NNS teacher trainees in Western-based TESOL programs

NNS teacher trainees in Western-based TESOL programs Karen A. Carrier Many Western -based TESOL programs have not yet adequately recognized and addressed the di erent needs of non-native English-speaking (NNS) teacher trainees. Various authors have suggested that TESOL programs need to provide NNS teacher trainees with instruction and support in key areas such as contextually responsive teacher education content, training in a di erent school culture, competing with native English-speaking teacher trainees, selfconfidence, and encouraging contributions by NNS teacher trainees to the field of English language teaching. This article suggests the use of an introductory first semester course for NNS teacher trainees as an initial step in addressing these key areas in order to provide relevant teacher education training to this significant and rapidly growing population. Suggestions for instructional units, texts, and general course design features are given, illustrated by examples from a similar course design adopted by one U.S.-based TESOL program. Introduction An ongoing discussion has developed concerning the lack of relevance of Western-based TESOL programs for international teacher trainees who are non-native English speakers (NNSs), and who intend to return to their home countries to teach English. This is a timely and important discussion because, as Liu (1999: 3) notes, nearly 40% of the teacher trainees enrolled in North American, British, and Australian TESOL programs are NNSs. However, many of these programs have not adequately recognized and addressed the di erent needs and interests of their NNS teacher trainees in certain key areas (Liu 1998: 3). These areas include ensuring contextually responsive teacher education content, training for success in a di erent school culture, competing with native English-speaking teacher trainees (NSs), promoting self-confidence, and encouraging contributions by NNS teacher trainees to the field of English language teaching. In this article, I suggest that one way to begin the process of responding to the needs and interests of NNS teacher trainees is through the use of an introductory, first semester course that provides assistance, instruction, and support in these key areas. I use examples from an introductory course o ered for NNS teacher trainees (called Language for Specific Purposes, or Penn LSP) in the TESOL program at the University of Pennsylvania, to illustrate what can be accomplished with this type of course design. Finally, I suggest that this introductory course can serve as a prelude to integrating the needs and interests of NNS teacher trainees across the curriculum, a direction that Kamhi-Stein 242 ELT Journal Volume 57/3 July 2003 Oxford University Press

(2000: 13) recommends for the benefit of both NNS and NS teacher trainees in Western-based TESOL programs. Contextually responsive content In Western-based TESOL programs, the main focus is usually on ESL teaching in Western public schools and colleges. However, because many NNS TESOL graduates will be returning to their home countries to teach English as a foreign language (EFL), the content of an introductory course for NNS teacher trainees should focus on EFL teaching in non- Western settings. Along with the shift of focus to EFL-relevant content, Bax notes that teacher educators should be involving trainees in ways which would ensure that the programme has as close a bearing as possible on their teaching concerns and context (1997: 223). Thus, an introductory course should engage NNS teacher trainees in discussions of not only howbut, more importantly, whether various methods and assumptions about language learning can be applied to their home teaching situations. This aspect of the course addresses what Govardhan, Nayar, and Sheorey have called an essential component for MA TESOL programs that prepare teachers for teaching in non-western settings; i.e. providing teacher trainees with the ability to assess the propriety, feasibility, applicability, and practicality of any one or all of the methods against a certain set of political, sociocultural, and pedagogic situations that they are going to be working in (1999: 123). This dedicated focus on an EFL context encourages NNS teacher trainees to continue to situate their instruction throughout their TESOL program in contexts that apply to their specific teaching needs, and to critically reflect on the information presented to them. McKay s text, Teaching English Overseas (1992), is a useful guide for the above kinds of analyses. McKay writes primarily for expatriate NS teachers planning to teach English outside their home countries. However, her descriptions of the errors that teachers sometimes make when they operate under the mistaken assumption that the language policies, practices, and teaching methods of their home countries are equally applicable in their host country setting, provide excellent prompts for classroom discussion. An instructional unit in this introductory course should include small group discussions during which NNS teacher trainees analyze, evaluate, and critically reflect on various scenarios presented by McKay, in terms of whether the materials and methods they encounter during their studies in a Western-based TESOL program are compatible with the language education climate in their home countries. Their conclusions can be presented for whole class discussions on the various scenarios, as well as the actual experiences of the teacher trainees. Follow-up assignments can challenge teacher trainees to suggest adaptations, or alternative materials and methods that would be more appropriate for their own students. For example, in one of the discussions prompted by readings from the McKay text in the Penn LSP course, some of the teacher trainees noted that many young students in their home countries were influenced by the omnipresent American television, music, and movies, to the extent NNS teacher trainees in Western-based TESOL programs 243

244 Karen Carrier that they began to devalue their own culture in favor of American culture. The teacher trainees were concerned that the influence of U.S. published texts and materials might overwhelm the native culture of their students. This led to a discussion on what non-u.s.-based materials were available in their home countries, and whether they were adequate for their instructional needs. These kinds of discussions present valuable opportunities to involve NNS teacher trainees in considerations of the influence of Western cultural values on EFL teaching and on EFL teacher trainees, and in devising practical ways to address these issues in their future teaching. Teacher educators must ensure that the readings in this instructional unit include educational issues situated in the teacher trainees home countries. This will require new literature searches and syllabus adjustments at the beginning of each semester, after the teacher trainees are registered and surveyed about their home countries and needs. The teacher trainees can also be involved in locating articles that they wish to discuss in class. The teacher trainees in the Penn LSP course were from Brazil, Japan, and Taiwan, and articles on various educational issues and pedagogical approaches from their home countries were provided for analysis and discussion. Some examples are Busnardo and Braga s discussion of language and power in English language pedagogy in Brazil (1987), Sagliano and Greenfield s collaborative model of content-based EFL instruction in the liberal arts in Japan (1998), and Jones description of Chinese students business writing needs and communicative language teaching (1995). Course assignments that allow flexibility in topic choice can also provide opportunities for developing contextually-responsive content. Teacher educators should create assignments that encourage teacher trainees to develop and carry out a research agenda to investigate topics from their home country educational settings, and to carry this agenda over into their other courses. For example, concern for the mismatch between Japanese students professed interest in learning English, and their disengagement from their classroom English lessons, prompted one Penn LSP teacher trainee to survey high school students in her native Japan about their English instruction. Her research led to a paper that fostered serious classroom discussions about a common dilemma for teachers in EFL environments: disengagement by students when the teacher follows the government s prescribed guidelines for content and teaching method, and disapproval from administrators when the teacher varies from the guidelines or imports new teaching methods. In another example, a Penn LSP teacher trainee was concerned about the language learning anxiety she believed many Asian students experienced in intensive English programs (IEPs) in the U.S. When she discovered that there was very little research on Asian students language learning anxiety, she conducted her own study. The conclusions and recommendations from her study apply directly to EFL teachers in Asian countries who prepare students to attend Western-based IEPs. She continued her research

during her program, and eventually presented it at regional and international TESOL conferences. Training for success in a di erent school culture Developing writing skills In addition to contextually-responsive teacher education content, and flexibility in course assignments and topics, an introductory course should also provide assistance in understanding and adapting to the writing and oral presenting requirements of a Western-based TESOL program. Many NNS teacher trainees are trained in educational systems where note-taking, memorization, and limited classroom interaction are the established norm. Despite being successful in their home educational environments, they have little practical experience in Western-style academic writing and oral presenting. McGarry (1998: 28) noted similar diªculties among NNS science and engineering students at the University of Florida, which prompted him to design a contentbased course on writing and oral presenting specifically tailored for these students. NNS teacher trainees benefit from this kind of assistance in several ways. The most immediate benefit is that they develop the tools, skills, and strategies needed to succeed in a Western-based TESOL program. A future benefit is that NNS teacher trainees can also incorporate this information into their home country teaching for those students who plan to continue their education in a Western-based TESOL program. Writing instruction should provide the specifics of what NNS writers in Western academic settings need to know. For example, Weissberg and Buker s text, Writing up Research (1990), provides step-by-step instruction for NNS teacher trainees on how to write about research, including helpful advice on areas that non-native speakers find particularly troublesome, such as countable/uncountable nouns, and choosing the appropriate verb tense and voice. Teacher educators should devote several lessons to reviewing the specifics of Western research writing, as an essential component for the teacher trainees continued success in their graduate program. Peer review of writing can also be useful in an introductory course. It provides an opportunity to gain experience in several areas. As NNS teacher trainees review their peers work, they benefit from their di erent linguistic repertoires. Perhaps what is more important is that they engage in question and answer routines typical of classroom discourse. The practice of language associated with asking students di erent types of questions and responding to their answers and questions (Johnson cited in Murdoch 1994: 225) is very beneficial to NNS teacher trainees, not only as students in a TESOL program, but also as language teachers in their home countries. Using peer review as part of classroom interaction requires that teacher educators create an instructional unit that involves training in precisely what teacher trainees are expected to do during the peer review, and also develop protocols for the use of tactful language. Berg (1999) provides excellent step-by-step guidelines on peer review training that can be easily incorporated into the introductory course. As NNS teacher trainees engage in peer review for their own benefit, they also need to consider NNS teacher trainees in Western-based TESOL programs 245

how peer review, a very culturally distinct technique, might or might not work in their home country teaching situations. Thus, the instructional unit must include time for teacher trainees to engage in critical reflection after their own in-class peer reviews. Developing oral communication skills Competing with native Englishspeaking teacher trainees Providing NNS teacher trainees with assistance in developing their oral English communication skills is another very important area that an introductory course should cover. Western-based TESOL programs typically require their teacher trainees to give oral presentations on articles, book reviews, and research papers, etc. In addition, all teacher trainees are expected to participate actively and orally in class discussions. These are important opportunities for NNS teacher trainees to practice their oral English. Murdoch found that trainees indicated that speaking was the most important skill for English teachers (1994: 257). In addition, he notes that activity-based tasks such as preparing materials and presenting them before peers in the training group, and taking part in trainee panel discussion and question and answer sessions, are beneficial for NNS teacher trainees in both their own studies and in their future teaching (ibid.: 225). However, this type of classroom interaction can present a serious challenge for many NNS teacher trainees who come from educational environments where silence is the expected norm in the classroom. Communicating E ectively in English by Porter and Grant (1992) is a useful text for an instructional unit introducing NNS teacher trainees to oral communication styles in Western settings. Teacher educators can guide the class through various steps, such as preparing visual aids, using note cards, speaking in front of large and small groups, and responding to questions. An activity associated with this unit might be cross-cultural investigations by the teacher trainees of the rules and patterns of language and social behavior in their home countries, as compared to the host country in which they are studying. They would work in groups to write, practice, and present their findings orally to the class, and answer questions from the audience. During the process, the teacher educator provides specific instruction on presentation techniques that the teacher trainees can incorporate into their own presentations. NNS teacher trainees should, however, be encouraged to evaluate (and adapt, if necessary) the various presentation techniques o ered in terms of their personal comfort level, rather than accepting them unconditionally. Presentations can be videotaped and then peer reviewed by the teacher trainees as a useful follow-up activity to refine their presentation skills. These videotapes can also be used as teaching material in their home country classrooms. This kind of assistance can have a major impact on NNS teacher trainees oral classroom participation, and on their willingness to present at professional conferences. One question that needs to be addressed early in the process of course design is whether to allow interested NS teacher trainees to participate (for example, NSs who are preparing to teach English in non-western countries) or to restrict the course to NNS teacher trainees only. There are advantages and disadvantages that need to be weighed. 246 Karen Carrier

One advantage of restricting the course to NNS teacher trainees is that it provides a place where NNS voices are not overwhelmed by NS teacher trainees who are usually more experienced in interactive classroom discourse, and thus more likely to speak out. It can also provide a safe environment where NNS teacher trainees might be less concerned about language perfection, and thus more inclined to participate in discussions because they are with other English language learners. There are also disadvantages to consider when this type of course is both required of, and restricted to, NNS teacher trainees. For example, when the Penn LSP course was first introduced, the fact that NNS teacher trainees were required to take it, coupled with the fact that NSs were not, resulted in some of the NNS teacher trainees believing that it was a negative reflection on their English language skills. They resented the implication that they needed to take a remedial course. Several semesters passed before the positive experiences of NNS teacher trainees who had completed the course, and the continual assurances of the faculty, convinced new NNS teacher trainees about the additive, rather than remedial, nature of the course. This kind of implication might be avoided if program directors publicize, in advance, the nature of the course and its focus on responding to the needs and interests of teacher trainees preparing to teach in EFL situations. Another concern with limiting the course to NNS teacher trainees is the lack of native speaker role models during class activities. NNS teacher trainees can benefit from having native English speakers serve as language and cultural resources during group activities such as peer review and oral presenting. Finally, NS teacher trainees can provide important, first-hand information on both academic and social issues for the newly arrived NNS teacher trainees. NS teacher trainees can also benefit by being involved in a course that focuses on English in non-western settings, and the needs of NNSs in general. Similarly, Kamhi-Stein notes that NNS teacher trainees can provide their NS peers with an in-depth understanding of the cultural and social factors that may a ect their target audience as well as their linguistic needs and diªculties (2000: 12). One way to accomplish both goals would be for teacher educators to utilize co-operative learning for various aspects of the course (e.g. oral presentations, peer reviews, etc.). By constructing groups that include both NNS and NS teachers trainees, rotating the role assignments within the groups (e.g. recorder, checker, timekeeper), and carefully observing each group s functioning, teacher educators can provide opportunities for NNS and NS teacher trainees to support and learn from one another. Creating an In combination with the writing and oral presenting demands on NNS environment that teacher trainees, or perhaps even because of them, self-confidence is an promotes self- issue that NNS teacher trainees have to contend with when they enter confidence Western-based TESOL programs. According to Kamhi-Stein (2000: 10), many NNS teacher trainees experience a loss of self-confidence in their abilities when they move from their home environments where they are viewed as well-qualified English teachers to Western-based TESOL NNS teacher trainees in Western-based TESOL programs 247

programs where they are judged against native speaker norms. Thomas (cited in Kamhi-Stein 2000: 10) notes that the loss of self-confidence in their English language proficiency often results in NNS teacher trainees experiencing a reluctance to participate in the teacher education classroom. Also, Murdoch s survey of teacher trainees in Sri Lanka (1994: 258) showed that 89% of the English teacher trainees agreed that a teacher s confidence is most dependent on his or her own degree of language competence. He suggests that a greater concern with language training, particularly during the early phases of the training programme, would produce more competent teachers (ibid.: 259). Including instruction in academic writing in an introductory course can give NNS teacher trainees the confidence they need at the very beginning of their program, before they become overwhelmed or discouraged. In addition, providing instruction on how to give oral presentations in a Western format can help NNS teacher trainees reduce their anxiety about public speaking. Encouraging In the preface to his edited collection on NNS language teachers (1999: contributions to the ix), Braine comments that the voices of non-native speakers raising their field of English own concerns have been rare. Thus, Kamhi-Stein s comments (2000: language teaching 13) about teacher educators encouraging their NNS teacher trainees to become involved in professional organizations, and to present at professional conferences is timely advice. The academic writing portion of an introductory course serves the dual purpose of preparing the NNS teacher trainees to engage in writing for the program requirements, as well as writing for professional journals. Guidance and practice in Western-style oral presenting prepares NNS teacher trainees not only for speaking in the TESOL classroom but also for presenting their work at professional conferences. Preparing for involvement in professional organizations also promotes a feeling of self-confidence and accomplishment (Kamhi-Stein 2000: 12). An introductory course that focuses on areas of academic writing and oral presenting can help NNS teacher trainees ensure that their voices will be heard by other language teaching professionals. Teacher educators need to encourage their teacher trainees to consider their work not only for the course in which they are engaged, but also for presentation at local, regional, and international conferences, and for submission to professional journals. Circulating calls for conference proposals in the classroom can be a first step. Also, o ering to work with teacher trainees outside of class hours to help them prepare a proposal or manuscript can encourage teacher trainees to pursue professional involvement. These e orts can provide useful mini-lessons, and prompt discussions in the classroom that connect the instruction in academic writing and oral presenting to authentic activities and outcomes. As well as focusing on language teaching and learning in non-western settings, NNS teacher trainees should be encouraged to consider their roles as NNS teaching professionals, and what e ect being an NNS might have on their opportunities for jobs. An instructional unit can be designed around Braine s edited collection, Non-native Educators in 248 Karen Carrier

English Language Teaching (1999), which provides many thoughtprovoking articles on, for example, the lack of credibility that some NNSs face as teachers of English, and how being an NNS might a ect one s opportunities for employment in the English language teaching field both inside and outside Western settings, without overlooking the positive influence that NNS teachers also have on their students. These are important readings for NNS teacher trainees to consider in classroom discussions. Involvement in professional organizations, and visibility for NNS teachers of English, can help dispel some of the negative reflection on their non-native English status, and turn the focus instead on their professional training and experience as EFL learners themselves. A unit of instruction on NNS employment issues could involve teacher trainees in analyzing the skills and experience required in job advertisements. Other lessons might include role-playing job interviews, developing strategies for addressing questions about English language proficiency, and devising ways in which job candidates can point out the pedagogical importance of having a teacher who has been a successful second language learner. Conclusion The addition of an introductory course designed specifically for NNS teacher trainees can address their specific needs and interests in Western-based MA TESOL programs. The design of the course should include contextually-relevant content, specific training for success in a di erent school culture, consideration of the competitive edge that NS teacher trainees have over NNS teacher trainees, an environment that promotes self-confidence, and encouragement of NNS teacher trainees contributions to the field of English language teaching. As confirmed by the comments of the Penn LSP teacher trainees in a survey conducted at the end of the course, the LSP course in the TESOL program at the University of Pennsylvania has proven to be e ective in responding to the needs of its NNS teacher trainees in these areas, and in assisting them in their preparation to work as teachers in diverse EFL environments. Even more important, this kind of course can help NNS TESOL teacher trainees become a valuable resource to their future students as non-native learners and teachers of English. As useful as an introductory course like this can be, it is only a first step toward meeting the needs of NNS teacher trainees in Western-based TESOL programs. Teacher educators need to integrate activities and issues related to NNS teacher trainees across the curriculum, and to include the NNS teacher trainees as an integral part of the TESOL program (Kamhi-Stein 2000: 11). Designing an introductory course such as the one described here can serve as the first step in ensuring that the entire curriculum responds to the needs of NNS teacher trainees in Western-based TESOL programs, and in strengthening these programs for all teacher trainees, NNS and NS alike. Final revised version received July 2002 NNS teacher trainees in Western-based TESOL programs 249

Notes 1 In the context of this article, the term Westernbased TESOL programs refers to TESOL programs in the United States, Canada, Great Britain, Australia, and New Zealand. 2 At the end of the course, Penn LSP teacher trainees were surveyed about whether the course s design met their needs. Some representative comments are noted here. On developing Western-style academic writing skills: I consider it fundamental not only for the [Penn LSP] course but for all my other courses and my future academic career (R.N.). On developing oral communication skills: As a non-native English speaker, the most scary thing for me is the oral presentation Therefore, focusing on oral presenting in this course does help me reduce the nervousness about speaking English in the class (M.T.). On competing with native English-speaking teacher trainees: Not everyone would have a chance to express their thoughts. That happens in many other classes. Perhaps it is good to have one sheltered class for us in the beginning of our study (J.H.). On using native English-speakers as language and cultural resources: When peer reviewing it would be useful if there is a native speaker because he/she would o er the more favorable expressions (K.C.). On the benefits for native English-speaking teacher trainees: I think if American grad students can take this course, it should be able to help them know where the diªculties are for international or ESL learners The native speakers of English then also [would] know how to understand, support, and maybe help us (C.R.). On building confidence: This course serves as a shelter English for international students to reduce the anxiety and build their confidence in the U.S. classroom (M.T.). References Bax, S. 1997. Roles for a teacher educator in context-sensitive teacher education. ELT Journal 51/3: 223 41. Berg, E. C. 1999. Preparing ESL students for peer response. TESOL Journal 8/2: 20 5. Braine, G. (ed.). 1999. Non-native Educators in English Language Teaching. Mahwah NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Busnardo, J. and D. Braga. 1987. Language and power: on the necessity of rethinking English language pedagogy in Brazil in S. J. Savignon and M. S. Berns (eds.). Initiatives in Communicative Language Teaching II: A Book of Readings: Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. Govardhan, A. K., B. Nayar, and R. Sheorey. 1999. Do U.S. MATESOL programs prepare students to teach abroad? TESOL Quarterly 33/1:114 25. Jones, N. B. 1995. Business writing, Chinese students, and communicative language teaching. TESOL Journal 4/3: 12 15. Kamhi-Stein, L. 2000. Adapting U.S.-based TESOL education to meet the needs of non-native English speakers. TESOL Journal 9/3: 10 14. Liu, D. 1998. Ethnocentrism in TESOL: teacher education and the neglected needs of international TESOL students. ELT Journal 52/1: 3 10. Liu, D. 1999. Training non-native TESOL students: challenges for TESOL teacher education in the West in G. Braine (ed.). McGarry, R. G. 1998. Professional writing for business administration: an adjunct, contentbased course. TESOL Journal 7/6: 28 31. McKay, S. L. 1992. Teaching English Overseas: An Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Murdoch, G. 1994. Language development provision in teacher training curricula. ELT Journal 48/3: 253 65. Porter, P. and M. Grant. 1992. Communicating E ectively in English: Oral Communication for Nonnative Speakers. Boston: Heinle & Heinle. Sagliano, M. and K. Greenfield. 1998. A collaborative model of content-based EFL instruction in the liberal arts. TESOL Journal 7/3: 23 8. Weissberg, R. and S. Buker. 1990. Writing Up Research: Experimental Research Writing for Students of English. Englewood Cli s, NJ: Prentice- Hall Regents. The author Karen Carrier is Assistant Professor in Literacy Education at Northern Illinois University. She holds an MA in Bilingual/Bicultural Education from Immaculata College in Pennsylvania, and a PhD in Educational Linguistics from the University of Pennsylvania. She has worked with international students as an ESL instructor and as a TESOL teacher educator. Her interests include second language listening, ESL, bilingual education, and multicultural education. Email: kcarrier@niu.edu 250 Karen Carrier