Encyclopedia of Distance Learning Second Edition

Encyclopedia of Distance Learning Second Edition Patricia Rogers Bemidji State, USA Gary Berg Chapman University, USA Judith Boettcher Designing for Learning, USA Carole Howard Touro University International, USA Lorraine Justice Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong Karen Schenk University of Redlands, USA & North Carolina State University, USA Volume II Det-Inn Information Science reference Hershey New York

Director of Editorial Content: Director of Production: Managing Editor: Assistant Managing Editor: Typesetter: Cover Design: Printed at: Kristin Klinger Jennifer Neidig Jamie Snavely Carole Coulson Sean Woznicki, Amanda Appicello, Larissa Vinci, Mike Brehm, Jen Henderson, Elizabeth Duke, Jamie Snavely, Carole Coulson, Jeff Ash, Chris Hrobak Lisa Tosheff Yurchak Printing Inc. Published in the United States of America by Information Science Reference (an imprint of IGI Global) 701 E. Chocolate Avenue, Suite 200 Hershey PA 17033 Tel: 717-533-8845 Fax: 717-533-8661 E-mail: cust@igi-global.com Web site: http://www.igi-global.com/reference and in the United Kingdom by Information Science Reference (an imprint of IGI Global) 3 Henrietta Street Covent Garden London WC2E 8LU Tel: 44 20 7240 0856 Fax: 44 20 7379 0609 Web site: http://www.eurospanbookstore.com Copyright 2009 by IGI Global. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored or distributed in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, without written permission from the publisher. Product or company names used in this set are for identification purposes only. Inclusion of the names of the products or companies does not indicate a claim of ownership by IGI Global of the trademark or registered trademark. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Encyclopedia of distance learning / Patricia Rogers... [et al.], editors. -- 2nd ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. Summary: "This multiple volume publication provides comprehensive knowledge and literature on the topic of distance learning programs"--provided by publisher. ISBN 978-1-60566-198-8 (hardcover) -- ISBN 978-1-60566-199-5 (ebook) 1. Distance education--encyclopedias. I. Rogers, Patricia. LC5211.E516 2009 371.35'03--dc22 2008042438 British Cataloguing in Publication Data A Cataloguing in Publication record for this book is available from the British Library. All work contributed to this encyclopedia set is new, previously-unpublished material. The views expressed in this encyclopedia set are those of the authors, but not necessarily of the publisher. If a library purchased a print copy of this publication, please go to http://www.igi-global.com/agreement for information on activating the library's complimentary electronic access to this publication.

754 Robin H. Kay University of Ontario Institute of Technology, Canada Overview It is undeniable that distance learning has grown rapidly over the past five years. With over 12 billion dollars spent on online learning in 1998 (Burgess & Russell, 2003) and a growth rate of 30%-40% per year since then (Harper, Chen, & Yen, 2004; Hurst, 2001; Newman, 2003), it is safe to say that distance education is firmly established in many businesses and universities. One well-established advantage of distance learning is that a student controls the time, pace, and pathway of learning (Burgess & Russell, 2003; Pierrakeas, 2003). This control over learning is very appealing to a user, particularly when customized or just-in-time support is readily available (Harper, Chen, & Yen, 2004). Providing effective, timely support, though, puts considerable strain on instructors and tutors, if they are available (Harper et al., 2004; Levine, 2003; Wallace & Wallace, 2001). It is challenging to provide just-in-time help because delay is inevitable. The use of e-mail or online discussion necessitates a time lag between question and response. Instant messaging systems (IMS) are another option, however, it is cost prohibitive to have instructors and tutors available 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. Furthermore, IMS might be limited in the type of question that could be answered complex formulas and equations, for example, are difficult to explain using this medium. One possible strategy that could reduce the time required to address student needs in a distance learning environment is the use of educational mini-clips (EMCs). An EMC is 3-10 minute instructional video of an expert showing how to solve a specific problem in real time. EMCs have video controls enabling a user to easily pause, rewind, and fast forward a clip. More importantly, they are small, easily downloadable, and available at any time. This means if a student is having a problem, he/she can search a database of EMCs to find a model answer. EMCs could also be used to provide administrative and procedural guidance, two of the key areas where students ask for help the most (Harper et al., 2004). EMCs have also been referred to as screencasts, whiteboard movies, and audiographs. The Role of Educational Mini-Clips in Distance Education Description and Examples of Educational Mini-Clips As stated earlier, an EMC is a 3-10 minute video of an instructor solving a specific problem. Typically, the clip is similar to watching someone solve and explain a problem on a whiteboard, however, in EMCs you only see the board, not the person. The video controls (e.g., pause, rewind, fast forward) allow the user to determine the pace of learning. EMCs are stored in a shockwave format to reduce size and download time. Ideally, EMCs should be stored in a well-organized database so that users can easily search and find what they need. Perhaps the best way to understand what EMCs are is to view them (see Appendix A). The examples in Appendix A are based on mathematics, primarily because, currently, this is the leading topic covered by EMCs. However, clips could be created for a variety of subjects and purposes. For example, most sciencerelated subjects, with clearly defined problems, are suitable subject matter for EMCs. In addition, administrative EMCs explaining course outlines, format, design, and assignments can work quite well. In fact, as stated earlier, it appears that a majority of questions for distance learning are based on administrative and procedural problems (Harper et al., 2004). Characteristics of Good EMS Not all explanations are equal, as you may have noted if you viewed any of the EMCs listed in Appendix A. Intuitively, most of us have a sense of what a good explanation is, but it is challenging to articulate this knowledge. In fact, little research has been done on Copyright 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

what constitutes good explanation (Van Gog, Paas, & Van Merrienboer, 2004). At the University of Ontario Institute of Technology (UOIT), pre-service students in the faculty of education develop EMCs with an eye toward improving their explanation skills. The following qualities are emphasized in creating an effective explanation using an EMC: Context and type of problem is clearly articulated Key elements of the problem are explained before trying to solve it Important elements (terms /definitions /formulas/ procedures) are written down All key steps and processes are articulated while they were being done (e.g., no hidden steps) Diagrams/pictures/tables used in the clips help organize /clarify/ illustrate key aspects of the problem Typical errors or problems that a student might make are identified in the clip The tone of the voice is engaging (e.g., was not flat or monotone) The pace of the clip is good for learning It is critical to note that these qualities, while currently being tested, have not been formally validated. The important point to recognize, though, is that the quality of an EMC needs to be addressed, either informally or formally. An EMC will be of no use if the explanation provided is weak. It is critical to have the best explanations possible available to students to maximize effectiveness. Otherwise, instructors and tutors will be inundated with questions and requests for clarifications, thereby eliminating the positive effect that EMCs could have on reducing demands on time and resources. Advantages of Educational Mini-Clips There are clear advantages to using EMCs for students and instructors. For students, EMCs offer five main benefits: 1. 2. The ability to stop and start explanations and digest information at their own pace Quick access to a wide range of explanations at any time 3. 4. 5. An alternative to detailed, text-based instructions which can be cumbersome to follow and decode Access to the best quality explanations Access to administrative and procedural information about a course For instructors of distance education courses, the main benefit is markedly reduced demands on time with respect to course administration and course content. While the initial demand on time in developing clips may be extensive, EMCs can be created by tutors and shared among many sections of the same course. Once a set of clips is created for a course, it is expected that EMCs will make distance learning students far more self-sufficient. An instructor or tutor no longer has to answer the same content or administrative question over and over again. Furthermore, it is entirely possible that more students can be served in a specific course because question load on instructors will be substantially reduced. How to Make Educational Mini-Clips If it were extremely difficult and time consuming to make EMCs, their use in distance education might be limited. Fortunately, based on the experience of approximately 125 pre-service teachers at the faculty of education at UOIT over the past three years, a 5-8 minute clip can be made in 40-60 minutes. Assuming one has a computer, the following additional equipment and software is needed: A 6 by 8 graphics tablet ($160 U.S.) Headphones with a microphone ($20 U.S.) Screen recording software (e.g. Camtasia or Captivate) Annotation Software to use the graphics tablet The basic procedure for making any clip is as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Plug in the graphics tablet Plug in the headphone set Start the annotation software so you can write using the tablet Start the screen recording software Record your explanation Convert explanation to.swf format 755 E

It typically takes 5-10 minutes to get used writing with a graphics tablet, another 5-10 minutes to learn how to use the annotation software, and 2-3 minutes to learn how to use the screen recording software. Of course, the majority of time taken involves planning a carefully thought out explanation. A survey of the UOIT pre-service students indicated that their first 5-8 minute clip took anywhere from 40 minutes to 5 hours, depending on the degree of perfection demanded by a student. A series of 80 clips created for a Pre-Calculus web site at UOIT took approximately 80 hours to create, or about 1 hour per clip. These clips, though, averaged 8-12 minutes in length. their learning. Customized support of student learning, though, comes at a cost with respect to instructor time. Considerable time and effort is required by educators to communicate with students and answer their questions. EMCs offer a potential solution to this time drag, by providing clear, real-time, high-quality explanations of how to do specific problems in a course. A well organized set of EMCs can be a tremendous resource for students in a distance education course. In addition, EMCs dedicated to answering numerous and repetitive administrative questions can help reduce the time burden and tedium for educators. Evidence Supporting the Use of Educational Mini-Clips References To date, only one study has been done on the use of EMCs (Loomes, Shafarenko, & Loomes, 2002), however, the results consisted of a general discussion on the potential benefits of this tool. The data collection for two studies has just been completed at UOIT (Kay & Edwards, in progress; Kay & Kletskin, in progress). The first study looked at the impact of EMCs on improving the math knowledge of 172 grade 6-8 students. Preliminary results indicated statistically significant gains in knowledge were achieved for all three grade levels. The second study looked at 289 first university students who used EMCs to augment their knowledge for a first year calculus course. The instructors for this course found that, in previous years, too much time was being spent on covering concepts that students were meant to have before the course started (see http://faculty. uoit.ca/kay/precalc2 for a list of the topics and EMCs used). The initial results for this study indicated that the EMCs were used frequently (over 13, 500 hits in the first two weeks of the course) and rated useful or very useful by over 87% of the students. In summary, there is some indication that EMCs may be effective and useful, but more research needs to be done. Conclusion Distance education is a promising alternative to traditional, face-to-face course, particularly for students who wish to determine the time, pace, and pathway of 756 Burgess, J. R. D., & Russell, J. E. A. (2003). The effectiveness of distance learning initiatives in organizations. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 63, 289 303. Harper, K. C., Chen, K., & Yen, D. C. (2004). Distance learning, virtual classrooms, and teaching pedagogy in the Internet environment. Technology in Society, 26, 585 598. Hurst, F. (2001). The death of distance learning. Educause Quarterly, 3, 58-60. Levine, A., & Sun, J. C. (2002). Barriers to distance education. ACE/EDUCAUSE series Distributed Education: Challenges, Choices, and a New Environment.[Online.] Available: http://www.acenet.edu/bookstore/pdf/distributed-learning/distributed-learning-06.pdf Loomes, M. C., Shafarenko, A., & Loomes, M. J. (2002) Teaching mathematical explanation through audiographic technology, journal of computers and education. Computers & Education, 38, 137-149. Newman, A. (2003). Measuring success in web-based distance learning. Educause Research Bulletin, 4, 111. Pierrakeas, C., Xenos, M., & Pintelas, P. (2003). Evaluating and improving material and tutoring aspects of distance education learning. Studies in Educational Evaluation, 29, 335-349. Van Gog, T. A. J. M., Paas, F., & van Merriënboer, J. J. G (2004). Process-oriented worked examples: Improving transfer performance through enhanced understanding. Instructional Science, 32, 83-98.

Wallace, F. L., & Wallace, S. R. (2001). Electronic office hours: A component of distance learning. Computers & Education, 37, 195-209. Key Terms Annotation Software: Software to record freehand when using on a graphics tablet. It is essentially like drawing or writing on the monitor. Customized Support: Support offered when individual students have questions or requests. This is often done using email or online discussions. Educational Mini Clip: A 3-10 minute video clip of an instructors describing and writing the answer to a specific problem, almost as if you were recording a solution written on a whiteboard in front of the class. Graphics Tablet: A device that allows a user to write on the screen using a pen. It is often used for drawing pictures, but can be used to write words and symbols, just as if a person were writing on a piece of paper. Screen Recording Software: This software records everything that occurs on the screen in real time. It will also record sound if a microphone is available. It is used to create small instructional video clips to guide student learning. 757 E

APPENDIX A The following mini-clip collections were created by preservice and experienced teachers: Faculty of Education (Pre-Service Teachers) Grade 7 to 8: http://faculty.uoit.ca/kay/courses/student/2005f/mc.html Grades 9 to 12: http://faculty.uoit.ca/kay/courses/student/2005w/mc.html Grades 11 to 12: http://faculty.uoit.ca/kay/courses/student/2006w/mc2.htm Pre-Calculus: http://faculty.uoit.ca/kay/precalc2 On the Web (Experienced Teachers) Mini Clip Collections: http://faculty.uoit.ca/kay/courses/curs4140/tools/minclips.html Administrative Clip (University Instructor) 758 Instructions for Mini-Clip Assignment http://faculty.uoit.ca/kay/courses/admin_clips/assign1_mc.html