Implications of Computer Technology in Language Teaching: Accessing CALL in Teacher Education

US-China Education Review A, ISSN 2161-623X September 2014, Vol. 4, No. 9, 651-661 D DAVID PUBLISHING Implications of Computer Technology in Language Teaching: Accessing CALL in Teacher Education Kofi Bentum Wilson Accra Institute of Technology, Accra, Ghana; University of Education, Winneba, Ghana Bliss Acheampong University of Education, Winneba, Ghana Computer-assisted language learning (CALL) offers language teacher trainees a variety of activities that, when carefully planned as part of the teacher development programme (TDP), will help the learner acquire skills in using technology in learning a language. This research, which is situated in the constructivist theory of learning, seeks to examine how language teacher trainees at teacher education institutions explore the mandatory information and communication technology (ICT) course they study to support the teaching of languages on graduation during their professional training. The study further examines the innovative practices of teacher trainees use of technology to support their teaching practices. This study, which was limited to four teacher education institutions in Ghana, used focus-group discussions and closed-ended self-answering questionnaires to collect data from the teacher trainees. Using stratified sampling technique to select respondents, a total of 240 questionnaires were distributed to teacher trainees, of which 220 were returned. The collected data from the questionnaires were analysed using frequencies and simple means. Issues from the study questioned how we use technology in teaching languages. Experiences from the respondents were varied and numerous. The findings from the study reveal that: 1. The teacher trainees have low technology literacy skills; 2. The teacher trainees are not exploring technology tools available to them to support their personal training; 3. Some of the teacher trainees just want to pass the mandatory ICT course; and 4. The teacher trainees have the perception that if one knows how to use a computer, then, that is technology integration. The implications of the findings from this study indicate that technology training should be part of all courses and throughout the entire TDP programme. It is recommended that practicing teachers also be given frequent training in the use of technology to raise their technology literacy skills level. Finally, the paper outlines implications for teacher educators. Keywords: computer-assisted language learning (CALL), teacher trainee, computer technology, teacher development programme (TDP), focus-group discussion Introduction The last two decades have witnessed a proliferation of information and communication technologies (ICTs) into the field of education (Bordbar, 2010). According to Bordbar (2010), the adoption of ICTs into education has often been premised on the potential of the new technological tools to revolutionize an outmoded Kofi Bentum Wilson, M.Sc., M.Ed., Ph.D. candidate, School of Advanced Technologies Engineering and Science, Accra Institute of Technology; lecturer, Department of ICT Education, University of Education, Winneba. Bliss Acheampong, B.Ed., M.Phil., lecturer, Department of English Education, Faculty of Languages, University of Education, Winneba.

652 IMPLICATIONS OF COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY IN LANGUAGE TEACHING educational system, better prepare students for the information age, and accelerate national development efforts. Hooker (2009) also said that the drive to utilize ICTs as an integral feature in all professional learning programmes had led to the emergence of a myriad of national and international initiatives and schemes for new technology integration over the last decade. The introduction of new pedagogical tools does not reject, but includes programmes and methods which represent innovation that gains acceptance slowly and unevenly (Seljan, Berger, & Dovedan, 2004). According to Seljan et al. (2004), the Internet, the World Wide Web (WWW), and multimedia computing provide an incredible boost to computer-assisted language learning (CALL) applications, offering a wide variety of educational programs, resources, software, journals, organizations, and software tutorials including all types of exercises for grammar drills, vocabulary, listening and pronunciation exercises, games, etc.. In developing countries, like Ghana, the potential promise of ICTs in education has generated a whole set of initiatives that will accommodate the new tools. What is CALL? This is a question that does not subscribe to an easy answer; thus, many researchers trying to define the field of CALL have turned to what Springer (2012) described as the metaphor of the map. In the words of Springer (2012), CALL may be defined to include any process in which a learner uses a computer and, as a result, improves his or her language (p. 39). Springer made it clear that the problems associated with using CALL were not peculiar but related to all other computer-related activities. To this effect, Hubbard (2011) observed that CALL in its current state might be defined in terms of the use of the Internet as incorporated into the field of CALL activities. However, the field of CALL involves the use of a computer in the language teaching and learning process; the purpose should be aimed at teaching an aspect of the language through the medium of the computer. Some of the factors that determine the characteristics of any CALL program include: the language taught; the language of instruction; the language writing system; the level of the language to be taught; what is to be taught; and how it is to be taught. However, the challenge confronting educational systems of today is how to transform the existing curriculum so as to provide students with the needed skills to enable them fit into and function effectively in this dynamic, information rich, and continuously changing environment. This has placed educational systems under increasing pressure to use ICTs to teach students the knowledge and skills they need in the 21st century. The past decade has also witnessed a fundamental change in the way people communicate as well as do business. The new technologies responsible for this change also have the potential to change the face of education: where people learn; how learning is delivered; role of the teacher in the teaching process; and the responsibilities of the learner in the learning process. As computer technologies have become widespread in businesses, homes, and schools, the need for language learning has become important and urgent. It is obvious that the necessity of computer literacy is important especially with language teachers having started to use new technologies as a new pedagogical tool in language teaching. In developed countries, like the Western economy, the Internet and computers are available in the classrooms. The argument of Bordbar (2010) is that the majority of studies on teacher technology education explored the following issues: 1. What teachers are and/or should be learning in technology courses; 2. Teacher education students knowledge of and attitudes toward technology; and 3. How teachers think about and use computers in the classroom. Wilson (2014) recognized that younger people (students) have better computer

IMPLICATIONS OF COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY IN LANGUAGE TEACHING 653 literacy skills and interest than older people. This emphasizes the point that there is an increasing gap between the current use of technology in teaching, learning, and a learner s daily life experiences with technology (Attwell & Hughes, 2010), as students may out-run teachers when it comes to the skills of computer use in CALL activities. Literature Review Hubbard (2009) (as cited in Kılıçkaya & Seferoğlu, 2013) said: As computers have come (sic) more a part of our everyday lives and permeated other areas of education the question is no longer whether to use computers but how. CALL researchers, developers and practitioners have a critical role in helping the overall field of second language learning come to grips with this domain. (p. 21) ICTs have increasingly become important in our daily lives as well as educational systems. There is a growing demand on educational institutions to deploy ICTs to enhance knowledge and skills of students in order for them to fit into the 21st century. Buabeng-Andoh (2012) said that today s educational institutions have made strides to restructure their curricula and classroom facilities to allow the use of technologies in education. This has been done to bridge the existing technology gap in teaching and learning. Though today s technologies are essential tools for teaching and learning, the use of ICTs in education is not a panacea for all educational problems. According to Jung (2005), ICTs can change the way teachers teach, support student-centred approaches to instruction, develop higher order skills, and promote collaborative activities. Integration of ICTs in teacher education programmes is considered as key to develop the technology competency of teacher trainees. To promote genuine change in the classroom and produce competent and effective teachers, teacher education must alter its tools, methods, and strategies and adopt modern ones that have been proved to be more efficacious than previous ones (Nyenwe & Ishikaku, 2012). Nyenwe and Ishikaku (2012) further said that the first step to take for successful integration of ICTs in teacher education was the critical examination and assessment of the teacher training institutions. Jung (2005) argued that since most nations had limited resources for teacher training, they must adopt cost-effective strategies by making judicious use of resources. Jung (2005) further said that a well-designed teacher training program was essential to meet the demand of today s teachers who want to learn how to use ICTs effectively for their teaching. According to Egbert, Paulus, and Nakamichi (2002), pre- and in- service language teachers should clearly learn about computer use. They argued further that when it is appropriately integrated, CALL technologies can support experiential learning and practice in a variety of modes, such as providing quicker and effective feedback to learners, as well as supporting pair and group collaborative work. They continue to say that it promotes exploratory and global learning, enhances learner achievement, and provides access to authentic materials. The rise of a motley collection of electronic devices and technology courses in educational institutions, especially teacher education institutions, suggests or creates a belief that teacher trainees can learn about education technology theory and practice through coursework. Some researchers on the other hand have found that coursework seems to have little or no impact on teacher education students beliefs about their abilities or use of what they have learned in their teaching. A wide range of factors have been found to influence teachers use of computers. Even a computer course can positively affect teachers attitudes toward computers, giving

654 IMPLICATIONS OF COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY IN LANGUAGE TEACHING them more confidence and convincing them that technology is a valuable tool. For instance, Egbert et al. (2002) argued that the promise of computer technologies, which is supported by both research and practice, underlied the emergence of technology classes across teacher education programmes and an increase in courses aimed at language teachers. However, the appropriateness of technology for student learning is only one factor in understanding teachers use of CALL activities. Seljan et al. (2004) believed that as students see the computer as a trendy and useful tool, which permits them to get closer to the world, the Internet and WWW become motivating, offering a wide range of authentic material and promoting development of new learning strategies. Furthermore, students can create their personal websites or projects according to their needs, within and outside the classroom through the use of e-mails, chat-rooms, articles, class-conferencing, etc.. Seljan et al. (2004) also argued that technology integration does not necessarily occur only through coursework, but by other kinds of experiences. As a result of that, teacher educators need to re-examine the opportunities they provide teacher trainees learning about CALL activities. Kılıçkaya and Seferoğlu (2013) argued that it has become necessary that teachers change toward and be trained in terms of technology integration. This argument was raised owing to the breath-taking rate at which technology is advancing and the available tools which are frequently used by students, though not often for educational purposes. Interestingly, though Seljan et al. (2004) researched into CALL activities, their study focused mainly on the exploitation of language resources and learning materials that are accessible on CD-ROMs and on the Internet. The study however did not consider how practicing teachers acquire skills in utilising the knowledge in CALL activities in practice. There is a gap in the literature specific to the relatively new area of CALL. In order to help language teachers learn about and use technology effectively, we need to know more about the transfer of CALL coursework to the classroom. More specifically, we need to ask the following questions as identified by Seljan et al. (2004): 1. How do teachers learn about CALL-based activities? 2. How does what they learned in their coursework impact their current teaching contexts? 3. What factors influence whether they use computers in their classrooms? and 4. How do participants continue to acquire and master new ideas in CALL after formal coursework ends (professional development)? This study seeks to address this gap in the literature by describing how language teachers use the practical knowledge and experience gained in graduate coursework on computer integration in their teaching. The authors examine how teacher trainees acquire skills in CALL activities and how what they learned in their coursework will influence their future teaching practices. To use these tools effectively and efficiently, teachers need visions of the technologies potential, opportunities to apply them, training and just-in-time support, and time to experiment. Only then can teachers be informed and confident in their use of new technologies. Problem Statement The integration of ICTs into the educational classroom which has attained a new crescendo is marked by the exclusive inclusion of ICTs into educational activities run by the schools across the world. It also comes with flexibilities and new opportunities as well as challenging the confidence of users. Ghana, a sub-saharan nation, is one such country which has seen the importance and implications of ICTs in education. In a bid to explore the power and potential of ICTs in all fields, of which education is included, the government of Ghana

IMPLICATIONS OF COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY IN LANGUAGE TEACHING 655 developed the Ghana ICT for Accelerated Development (ICT4AD) Policy (Republic of Ghana, 2003). This policy sought among other things to transform education by making ICTs an integral part of national curriculum at all levels. To give meaning to this policy, the government of Ghana, in 2007, implemented the ICT4AD policy following a recommendation from the National Education Review Committee Report (Anamuah-Mensah, 2003). Both documents highlight the significance of incorporating ICTs into the school curriculum at all levels. The implementation of the reform sparked a revolution in setting up of computer laboratories and provision of computers and digital devices to educational institutions across the country. Teacher trainees are to learn about ICTs and, then, learn to use it as a tool in teaching. Students have been taking structured compulsory ICT lessons and other related ICT lessons since then. Though research has been conducted on ICT integration in higher education, not much has been conducted on how teacher trainees explore computer technologies to support teaching of languages in teacher education institutions. The purpose of this study is to find out how language teacher trainees explore the use of computers in the teaching of languages. Theoretical Framework Grounded on the knowledge that effective use of technology has to be constructed within a pedagogical and organisational context, the analysis of this study focuses on the impact of the relevant contextual factors that provoke the use of computing and other digital devices in language teaching by language teacher trainees. For technology to thrive, pedagogy (teaching methods), content (curriculum), and technology interact together (Wilson, 2014). According to Wilson (2014), in a school setting, learners should be able to interact with colleagues, contents, and pedagogy through technology. This study is based on the activity theory (AT), which is based on Vygotsky s work originally developed by Leontiev and extended by Engestrom (Hashim & Jones, 2007). AT widely applied to study technology-based learning activities (Hooker, 2009) proffer three basic principles which are helpful for understanding and analysing the process of ICT integration in teacher development programme (TDP) systems: 1. Teacher professional learning and development are social processes growing out of joint activity (Hooker, 2009); 2. People are active cognizing agents but they work in sites that are not necessarily of their choosing with tools that constrain and afford their actions (Hooker, 2009); and 3. Teaching and learning systems are constantly subject to change and these changes are driven by contradictions and tensions which can lead to expansive learning (Hardman, 2008). This theory supports learners in constructing their own knowledge. Thus, ICT is a hands-on practical learning activity that requires learners to use the technology to build on their existing knowledge. According to Hooker (2009), the concepts of AT can provide a framework to explore from a socio-cultural perspective for analysing ICT practices, which supports the idea that ICTs need to be studied within the learning environment. A key feature of Engestroms model conceptualizes all human activity as the interaction of six inseparable and mutually constitutive elements: subjects, tools, object and outcome, rules, community, and division of labour (see Figure 1). If the assumption is that the object (purpose) is the use of ICT tools to enhance institutional practice through a continuum of TDP (Hardman, 2008; Hooker, 2009) from technology literacy to knowledge deepening to knowledge creation, then the outcome progressively changes between past, present, and future systems of provision. The data showed from the school setting that teacher trainees acquire technology literacy skills from engaging in academic and non-academic uses of technology.

656 IMPLICATIONS OF COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY IN LANGUAGE TEACHING Figure 1. The six elements of an activity system (Hardman, 2008; Hooker, 2009). Methodology Research Questions The results of the data collected were analysed according to the following two research questions: 1. What factors influence the adoption of CALL skills? 2. In what ways does the general ICT course interact with the language teacher trainees current practices? Data Collection Using a blend of quantitative and qualitative methods (Creswell, 2012) to collect empirical data, questionnaires were distributed to teacher trainees across four teacher education institutions. These included two colleges of education and two teacher education universities in Ghana. The data collection used questionnaires and focus-group discussions. Self-answering questionnaires were distributed to 240 teacher trainees, of which 220 were returned. All the students have taken the mandatory ICT course which consists of Basic Computer/Technology Operations and Concepts, Personal and Professional Use of Technology, and Application of Technology in Instruction. Data Analysis The general ICT course requires that students learn about the computer as a tool to support teaching and learning. This study used descriptive statistics in computing percentages for each of the valid responses of the items. The percentages are presented as part of the findings. The data collected included teacher trainees technology literacy skills level, their access to various technologies, and enablers of skills acquisition. Discussion of Findings Research Question 1: What Factors Influence the Adoption of CALL Skills? The data presented in Table 1 show that 21.8% of the respondents (N = 48) did not have prior knowledge in the use of computing devices. However, 63.63% of the respondents (N = 140) have used computer-based technology between 0-6 years. The number of respondents who have used computer-based technology being 14.5% (N = 32) was rather low and discouraging. The practical implication is that more needs to be done. As ICTs have become part of the national curriculum, all students irrespective of the year and level are required to take and attend ICT lessons (usually dubbed computer studies). The data in Table 2 present feedback of teacher trainees access to computing facilities. A total of 58.6% (N = 129) of the respondents indicated that they have access to personal computers. Interestingly, data in Table 2 show that 29.5% (N = 65)

IMPLICATIONS OF COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY IN LANGUAGE TEACHING 657 patronised the computer labs (library and ICT lab) in their institutions. Table 1 How Long Have You Been Using Computer-Based Technology for Academic Purposes? Number of years received training N % None 48 21.8 0-2 years 66 30.0 2-4 years 44 20.0 4-6 years 30 13.6 6-8 years 15 6.8 8-10 years 7 3.2 Above 10 years 10 4.5 Total 220 100.0 Table 2 Access to Computers Computer access N % Personal computer 129 58.6 Friends computer 32 14.5 Computers in the library 8 3.6 Access to computers in the computer lab 57 25.9 The study reveals that Internet Wi-Fi access points were installed and in use at the institutions used for this study. Data presented in Table 3 show that 85% (N = 187) of the respondents accessed the Internet while on campus. The respondents access to Internet facilities as analysed and presented in Table 4 shows that 47.5% (N = 104) of the participants accessed the Internet at computer labs. Data presented in Table 5 show that 39.5% (N = 87) of the participants made use of campus Internet while 35.9% (N = 79) accessed the Internet from telecommunication providers directly (i.e., participants accessed the Internet via modems or mobile devices, tablets, and smartphones). A participant in focus-group discussions responded that: Some of the teachers, for instance, the art teacher, permit the use of mobile phones in class for research. Especially when he makes a statement or mentions a technical term that students do not understand, he allows us to browse into the Internet to get more information about it. Table 3 Do You Have Access to the Internet While on Campus? Internet access N % Yes 187 85 No 33 15 Table 4 Where Do You Get Internet Access on Campus? Internet access N % Computer lab 104 47.3 Lecture hall 43 19.5 Campus library 28 12.7 Student hostel 45 20.5

658 IMPLICATIONS OF COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY IN LANGUAGE TEACHING Table 5 Source of Internet Service Provider Internet service provider N % Institution 87 39.5 Telecommunication provider 79 35.9 Others 8 3.6 Research Question 2: In What Ways Does the General ICT Course Interact With Teacher Trainees Current Learning Practices? Data presented in Table 6 show the various uses of teacher trainees technology skills. These included academic and non-academic uses of the various technologies available to them. For example, Facebook (36%, N = 157) and WhatsApp (27%, N = 120) applications recorded heavy usage by the participants. Interestingly, the heavy patronage of these technology tools was mostly for chatting (i.e., social interaction) rather than for academic work. Collaborative tools and the social media carry much weight in terms of information dissemination. Thus, the social media can be harnessed to support academic work. As it is now, the data presented show that the teacher trainees are not harnessing the power of the social media and the collaborative tools to support their studies. Table 6 Teacher Trainees Use of Technology Items Chatting Group work Research Assignments and classwork Personal studies Exchange mails Text messaging N % N % N % N % N % N % N % E-mail 58 13 24 24 46 39 54 45 36 36 96 55 64 29 Twitter 39 9 3 3 6 5 6 5 4 4 7 4 8 4 Skype 46 11 2 2 3 3 6 5 2 2 5 3 7 3 Blog 2 0 2 2 6 5 4 3 6 6 2 1 2 1 Wiki 6 1 12 12 17 14 12 10 13 13 5 3 6 3 Facebook 157 36 18 18 19 16 9 8 16 16 21 12 67 30 WhatsApp 120 27 37 36 9 8 18 15 12 12 31 18 63 28 Others 10 2 4 4 12 10 10 8 10 10 6 3 5 2 Total 438-102 - 118-119 - 99-173 - 222 - Furthermore, the participants responses from the focus-group discussions show that they were encouraged to upload and send some of their assignments as attachment to their instructors. These were normally done during the ICT lessons. However, they were quick to point out that some of their instructors in courses other than ICT also encouraged them to submit their assignments online as attachment. As a result of that, they learn to use technology to interact with their colleagues and instructors. However, data from the transcription of the focus-group discussions show that some of the daring teacher trainees explored technology to support their training. For instance, the study reveals that teacher trainees unconsciously learn some skills they have never been taught, or they have little consciousness of the skills they have acquired until they are prompted about them. Some of the teacher trainees participating in the focus-group discussions revealed that they used their devices to learn the pronunciation of words and sounds and some other aspects of language learning. For example, a participant responded that:

IMPLICATIONS OF COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY IN LANGUAGE TEACHING 659 I have downloaded some video lessons on English grammar from the Internet. I used that to deliver lessons to the students via my laptop during the internship. It became evidently clear that some instructors encourage teacher trainees to use technology to interact with academic content. To achieve this, the trainees are encouraged to seek information for their group work by technological means and also to do presentations in class. Some of the respondents responded that: I use my laptop in presenting assignments in class. I am a group leader and when we are given group assignments, we are allowed to use information from the Internet. I lead my group in presenting in class after searching for the information. Another respondent in focus-group discussions indicated: I am the course representative, so mostly I send information through the WhatsApp to my colleague students, and sometimes, I chat with my friends and send pictures, live pictures and live videos, to them. Conclusion Findings from the study show that: 1. The language teacher trainees have low technology literacy skills; 2. The language teacher trainees are not exploring technology tools available to them to support their personal training; 3. The majority of the language teacher trainees just want to pass the mandatory ICT course; and 4. The language teacher trainees have the perception that if one knows how to use a computer, then, that is technology integration. The authors can confidently conclude that low technology literacy skills level among the teacher trainees has greatly affected their technology exploratory level. The situation is compounded by the low technology literacy skills level of some trainers and the lack of appreciation of inability to use technology in the professional training of the teacher trainees. The findings support a previous research on technology teacher education (Egbert et al., 2002) as it suggested that teachers who use CALL activities are often those teachers who have experience with CALL prior to taking the course; that lack of time support and resources prohibits the use of CALL activities in some classrooms; and that colleagues are the most common resources of new CALL activity ideas outside of formal coursework. Implications for teacher education are that teachers learn better in situated contexts, and technology courses should be designed accordingly. Results of this study provide implications for the following: 1. Theoretical significance: The study confirmed the theoretical knowledge that learners construct their knowledge when the opportunities are provided to them. Teacher trainees collaborated in their group activities through the use of social media and collaborative technology tools; 2. Practical significance: The results of this study can help teacher educators better understand the impact of CALL activities in the classroom computer use and rethink ways to facilitate pre- and in- service teachers continued development in the area of CALL; 3. Policy significance: The findings of this study reveal that all the institutions have a policy governing the study of technology and the use of technology in education. However, it was discovered that some trainers went the extra step of encouraging teacher trainees to interact with content through technology. Some of the trainees were given the opportunity to use technology to do group presentation.

660 IMPLICATIONS OF COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY IN LANGUAGE TEACHING Recommendations The researchers acknowledged the challenges that technology integration in language teacher education institutions encountered. Nevertheless, for TDPs to be effective, changes to the existing curriculum should be made. Language teacher trainees should reconsider their role and start changing their attitudes by making changes to their pedagogical practices. If we want the language teacher trainees to develop the culture of technology use in teaching, then technology should be fused into all programmes and should become everyday practice. It is recommended that teacher education programmes should focus on training that is directed at achieving the goal of efficient language teaching. Finally, the researchers recommended that a study should be carried out on how educators of language teachers acquire and adopt CALL methods. References Anamuah-Mensah, J. (2003). Meeting the challenges of education in the twenty-first century (Educational Reforms Commission Report). Accra, Ghana: Ministry of Education Youth & Sports. Attwell, G., & Hughes, J. (2010). Pedagogic approaches to using technology for learning Literature review. Skills for learning professionals. Retrieved March 13, 2013, from http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/ 20110414152025/ Bordbar, F. (2010). English teachers attitudes toward computer-assisted language learning. International Journal of Language Studies (IJLS), 4(3), 179-206. Buabeng-Andoh, C. (2012). Factors influencing teachers adoption and integration of information and communication technology into teaching: A review of the literature. International Journal of Education and Development Using Information and Communication Technology (IJEDICT), 8(1), 136-155. Retrieved July 27, 2014, from http://ijedict.dec.uwi.edu/ viewarticle. php?id=1361 Creswell, J. W. (2012). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research (4th ed.). Boston, M.A.: Pearson Education, Inc.. Egbert, J., Paulus, T. M., & Nakamichi, Y. (2002). The impact of call instruction on classroom computer use: A foundation for rethinking technology in teacher education. Language Learning & Technology, 6(3), 108-126. Retrieved July 27, 2014, from http://llt.msu.edu/vol6num3/egbert/ Hardman, J. (2008). Researching pedagogy: An activity theory approach. Journal of Education, 45, 65-95. Hashim, N. H., & Jones, M. L. (2007). Activity theory: A framework for qualitative analysis. Paper presenrted at The 4th International Qualitative Research Convention, Malaysia. Retrieved August 3, 2014, from http://ro.uow.edu.au/commpapers /408/ Hooker, M. (2009). How can I encourage multi-stakeholder narrative and reflection on the use of ICT in teacher professional development programmes in Rwanda? Educational Journal of Living Theories, 2(3), 324-364. Retrieved August 3, 2014, from http://www.ejolts.net Hubbard, P. (2011). An invitation to CALL: Foundations of computer-assisted language learning (Unit 1). Retrieved August 2, 2014, from http://www.stanford.edu/~efs/callcourse2/call1.htm Jung, I. (2005). ICT-pedagogy integration in teacher training: Application cases worldwide. International Forum of Educational Technology & Society (IFETS), 8(2), 94-101. Kılıçkaya, F., & Seferoğlu, G. (2013). The impact of CALL instruction on English language teachers use of technology in language teaching. Journal of Second and Multiple Language Acquisition (JSMULA), 1(1), 20-38. Nyenwe, J., & Ishikaku, E. C. (2012). Integration of information and communication technology (ICT) in teacher education for capacity building. Journal of Education and Practice, 3(10), 66-70. doi:2534-4542-1-pb Republic of Ghana. (2003). The Ghana ICT for accelerated development (ICT4AD) policy. Accra: Republic of Ghana.

IMPLICATIONS OF COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY IN LANGUAGE TEACHING 661 Seljan, S., Berger, N., & Dovedan, Z. (2004). Computer-assisted language learning (CALL). In P. Biljanović, & S. Karolj (Eds.), Proceedings of the 27th International Convention MIPRO 2004: MEET + HGS (pp. 262-266). Rijeka: Liniavera. doi:180676 Springer, S. E. (2012). Review of teaching and researching computer-assisted language teaching. Language Learning & Technology, 16(1), 39-42. Retrieved July 30, 2014, from http://llt.msu.edu/issues/february2012/review3.pdf Wilson, K. B. (2014). Computer usage among university teacher-trainees. US-China Education Review A, 4(6), 387-394. Retrieved July 27, 2014, from http://www.davidpublishing.com