18 Pricing Qptions Using Binomial Trees 193 18.1 CHAPTER SUMMARY 193 18.2 INTRODUCTION 194 18.3 BINOMIAL MODEL 195 18.4 SINGLE-PERIOD BINOMIAL TREE MODEL FOR OPTION PRICING 199 18.5 EXTENDING THE BINOMIAL MODEL TO MULTIPLE TIME STEPS 201 18.5.1 Numerical Example: Pricing a Two-Period Binomial Put Option 202 18.6 MULTIPLE-STEP BINOMIAL TREES 210 18.7 SUMMARY 215 EXERCISES 216 FURTHER READING 217 CHARTER 19 Random Walks 219 19.1 CHAPTER SUMMARY 219 19.2 INTRODUCTION 219 19.3 DERIVING THE DIFFUSION PARTIAL DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION 222 EXERCISES 224 FURTHER READING 225 CHARTER 20 - Basic Stochastic Calculus 227 20.1 CHAPTER SUMMARY 227 20.2 BASICS OF STOCHASTIC CALCULUS 227

xii Contents 20.3 STOCHAST1C INTEGRATION BY EXAMPLES 229 20.3.1 Review of the Left Endpoint Rule of Introductory Calculus 229 20.3.2 Ito Integration 231 20.3.3 Ito Isometry 235 20.3.4 Introduction to Ordinary Differential Equations 237 20.3.5 Solution of SDEs 241 20.3.5.1 Arithmetic Brownian Motion 241 20.3.5.2 Geometrie Brownian Motion 242 20.3.5.3 Ornstein-Uhlenbeck Process 243 20.4 CONCLUSIONS AND BRIDGE TO NEXT CHARTERS 249 EXERCISES 249 FURTHER READING 252 CHARTER 21. Simulating Geometrie Brownian Motion 253 21.1 SIMULATING GBM STOCK PRICES AT A SINGLE FUTURE TIME 253 21.2 SIMULATING A TIME SEQUENCE OF GBM STOCK PRICES 257 21.3 SUMMARY 258 EXERCISES 258 FURTHER READING 259 CHARTER 22 Black Scholes PDE for Pricing Options in Continuous Time 261^ 22.1 CHAPTER SUMMARY 261 22.2 INTRODUCTION 261 22.3 HEDGING ARGUMENT 262 22.4 CALL PRICE SOLUTION OF THE BLACK SCHOLES EQUATION 264 22.5 WHY SHORT SELLING IS SO DANGEROUS 264 22.6 SUMMARY AND BRIDGE TO THE FUTURE 265 EXERCISES 265 FURTHER READING 266

Contents xiii CHARTER 23 Solving the Black Scholes PDE 267 23.1 CHAPTER SUMMARY 267 23.2 SOLVING THE BLACK SCHOLES PARTIAL PDE FOR A EUROPEAN CALL 267 23.3 GENERAL EUROPEAN OPTION PAYOFFS: RISK- NEUTRAL PRICING 281 23.4 SUMMARY 284 EXERCISES 285 CHARTER 24 Pricing Put Options Using Put Call Parity 287 24.1 CHAPTER SUMMARY 287 24.2 SUMMARY 290 EXERCISES 290 FURTHER READING 290 CHARTER 25 Some Approximate Values of the Black Scholes Call Formula 291 25.1 INTRODUCTION 291 25.2 APPROXIMATE CALL FORMULAS AT-THE-MONEY 292 25.3 APPROXIMATE CALL VALUES NEAR-THE-MONEY 295 25.4 APPROXIMATE CALL VALUES FAR-FROM- THE-MONEY 296 EXERCISES 304 FURTHER READING 304 CHARTER 26 Simulating Delta Hedging 305 26.1 CHAPTER SUMMARY 305 26.2 INTRODUCTION 305 26.3 HOW DOES DELTA HEDGING REALLY WORK? 308 26.4 UNDERSTANDING THE RESULTS OF THE DELTA HEDGING PROCESS 312 26.5 THE IMPACT OF TRANSACTION COSTS 315 26.6 A HEDGERS PERSPECTIVE ON OPTION GAMMA OR, "BIG GAMMA" = "BIG MONEY" 317

xiv Contents 26.7 BRIDGE TO THE FUTURE 318 EXERCISES 319 FURTHER READING 319 CHARTER 27 Black Scholes with Dividends 321_ 27.1 CHAPTER SUMMARY 321 27.2 MODELING DIVIDENDS 321 27.2.1 "Tailed Stock Positions" 322 27.3 THE BLACK SCHOLES PDF FOR THE CONTINUOUSLY PAID DIVIDEND GASE 324 27.4 PRICING THE PREPAID FORWARD ON A J CONTINUOUS DIVIDEND PAYING STOCK 326 27.5 MORE COMPLICATED DERIVATIVES ON UNDERLYINGS PAYING CONTINUOUS DIVIDENDS 327 EXERCISES 329 FURTHER READING 329 CHARTER 28 - American Options 331 _ 28.1 CHAPTER SUMMARY 331 \ 28.2 INTRODUCTION AND BINOMIAL PRICING 331 \ 28.3 AMERICAN PUTS 337 \ 28.4 AMERICAN CALLS 340 \ EXERCISES 342 FURTHER READING 343 CHARTER 29. Pricing the Perpetua! American Put and Call 345 29.1 CHAPTER SUMMARY 345 29.2 PERPETUAL OPTIONS: UNDERLYING PAYS NO DIVIDENDS 345 29.2.1 Basic Perpetual American Put 347 29.3 BASIC PERPETUAL AMERICAN CALL 350 29.4 PERPETUAL AMERICAN CALL/PUT MODEL WITH DIVIDENDS 352

Contents xv 29.5 THE PERPETUAL AMERICAN CALL, CONTINUOUS DIVIDENDS 357 EXERCISE 362 FURTHER READING 362 CHARTER 30. Options on Multiple Underlying Assets 363 30.1 INTRODUCTION 363 30.2 EXCHANGE OPTIONS 365 EXERCISE 373 FURTHER READING 373 CHARTER 31 Interest Rate Models 375 31.1 CHAPTER SUMMARY 375 31.2 SETTING THE STAGE FOR STOCHASTIC INTEREST RATE MODELS 375 31.3 PRICING WHEN YOU CANNOT TRADE THE UNDERLYING ASSET 377 31.4 HEDGING BONDS IN CONTINUOUS TIME 380 31.5 SOLVING THE BOND PRICING PDE 383 31.6 VASICEK MODEL 386 31.7 SUMMARY 395 EXERCISES 395 FURTHER READING 396 CHARTER 32. Incomplete Markets 397 32.1 CHAPTER SUMMARY 397 32.2 INTRODUCTION TO INCOMPLETE MARKETS 397 32.3 TRYING TO HEDGE OPTIONS ON A TRINOMIAL TREE 398 32.3.1 Review of the Standard Binomial Tree Model 398 32.3.2 Extension to a Trinomial Tree Model 400 32.4 MINIMUM VARIANCE HEDGING OFA EUROPEAN OPTION WITH DEFAULT 408 32.4.1 Binomial Tree Model for Option Pricing 408

xvi Contents 32.5 BINOMIAL TREE MODEL WITH DEFAULT RISK EXERCISE FURTHER READING 409 412 413 APPENDIX 1: PROBABILITY THEORY BASICS, 415 APPENDIX 2: PROOF OF DEMOIVRE-LAPLACE THEOREM, 475 APPENDIX 3: NAMING VARIABLES IN EXCEL, 481 APPENDIX 4: BUILDING VBA MACROS FROM EXCEL, 485 INDEX, 501