Tracking Water Use to Cut Costs

Business Resource Efficiency Guide Tracking Water Use to Cut Costs

WRAP Tracking Water Use to Cut Costs II Our vision is a world without waste, where resources are used sustainably. We work with businesses and individuals to help them reap the benefits of reducing waste, develop sustainable products and use resources in an efficient way. Find out more from the WRAP Resource Efficiency Helpline on 0808 100 2040 or at www.wrap.org.uk Contents 2 1.1 The true cost of water 2 1.2 Understanding where costs arise 2 1.3 What is a water balance? 4 1.4 Why produce a water balance? 6 1.5 How to use this guide 6 for constructing/using 8 a water balance 2.1 Step 1 Obtaining top-level commitment 8 and assessing the resources required 2.2 Step 2 A preliminary review 8 2.3 Step 3 Drawing up a water balance 15 2.4 Step 4 Adding detail to the water balance 17 2.5 Step 5 Using the water balance to save 30 money 2.6 Step 6 Continuous improvement 33 34 3.1 Gathering more data 34 3.2 Finding out more about effluent flows 34 3.3 Using the water balance to save money 40 4 Action plan 43 5 Further 44 Appendix A: UK charging schemes 46 Appendix B: Where do businesses use water? 58 Appendix C: Unit operations for a boiler and 64 cooling tower Appendix D: Example water balances 65 Appendix E: Producing and using site 70 drainage plans Appendix F: Calculating water flows for cooling 71 towers and steam relief valves Appendix G: Determining pollutant loads 73

WRAP Tracking Water Use to Cut Costs 1 Summary Adopting a systematic approach to water reduction can typically result in around 30% water savings if no measures have previously been implemented. A water balance is a management tool that provides managers with an overview of the major uses of water on their company s site, irrespective of the company s activity. When used to control water use and effluent generation, a water balance can help companies and organisations of all sizes and types to reduce water use, cut costs and increase profits. This guide describes a six-step for constructing a water balance and explains how this can help you to identify water and cost saving opportunities. The step-by-step approach to reducing water use described in this guide involves: 1. Obtaining commitment and resources. 2. A preliminary review. 3. Drawing up a water balance. 4. Adding detail to the water balance. 5. Using the water balance to save money. 6. Continuous improvement. Checklists and worksheets are provided to help you investigate your water use and effluent sources. Examples of cost savings already achieved by companies are given throughout the guide.

WRAP Tracking Water Use to Cut Costs 2 Companies that adopt a systematic approach to water reduction typically achieve a 30% decrease in the amount of water they use. Water is becoming an increasingly expensive resource with mains, sewerage and trade effluent charges rising. However, introducing water efficiency measures is one of the easiest and most inexpensive ways to achieve cost savings. Most companies and organisations know how much water they use, but may not always use this knowledge to help them reduce the amount of water consumed. Companies that adopt a systematic approach to water reduction typically achieve a 30% decrease in the amount of water they use. By using less water, companies save money on both water supply and wastewater disposal. Taking action to save water may also allow companies to recover raw materials or product previously lost in effluent streams. This guide applies to both industrial and commercial and will help you work out where water is being used and where less water could be used. Savings can be made by companies of any size or type including companies that use comparatively little water per site or per person. Some have a finite water supply (e.g. from the mains water distribution system or groundwater and surface water sources), making it difficult to increase supply to meet any rise in demand. Increased availability may also be expensive. Managing water more efficiently can prevent any potential site expansion being limited by the availability of water or the need for an increased water supply. 1.1 The true cost of water The type of water used on site and the type of wastewater generated by site operations/activities will determine how much your company pays for water supply and wastewater disposal. Table 1 lists the different types of water and wastewater. Table 1: Types of water and wastewater in the UK Water sources Mains water (wholesome* and unwholesome) Water abstracted from groundwater (borehole) and surface water * Drinkable. Wastewater types Domestic wastewater (sewage) Trade effluent Surface drainage (roof and site runoff) Discharge to surface water and groundwater There are a number of charging schemes for water and wastewater (sewerage and trade effluent charges) in the UK. The amount paid depends on: the service provider; the size of the meter; the tariff structure agreed with your service provider; and the year unit costs are reviewed on an annual basis. Appendix A gives details of individual charging schemes and how to understand your bills. 1.2 Understanding where costs arise As well as easily identified costs such as charges for water use, sewerage, surface water and trade effluent, there are many hidden costs associated with water use and the disposal of wastewater. The true cost of water may be more than three times the total amount charged for supply and disposal. Figure 1 shows the elements making up the true cost of water.

WRAP Tracking Water Use to Cut Costs 3 Figure 1: The true cost of water Easily identified costs Water charges Sewerage charges Effluent charges Cost of energy to heat water Cost of chemicals for water treatment Cost of wasted energy (e.g. pumping) Hidden costs Cost of chemicals for effluent treatment Cost of raw materials/product in effluent Cost of labour Hidden costs can include: the energy costs associated with heating/ cooling water prior to use; lost product or raw materials in effluent, resulting in sale losses and increased effluent strength leading to higher trade effluent charges; water treatment prior to use (e.g. ion exchange or membrane technologies such as reverse osmosis), including the cost of chemicals for regeneration and replacement columns/packing materials, and the labour costs incurred in running and maintaining these systems; pumping costs including energy, labour and maintenance costs; and wastewater treatment prior to re-use or discharge, including the cost of acid/alkali for ph adjustment, flocculants, coagulants, pumping costs, labour and maintenance. Environmental review identifies true effluent costs An environmental review at a chemicals company revealed that total effluent costs were 23,000/year and not 4,000/year as previously thought. The review also showed that, as well as paying extra effluent charges, the company was losing saleable product in the effluent. Following improvements and procedural changes, the company reduced its effluent charges by 3,000/year and saved 8,500/year through product recovery from the effluent.

WRAP Tracking Water Use to Cut Costs 4 1.2.1 Added value water Water treated before use has an added value because time and money have already been spent on it before it is used for its main purpose. Table 2 summarises typical costs of water. Table 2: Comparable costs of different water types Water type Typical cost UK mains supply 0.60 1.83/m 3 * Chlorinated water 0.85 2.20/m 3 Softened water 1 2.16/m 3 Demineralised/ deionised water Condensate gas heated ** Steam gas heated ** 2 3.70/m 3 3.70 4.86/m 3 29.71 30.87/tonne * UK mains supply based on standard 2011/12 tariffs. ** Energy costs at 3.6p/kWh for gas and boiler efficiency of 90%. 1.3 What is a water balance? A water balance is a numerical account used to show where water enters and leaves your business, and where it is used within the business. It typically contains about the amount of water used by each main process and, for some processes, can be very detailed. Presenting the water balance as a diagram makes it easy to understand and use as a management tool. A water balance is based on the simple concept: what goes in must come out... somewhere (see Figure 2). It is best to start by looking at your company as a whole and then adding details as you go along. It is also helpful to think of your site or company as a series of blocks, with each block representing an activity or location with water inputs and outputs. Figure 3 shows water inputs and outputs for a fairly simple site; Figure 4 is a block representation of this site. Appendix B gives examples of water use in a number of industrial and commercial sectors. Figure 2: Water mass balance Evaporation Water in Product Leaks to ground Effluent

WRAP Tracking Water Use to Cut Costs 5 Figure 3: Water inputs and outputs for an example site Water supply 164 0 2 Meter Liquid raw materials Evaporation and steam Factory laundry and washrooms Factory Factory shop and canteen Water in the product Domestic wastewater/ trade effluent Figure 4: Block representation of water inputs and outputs for an example site Mains water 1 6 4 0 2 Meter Evaporation and steam Liquid raw materials Evaporation and steam Laundry and washrooms Toilets, handbasins and showers Washing machines Tumble dryers Factory Equipment washing Water added to product Boiler Steam generation Condensate recovery Water softening Condensate recovery Shop and canteen Toilets and sinks Dishwasher Food preparation Product Water in the product Leaks Boiler blowdown/ condensate Domestic wastewater/ trade effluent

WRAP Tracking Water Use to Cut Costs 6 ct 1.4 Why produce a water balance? A water balance helps you to: understand and manage water and effluent efficiently; identify the areas with the greatest opportunities for cost savings; and 1 6 4 0 2 detect leaks. Evaporation and steam Liquid Small brewery saves money raw by materials stopping leaks Monitoring water use allowed a brewer to discover a significant water leak, which was due to three faulty control valves. Factory The valves were Laundry replaced and at a total cost of 400, leading washrooms to reduced water use of 10,800m 3 Water added to Toilets, handbasins /year. productthis represented and showersa saving of 13,000/year Boiler in water and Washing trade machines effluent charges. Tumble dryers Mains water The main benefits of using a water balance to identify and implement Water in opportunities to reduce water use are: the product Leaks reductions in: -- water supply costs; -- on-site water treatment costs; -- on-site effluent treatment costs, including chemicals and capital depreciation; -- effluent and sewage disposal costs; -- wasted raw materials or products; and -- management and handling costs (e.g. pumping, maintenance and heating); Meter Equipment washing improved compliance with current and future environmental regulations; better relationships with regulators, employees, the general public and the local community; improved environmental management; and greater employee awareness of environmental issues and the importance of waste minimisation to the company. Evaporation and steam Steam generation Condensate recovery Water softening Domestic wastewater/ trade effluent Remember You can t manage what you don t measure. Condensate recovery The waste hierarchy Shop and is a canteen framework prioritising the most Toilets environmentally and sinks Dishwasher desirable options for waste. The principles Food preparation of the waste hierarchy when applied to water (see Figure 5) consist of four levels of waste management. Apply this hierarchy to each process/area that uses water or generates wastewater at your site. Boiler blowdown/ condensate 1.5 How to use this guide This guide explains how to draw up a water balance for your site and then use it to save money by reducing water use. For small to medium-sized, this involves following the simple step-by-step described in Section 2. This is extended in Section 3 to cater for larger, more complex. Section 4 presents an action plan applicable to all. Figure 5: Waste hierarchy applied to water Yes 1. Can you eliminate water use at source? No 2. Can you reduce the amount of water used? No 3. Can you re-use water/wastewater? No y shop nteen 4. Can you recycle/recover water/wastewater? No Calculate the cost of disposal Implement water reduction

WRAP Tracking Water Use to Cut Costs 7 In this guide, the term domestic wastewater is used for domestic water and sewage discharged at the domestic sewerage rate. Trade effluent refers to effluents from industrial processes on which trade effluent charges are levied, based on the strength as well as the volume of effluent. The step-by-step approach to reducing water use described in this guide involves: 1. Obtaining commitment and resources. 2. A preliminary review. 3. Drawing up a water balance. 4. Adding detail to the water balance. 5. Using the water balance to save money. 6. Continuous improvement. You may want to use this guide to help drive forward a water saving campaign. Drawing up a water balance for your site forms part of the detail of a typical water saving campaign (see Figure 6). This process is broadly similar for industrial and commercial and usually entails four phases. Figure 6: The four phases of a typical water saving campaign PHASE 1 Initiation Obtain commitment from senior management. Involve staff and appoint the leader ( champion ) of the water saving team. Find out about water saving devices and their application. Talk to other interested people in your company. Develop a simple programme. Allocate sufficient resources. PHASE 2 Water use survey and development of a water balance Identify where, how and why water is used. Identify the water quality requirement at each point of use. Determine the water quality and availability at each point of discharge. Wholesale food distributor saves money at over 100 A wholesale food distributor fitted simple water saving devices at 109 of its UK outlets. For an average cost of around 675/site, water use and wastewater production were reduced by 65% overall. Each site saved on average around 980/year, giving a total reduction of 106,700/year. Nearly 1% of turnover saved by recycling process effluent A Humberside company, employing 180 people, investigated cost-saving opportunities while seeking improvements in environmental performance. Investment of 20,000 in new pipework and tanks allowed a liquid waste stream to be recycled. This has enabled the company to save 20,000/ year in effluent charges and 200,000/year in increased yield and reduced disposal costs. PHASE 3 Evaluation of water saving options Evaluate current and future water costs by area or item of equipment. Identify and evaluate cost-effective water saving devices and practices. Carry out trials of likely options. PHASE 4 Implementation Train staff (if necessary). Implement cost-effective water saving devices and practices. Monitor the implemented devices and practices. Communicate successes and savings to employees. Obtain feedback from staff.

WRAP Tracking Water Use to Cut Costs 8 for constructing/using a water balance For your water efficiency programme to be a success, you will need commitment from senior management. Use the simple six-step described below to construct a water balance for your site. Then use your water balance to identify opportunities to make significant cost savings by reducing water use and wastewater/ effluent generation. 2.1 Step 1 Obtaining top-level commitment and assessing the resources required 2.1.1 Obtaining top-level commitment For your water efficiency programme to be a success, you will need commitment from senior management. This should be obtained at an early stage particularly if you do not have the necessary authority to commit resources to produce a detailed water balance or to investigate and implement water saving opportunities. It may be easier to obtain top-level commitment once you have started to develop your water balance and are in a position to: highlight current costs; identify the need for more ; suggest the scope for potential savings; and highlight some quick win opportunities. Your chances of success will be significantly improved if you can also suggest some no-cost and low-cost water saving measures, together with the anticipated costs and savings. Examples from other companies may be appropriate, but specific potential projects for your site will carry more weight. Examples might include fitting passive infrared (PIR) controls in the men s toilets or fitting water saving taps. 2.1.2 Assessing the staff and resources required The time and effort needed to produce a water balance depends on your site. On a simple site, it could take only a few hours. On a more complicated site, it could take significantly longer. Allocation of resources depends on the scale of the process or the area to be investigated (e.g. one person working part-time or a mixed team of engineering, production and environmental staff). Some companies have successfully employed students on work placements to gather data. Work experience student helps brewery save money A brewer employed a graduate trainee to map the water system, supervise the installation of new water meters for each main production/ office area, and monitor subsequent consumption. The waste reduction initiative led to water saving measures and cost savings of nearly 100,000/year. 2.2 Step 2 A preliminary review Your preliminary review should consist of: gathering existing data (e.g. annual water use and costs); a brief assessment of the major gaps in your ; and deciding how detailed a water balance is appropriate for your company. This will involve: -- estimating potential cost savings from water saving measures; and -- deciding your budget for obtaining missing and/or constructing a water balance. For each process or area, use the checklist given in Figure 7 to review water use and wastewater generation.

WRAP Tracking Water Use to Cut Costs 9 Walk around your site or building. Use a note-pad to make sketches and notes on activities and operations that use water. Tell other people what you are doing and ask them for their views on water use and current practices. Your tour of the site and the you obtain may highlight some fast start projects that will help you to secure top-level commitment. Figure 7: Example water review checklist Checklist Comment Process/area Is the process/activity really necessary? Water use Is it necessary to use water for the process/ activity or is there a cost-effective alternative? How can I reduce water use? Could I use lower quality water? Can I recover and re-use water anywhere? Is the use authorised and legal? Wastewater Is it necessary to produce this wastewater/ effluent? Is clean water going down the drain and, if so, why? Is the discharge authorised and legal? Can the wastewater/effluent be re-used in a process or used for lower grade duties (e.g. cleaning)? Would it be cost-effective to treat the wastewater/effluent on site for re-use?

WRAP Tracking Water Use to Cut Costs 10 2.2.1 Gather existing data Table 3 provides a checklist of the type of you will need to produce a water balance. Start by collecting that already exists within the company. Check whether the appears accurate and consistent. For example, check the meter readings on your latest water bill and find out when your water meter(s) was last calibrated. To reduce the risk of errors in your calculations, use the same units for water use (e.g. litres or m 3 ) depending on the size of your flows. Water volume conversion 1m 3 = 1,000 litres = 220 gallons 1 gallon = 0.0045m 3 or 4.5 litres Table 3: Useful existing data Type of data Water supply and treatment costs Water treatment Water and effluent quantities Water and effluent quality Effluent treatment costs Effluent discharge costs Effluent removed off site in tankers Site plans Details of process or unit operation Description Water supply bills Abstraction licence fee Pumping, chemicals, operating, maintenance and labour costs System type and capacity Meter readings in and out of site, on individual machines/process areas Data on rainfall or groundwater inputs Analysis of on-site water treatment and effluent samples (either in-house, by external laboratories or by water company) Equipment specifications from suppliers Pumping, chemicals, operating, maintenance and labour costs Trade effluent and sewerage bills Charges for discharge to controlled waters Waste disposal contractor s bills for tanker transport, treatment and disposal Quantities and quality of tankered liquids Water distribution and drainage plans, including water sources and location of meters Process flow and pipe/process technical drawings, including manufacturers specifications

WRAP Tracking Water Use to Cut Costs 11 Locate your water meter Most commercial and industrial properties have a metered water supply. The water meter is usually located by the boundary of the property, often near a road. If the site has more than one incoming water mains, each supply should be fitted with a meter. Correct meter size results in cost savings Correcting the size of its water meter for current operations meant that a carpet manufacturer reduced its annual water supply costs by 89% ( 10,530). As a minimum, your mains supply meter(s) will allow you to monitor water consumption of the site on a routine basis (daily, weekly or monthly). How to read your water meter Metered companies are responsible for the water use recorded on their meter including wastage and leaks. Figure 8 shows a typical water meter. The white digits in the blue box display cubic metres (m 3 ) and those digits shown in red display 1/10th (100 litres) and 1/100th (10 litres) of a cubic metre. Thus, the reading on the example meter shown in Figure 8 is 2004.87m 3. The figures shown in the dials provide a more detailed reading than 1/100th of a cubic metre. Other ways of measuring flow are described in Section 2.4.5. Section 3.2.2 contains about flow meters. Figure 8: Typical water meter SERIAL NUMBER CLASS: Qn m 3 /h Pn bar Cert N o. m 3 9 0 8 7 6 5 0.0001 1 2 3 4 1 8 9 0 2 7 3 6 5 4 0.001 What to do with your meter data Recording meter readings on a regular basis (daily, weekly or monthly) will allow you to identify trends in water consumption. Recording water consumption in a graphic format makes it much easier to analyse your pattern of water usage. To ensure you compare like with like, it is a good idea to normalise your data. For example, express water use in terms of production (m 3 water per tonne of product) or workforce (m 3 water per employee). This benchmark can be used to identify excess use or to demonstrate genuine reductions in water use. Figure 9 and Figure 10 present water consumption data for an example site. Although the data are recorded clearly in a suitable format in the table (Figure 9), the graph presented in Figure 10 shows the water consumption trends more clearly. The increase in water use from March to August becomes very apparent.

WRAP Tracking Water Use to Cut Costs 12 Figure 9: Example of metered water consumption at an example site Month Water use (m 3 ) 2008 2009 2010 2011 January February March April May June July August September October November December 170 140 213 153 127 220 170 150 317 160 147 307 170 150 377 103 120 560 93 120 573 103 120 573 177 193 187 180 200 197 177 193 187 173 147 213 Figure 10: Graph showing trends in water use at the example site 700 2008 2009 2010 2011 600 500 Water use (m 3 ) 400 300 200 100 0 Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Key? To be assessed Sub-meter Mains water

WRAP Tracking Water Use to Cut Costs 13 WRAP s monitoring tool is available at www.wrap.org.uk and can help you to easily record and track where water is being used in your company and analyse your findings. There are monitoring spreadsheets for recording water consumption data once a week, five days a week and seven days a week. 2.2.2 Are there major gaps in your knowledge? In your preliminary review, aim to account for at least 80% of the water you pay for including any major leaks. Examine your data and decide whether your overview of water use and costs is adequate or whether there are major gaps. If more is needed, it is likely to be in specific areas. Investigating your main uses of water (or higher value water see Section 1.2.1) is likely to provide most of your cost saving opportunities. Begin to develop a picture of your business along the lines of Figure 3 (see Section 1) as soon as possible. This will help you to identify gaps in available and to focus your efforts. You will develop the picture and add detail during Steps 3 and 4 (see Sections 2.3 and 2.4 respectively). You may prefer to leave the decision on what extra and measurements you need until you have produced your first water balance diagram (i.e. the equivalent of Figure 4 complete with numerical data). You will achieve this in Steps 3 and 4. 2.2.3 How detailed a water balance should you produce? A simple water balance covering the few largest water-using activities may be sufficient to control and reduce major uses of water and related resources. You need to decide how detailed a water balance is likely to be cost-effective for your company. How far to go is a matter of judgement, about which general advice is given below. You may also wish, at this stage, to define the scope of future work (e.g. whether to analyse the whole site or to consider one area in more detail). To decide how detailed your water balance should be, consider the potential benefits versus the cost. What is the likelihood of identifying costeffective opportunities to save water? How much money could you save? How much will it cost to investigate water use in more detail? For with significant water consumption, the potential savings will be more than sufficient to justify drawing up a detailed water balance. Water balance leads to halving of mains water consumption A soap manufacturer used a systematic approach to identify and quantify water use, and then implemented measures to reduce mains water consumption. A detailed water survey revealed how and where water was being used. A water balance was then prepared using data obtained from existing invoices and meters. A 50% reduction in mains water use and associated cost savings were achieved over a period of four years through a combination of good housekeeping measures and plant modifications. For that have relatively low water use, an alternative criterion for deciding whether to produce a detailed water balance is the size of annual water and effluent bills. For example, a multi-site organisation decided not to investigate water saving opportunities at where water and effluent bills were less than 300/year. However, the installation of simple, water saving devices, such as percussion (push) taps, toilet cistern volume adjusters and flushing controls, at over twothirds of its produced significant overall cost savings.

WRAP Tracking Water Use to Cut Costs 14 2.2.4 Estimating potential savings Cost savings can arise from reductions in: water use (e.g. in domestic or process use); on-site water pumping and associated maintenance; water treatment (e.g. lower chemical costs and filter backwash); water heating or cooling requirements; effluent pumping; effluent treatment; and effluent discharge. As a general rule of thumb: if no water saving measures have so far been implemented, savings could be 30% or more of your water-related costs; if you have implemented some water saving projects but not applied a systematic approach, you may still make some significant savings, especially where higher value water consumption is reduced; and do not forget the possibility of reducing the amount of raw materials and product lost in effluent. This can be significant. Many people use at least twice as much water as is needed to perform a given task (e.g. washing down a piece of equipment with a continuously running hose). Typical reductions in water use for various projects are shown in Table 4. 2.2.5 Deciding your budget Once you have estimated the potential savings, use your company s method for new project appraisal to determine how much money might be available to obtain missing and/or construct a water balance. Identify the maximum project budget Identification of the maximum project budget can help to determine the areas on which to concentrate. This helps to assess and eliminate projects that are unlikely to be cost-effective. Maximum project budget ( ) = Calculated saving ( /year) Required payback period (years) Table 4: Typical achievable reductions in water use Water saving initiative Typical reduction* Commercial applications Toilets, men s toilets, showers and taps Industrial applications Closed loop recycle Closed loop recycle with treatment Automatic shut-off Countercurrent rinsing Spray/jet upgrades Re-use of wash water Scrapers Cleaning-in-place (CIP) Pressure reduction Cooling tower heat load reduction Per project 90% 60% 15% 40% 20% 50% 30% 40% Variable Variable Per site 40% (combined) * Assuming no water measures have previously been put in place.

WRAP Tracking Water Use to Cut Costs 15 2.3 Step 3 Drawing up a water balance This step involves: producing a simple pictorial representation of the site; translating this picture into a block diagram; and adding volumes of major water and wastewater flows to your block diagram to produce an initial water balance. 2.3.1 Produce a pictorial representation of your site For any water balance, the first step is to produce a pictorial representation of your site. All premises whether a complex site or a single building can be described by a series of activities or operations. Figure 3 in Section 1 shows a typical example. Identify and mark on your picture: major uses of water; the location of on-site water meters (there is usually one on the mains supply entering a site); and the points at which domestic wastewater and/or trade effluent enter the site drainage system. For, use a site plan and process flow diagrams to help you produce a pictorial representation of the site. When drawing your picture, remember that: you are looking for major water-using activities as part of an operation, process or a piece of equipment where: -- water enters; -- a function occurs; and -- water or effluent leaves; and inputs and outputs may be in a different form (e.g. liquid raw materials, steam and product). To help you, examples of water-using activities in a hotel and on an industrial site are shown in Appendix C. Define major water-using operations by the type of activity carried out, such as cooking or drying (i.e. removing water from product). Alternatively, designate activity areas according to boundaries where flows can be measured easily. If a water-using operation becomes unmanageable, try splitting it into smaller units.

WRAP Tracking Water Use to Cut Costs 16 2.3.2 Draw a block diagram Now translate your picture into a more manageable form by drawing a block diagram that indicates the relationships between operations. Figure 11 shows the block representation of Figure 3. The major waterusing activities at this site are the laundry/ washrooms, the factory and the shop/canteen. Each major activity on the site is represented by a box, which lists the significant water uses. Water feeding to the different activities is represented on the diagram by arrows connecting the relevant boxes. Standard practice is to show water inputs at the top and water outputs at the bottom of the diagram. All water, including the mains water supply, should also be shown. 2.3.3 Add data to the diagram to produce an initial water balance To produce the water balance, add the volumes of all major water and effluent flows to the block diagram. The units used should be consistent and are typically m 3 /day. Obtain numerical values for water/effluent flows from investigations and measurements (see Section 2.4). Aim to produce as complete an account as possible of where the water is going on the site. Use the gathered in your preliminary review to begin to construct a water balance for your site. If necessary, use a site plan and process flow diagrams to help you. Add the you can but, at this stage, you may not be able to account for a significant proportion of your water use. In Step 4, you will add detail to your water balance by carrying out more investigations and measuring flows. Figure 12 shows an initial water balance for the example company depicted in Figure 11. At this stage, only certain flows have been quantified (mains water input to the site, water input to the factory, liquid raw material input to the factory, water in the product, wastewater output from the factory and sewage/trade effluent leaving the site). The completed water balance for this site is shown in Figure 20 (see Section 2.4.7). Figure 11: Block representation of a simple example site Mains water 1 6 4 0 2 Meter Evaporation and steam Liquid raw materials Evaporation and steam Laundry and washrooms Toilets, handbasins and showers Washing machines Tumble dryers Factory Equipment washing Water added to product Boiler Steam generation Condensate recovery Water softening Condensate recovery Shop and canteen Toilets and sinks Dishwasher Food preparation Product Water in the product Leaks Boiler blowdown/ condensate Domestic wastewater/ trade effluent

0 WRAP Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Tracking NovWater DecUse to Cut Costs 17 Figure 12: Initial water balance for a simple example site Key? To be assessed Sub-meter Inputs Outputs Recirculation Meter Mains water 1 6 4 0 2 85m 3 /day Evaporation and steam 1m 3 /day Liquid raw materials? Evaporation and steam 75m 3 /day??? Laundry and washrooms Toilets, handbasins and showers Washing machines Tumble dryers Factory Equipment washing Water added to product Boiler Steam generation Condensate recovery Water softening Condensate recovery Shop and canteen Toilets and sinks Dishwasher Food preparation? Water in the product 5m 3 /day Leaks? 65m 3 /day Boiler blowdown/ condensate? Total 79m 3 /day Domestic wastewater/ trade effluent 84m 3 /day For an example of a non-industrial site, see the detailed water balance exercise for a medium-sized hotel in Appendix D. 2.4 Step 4 Adding detail to the water balance Now add detail to your initial water balance by: working out which activities/processes are likely to use the most water under both normal and abnormal operating conditions; measuring flows to add to your water balance; and continuing to account for more and more of your total water input until you decide that it is no longer cost-effective to make new measurements. Your preliminary review (see Section 2.2) may have enabled you to account for 80% or less of the site s water use when you drew up your initial water balance. Depending on the amount of water you use, it may be cost-effective to make measurements to identify 95% or more of your water use. This issue should have already been considered as part of your preliminary review. This step has various stages and involves: identifying water supplies; investigating water use; identifying sources of effluent; considering other water losses; quantifying water use and effluent flows through direct measurement, monitoring and, where necessary, estimating nonprocess uses; recording your as a water use chart and on a spreadsheet; adding the data obtained to your block diagram to complete your water balance; and accounting for any discrepancies.

WRAP Tracking Water Use to Cut Costs 18 2.4.1 Identify water supplies The main water sources from which organisations can obtain their water are shown in Table 5. In most modern buildings, water from the mains and any abstracted water are kept separate from rainwater. When looking at water sources, make sure there is no crossover between these water systems. Some companies collect and treat rainwater for use within their processes. Table 5: Main sources of water Type Mains Surface water abstraction Groundwater abstraction Rainwater collection Supply route Metered flow via a water company supply pipe Extracted from a river, stream, lake, reservoir or canal Pumped from borehole(s) From a storage tank To help identify where water is used and which activities/processes use the most water, start by finding out about where your water comes from and how it is treated and distributed on site. How is water supplied to the site (e.g. mains, river, reservoir and/or borehole)? Is water stored on site (e.g. in tanks or lagoons)? What is the storage capacity? Is water treated on site? If so, how? How is water transferred (e.g. by pump, gravity or manually)? Figure 13 shows an example assessment of site water sources. The next stage is to measure flows (see Section 2.4.5). Look at your water and effluent bills to get an idea of the quantities of water used and the amount of effluent discharged from the site/area. Focus on the larger flows first. 2.4.2 Investigate water use Depending how complex your site is, use one or more of the following approaches to identify and investigate major uses of water. Walk around the site/process looking at everything to find water-using points and equipment. Identify the location of water meters and discuss with staff where water is used in their area. Where visible, trace water supply pipes from sources to water use points. Obtain drawings of the water supply system, where necessary. At the same time, make a note of effluent sources and trace pipework back to water supplies. This will save you time and effort later. The identification of effluent sources is described in more detail in Section 2.4.3. Figure 13: Example water sources assessment Source Processes/ areas served Treatment Storage (type and capacity) Transfer method Use and frequency Quantity (m 3 /day) Mains Product None None Pumped Production hours To be investigated Borehole Product Softening Tank (5m 3 ) Pumped Downtime of mains pumps (5 days/year) To be investigated River Gardens None None Pumped and gravity Summer To be investigated

WRAP Tracking Water Use to Cut Costs 19 When collecting data, also gather supporting such as: number of employees on site or per shift; type of product being produced; number of lines operating; and s (e.g. number of rinses or cycles on washing operations). You may wish to develop a diagram to help you keep track of your findings. Such a diagram can be particularly useful if no plan of the water supply distribution system is available. Identify the points where water enters the site or is abstracted on site. Trace the water supply pipes from these points to any plant/equipment that uses water. Draw a flow diagram of pipework connections. Water use survey helps wallpaper manufacturer achieve significant savings By mapping its site water services and developing a water balance, a wallpaper manufacturer reduced water consumption at one of its by nearly 40%. These actions, together with recommendations from process improvement teams investigating site water use, highlighted how water was being used and where it was being wasted. Estimated annual savings of 143,000 were achieved at virtually no cost. 2.4.3 Identify sources of effluent The next stage is to find out where effluent is generated and being disposed of. Obtain drawings of the effluent drainage, surface water drainage and foul sewer systems. If these are not available, it may help to develop diagrams for your site. Appendix E provides guidance on how to produce and use site drainage plans to identify sources of effluent. Walk around your site/process finding out where water goes and looking for sources of effluent. Make a note of your observations. Talk to other people about where effluent is produced. Locate any effluent meters or sampling points. As well as discharges to sewer or watercourses, find out about liquid wastes and slurries removed off site in tankers. Use the list of typical effluent sources in Table 6 to help you identify all your sources of effluent and water losses.

WRAP Tracking Water Use to Cut Costs 20 Table 6: Typical effluent sources and water losses Effluent sources/water losses Examples General Water treatment units Water storage, including boiler system Storms/surface water run-off Groundwater Fire-fighting water systems Car park Fuelling depot Refrigeration units Laboratories Drying processes Hot processes Oil interceptors Storage tanks Site cleaning Filter backwash, wet sludges, chemical spillages, ion exchange regeneration, reverse osmosis effluents Leaks and overflows Additions to effluent drains Infiltration to effluent drains Leaks, unnecessary use, wrong connections, safety/pump testing Vehicle washing wastewater Spilt fuel and oils to drain Condensate Condensate, cooling water, liquid effluents, mains water vacuum pumps Evaporation Steam, condensate Water/effluent removal Bund water/effluent drainage, tank overflows, delivery pump/shaft seal leaks Hoses Commercial Laundry Kitchens Toilets/bathrooms/washrooms Swimming pool and leisure facilities Boiler/heating systems/air-conditioning Gardens and water features Vehicle washing Effluent, steam, evaporation from dryers Effluent, steam, liquid wastes Effluent, steam Wash block effluent, swimming pool water Blowdown, condensate, steam Excess water run-off, overflows Effluent, detergents Industrial Cooling tower Steam system Condensate recovery Condensate Process/production Scrubbers/strippers Safety showers Effluent treatment plant Blowdown, evaporation, spray/mist Steam leaks and relief valve discharges, steam trap condensate, steam and evaporation, boiler scale and sludge, blowdown Vent losses to atmosphere, leaks and overflows Loss to product, loss to drain (excluding recovery) Effluent, evaporation, water in product Overflows, mist/vapour Leaks, unnecessary use Treated effluent, sludge, aerosols, liquid wastes (e.g. reverse osmosis concentrate)

WRAP Tracking Water Use to Cut Costs 21 Domestic wastewater usually goes down a foul sewer for treatment by your local water company or sewerage provider. Uncollected and uncontaminated rainwater should preferably be discharged to a soakaway or to a surface water drain. To avoid unnecessary treatment charges: check that rainwater is not entering the foul sewer; keep domestic sewage and surface water drainage separate from trade effluent; and label or colour code all drains. Make sure that staff are aware of the difference. 2.4.4 Consider other water losses To complete your water balance, you need to consider other ways in which water is lost from your site/process, for example: water may leave the site in product (e.g. in soft drinks manufacture); and as steam (e.g. some food processing uses large quantities of steam). Without about these other losses, it will be difficult to complete a representative water balance for your site. Remember to check for water losses in: products and by-products; emissions to atmosphere (e.g. evaporation, steam, mist, spray and losses from pressure relief valves); spillages, leaks and overflows; slurry and sludge wastes; hoses and taps left on; cooling water (including once-through); and leaks from underground tanks or pipes. 2.4.5 Quantify water use and effluent flows Once you have identified all major water uses and effluent sources, the next stage is to place them in order from largest to smallest. Do this through a combination of common sense, your own knowledge and discussions with other people. Starting with the largest anticipated water use/flow, find out how much water is used each time and how often it is used. Simple but effective methods include recording meter readings or timing water flow into a container of known volume (see Figure 14). Starting with the largest effluent source, find out how much effluent is generated each time and how often it is generated. The effluent flow may be the same as the flow of water used.

WRAP Tracking Water Use to Cut Costs 22 Figure 14: Two simple ways of measuring flow, (a) record meter readings (b) using a bucket and stopwatch approach (a) (b) Water flow can be measured either in pipelines or in channels. There are numerous options for flow measurement, each with its Key Sub-meter Inputs Outputs Recirculation Values from earlier assessment shown in Figure 12 Newly assessed values own advantages and disadvantages. More details are given in Section 3.2.2. You can quantify flows in a number of ways. In order of preference, these are: Laundry and washrooms Toilets, handbasins and showers Washing machines Tumble dryers Meter measure directly: -- flow meter measurements; and -- 0.05m 3 /day bucket and stopwatch approach; 1m 3 /day Evaporation calculate and steam from other measurements where applicable; 5m 3 /day calculate from manufacturers published ; calculate from typical use ; and estimate from knowledge of the process. Liquid raw materials Bucket and stopwatch approach The direct measurement technique described below involves performing a spot check on the flow from a piece of equipment or process using a bucket or another container and a stopwatch (or a wristwatch with a second hand). The flow rate can be calculated from the volume of water/effluent collected over 1 6 4 0 2 a known 85mtime. 3 /day You may need to undo a pipe connection temporarily to allow water/ effluent to flow into your container. This technique, 1mwhich 3 /day will not be applicable to all flows, is described below. Mains water Evaporation and steam 75m 3 /day Factory Equipment washing Water added to product Boiler Steam generation Condensate recovery Water softening Condensate recovery 4m 3 /day Assess health and safety requirements (e.g. use gloves and safety glasses). Assemble equipment (e.g. bucket, timer, note-pad, pen and rope Shop for and lowering canteen bucket Toilets and sinks into drain). Dishwasher Find a measuring point Food where preparation it is possible to catch all the flow in the bucket. 5m 3 /day Water in the product 5m 3 /day Leaks 5m 3 /day 65m 3 /day Boiler blowdown/ condensate 70 m 3 /day 4m 3 /day six-step Total 3 79 m 3 /day Domestic wastewater/ trade effluent

WRAP Tracking Water Use to Cut Costs 23 Position the empty bucket and start the stopwatch (or note the exact time) immediately the bucket starts to catch the flow. Remove the bucket, stop the timer and note the time when the bucket is nearly full (but not overflowing). Measure the contents of the bucket in litres using either graduations on the bucket or a measuring cylinder. Calculate the flow rate in litres/second by dividing the volume of effluent collected in litres by the number of seconds over which collection took place. Alternatively, calculate the flow based on the weight of the effluent and assuming the effluent has the density of water (i.e. where 1kg of effluent occupies 1 litre). Measure the flow at representative times, including both continuous and intermittent discharges. As this is a one-off measurement, repeat the test to determine variations in flows or average flow rates. Using manufacturers data If direct measurement is not practicable, consider obtaining data from manufacturers brochures, such as water use for washing equipment. Take care to use data for the exact model and note any modifications. If possible, compare these data with actual water use. Savings are possible if the unit is operating at above its recommended consumption. Estimating water use based on knowledge of the process If necessary, you may have to estimate water use based on your knowledge of the process. For example, for a tank filled each time for a pre-rinse and a wash, measure the tank dimensions and calculate the volume of water used. Remember to allow for partial filling or overflows. Take measurements to cover all operations affecting water or effluent quantities. In particular, check intermittent activities (e.g. cleaning) where water use is often variable and wasteful. More about measuring water use and flow is given in Section 3.2.2. Monitoring washing/cleaning operations Monitor washing and cleaning operations by estimating or recording hose or tap use (for example, frequency, duration and flow rate) and calculating water/effluent quantities. Figure 15 shows an example calculation of water use by a hose. The same calculation can be applied to effluent generation. Figure 15: Example calculation of water use by a hose Calculation Result Instantaneous flow/average flow rate A Measured 0.5 litres/second = 1,800 litres/hour Length of event B Measured 2 hours Amount/event C A B 3,600 litres Frequency of event D Measured Twice a day Daily total E C D 7,200 litres/day Daily flow F E/1,000 7.2m 3 /day six-step

WRAP Tracking Water Use to Cut Costs 24 Estimating non-process uses If you have combined domestic and effluent sewers, you may need to estimate domestic sewage quantities. Typical values for domestic water consumption are shown in Table 7. Water use in toilets can be estimated from the frequency of use and cistern volume. WC cistern volumes can be calculated from measurements obtained by gently tying up the ballcock before flushing the toilet and filling the cistern from a graduated bucket. Use in washbasins can be estimated by temporarily disconnecting the U bend and running the waste into a large, graduated plastic bucket while using clean water to simulate normal use, such as washing hands. 2.4.6 Record your When tracking water use, it is important to keep accurate records of your findings for future use. You can do this either as a water use chart or on a worksheet. Water use chart Producing a simple block diagram will help you to determine flows for your water balance. Figures 16 and 17 show example charts for a commercial site and an industrial site respectively. Table 7: Typical rates of domestic water use Item Toilets Sinks Showers Baths Dishwasher Laundry (washing machine) Vehicle washing Garden hose Residential occupant Employee (full-time, no canteen) Employee (full-time, with canteen) Average water use 6 9 litres/flush 3 6 litres/event 45 65 litres/event (higher use for power showers) 60 170 litres/event 20 40 litres/event 60 100 litres/event Ranges from 100 litres/ vehicle using buckets up to 900 litres/vehicle using a hose 8 30 litres/minute (500 1,800 litres/hour) 150 litres/day/person 25 litres/day/person 40 litres/day/person Figure 16: Water use chart: commercial example Location: Unit operation: Hotel Laundry Date: 31/03/12 Time: 14.30 hrs Investigator: M Brown Source: Mains water Metered/unmetered Use 1: Washing machine Volume: 2.4m 3 /day Use 2: Sink Volume: 0.24m 3 /day

WRAP Tracking Water Use to Cut Costs 25 Figure 17: Water use chart: industrial example Location: Unit operation: Brewery Cooling tower Date: 31/03/12 Time: 10.30 hrs Investigator: D White Source: Mains water Metered/unmetered Use 1: Make-up water Volume: 7m 3 /day Use 2: Hose Volume: 5.4m 3 /day Worksheet Entering quantity and cost data on a worksheet will help you use the water balance to identify and prioritise water saving opportunities (see Section 2.5). Keep units consistent and choose the time period that is most convenient for you. The example worksheets shown in Figures 18 and 19 are based on weekly use. Figure 18 shows an example worksheet for a fictitious commercial site (the same site used to produce the water use chart shown in Figure 16). The number of times the sinks are used is calculated assuming three employees, each washing their hands eight times a day for five days per week. The calculations assume negligible use of liquid detergent/ fabric softener and negligible water losses as steam/evaporation. Figure 19 shows an example worksheet for a fictitious industrial site (the same site used to produce the water use chart shown in Figure 17). The amount of evaporation is calculated from the volume of make-up water minus the volume of blowdown and assuming no leaks and/or overflows. The calculation assumes that hose use amounts to 15 hours/week (3 hours/day, 5 days/week) at a flow rate of 0.5 litres/second (1.8m 3 /hour).

WRAP Tracking Water Use to Cut Costs 26 Figure 18: Calculating the weekly cost of water use and effluent generation: example commercial site Review carried out by: M. Brown Date: 31/03/12 Review carried out at: Hotel Time: 14.30 Water supply costs: 120 pence/m 3 Effluent discharge costs: average 80 pence/m 3 Dept Process Water Effluent Input/event (m 3 ) Number of events per week* Total input (m 3 /week) Cost of input ( /week) Output/event (m 3 ) Number of events per week* Total output (m 3 /week) Cost of output ( /week) Laundry Washing machine 0.1 120 12.0 14.40 0.1 120 12.0 9.60 Sinks 0.01 120 1.2 1.44 0.01 120 1.2 0.96 Total * Use the time period appropriate for your site.

WRAP Tracking Water Use to Cut Costs 27 Figure 19: Calculating the weekly cost of water use and effluent generation: example industrial site Review carried out by: D. White Date: 31/03/12 Review carried out at: Brewery Time: 10.30 Water supply costs: 120 pence/m 3 Effluent discharge costs: average 80 pence/m 3 for hose use with moderate pollution assuming 42 pence/m 3 for blowdown (based on volume charges only) Dept Process Water Effluent Input/event (m 3 ) Number of events per week* Total input (m 3 /week) Cost of input ( /week) Output/event (m 3 ) Number of events per week* Total output (m 3 /week) Cost of output ( /week) Cooling tower Water make-up 5 7 35.0 42.00 Hose 1.8 (per hour) 15 27.0 32.40 1.8 15 27.0 21.60 3.0 7 21.0 Blowdown 2.0 7 14.0 5.88 Total * Use the time period appropriate for your site.

(a) WRAP Tracking Water Use to Cut Costs 28 2.4.7 Completing the water balance Adding the obtained from your investigations of water use and effluent generation to your block diagram should enable you to complete your water balance. In some cases, it may now be easier to expand the diagram by dividing a block into two or more activities. (b) The water balance should be a schematic representation of your process showing: all known points of water flowing into the process; all known points of water flowing out of the process, as effluent, liquid waste, product or evaporative loss (see Appendix F for steam); and the amounts of these flows (in consistent units). In theory, the total of all the inputs should equal the total of all the outputs for either individual unit operations or the whole process. However, this is rarely the case in practice. Aim initially for an accuracy of ±10% on the total amount of water you can account for. Figure 20 shows the completed water balance for the example company from Step 3 (see Section 2.3). The company has now produced data for all flows and identified major water leaks from the factory. In this example, 84m 3 /day out of the input of 85m 3 /day of water has now been accounted for. Figure 20: Completed water balance for a simple example site Key Sub-meter Inputs Outputs Recirculation Values from earlier assessment shown in Figure 12 Newly assessed values Meter Mains water 1 6 4 0 2 85m 3 /day 0.05m 3 /day Evaporation and steam 5m 3 /day 1m 3 /day Liquid raw materials 1m 3 /day Evaporation and steam 75m 3 /day 4m 3 /day Laundry and washrooms Toilets, handbasins and showers Washing machines Tumble dryers Factory Equipment washing Water added to product Boiler Steam generation Condensate recovery Water softening Condensate recovery Shop and canteen Toilets and sinks Dishwasher Food preparation 5m 3 /day Water in the product 5m 3 /day Leaks 5m 3 /day 65m 3 /day Boiler blowdown/ condensate 70 m 3 /day 4m 3 /day 79 m 3 /day Total Domestic wastewater/ trade effluent 84m 3 /day

WRAP Tracking Water Use to Cut Costs 29 Further example water balances for an industrial site and a hotel are shown in Appendix D. If the inputs and outputs shown in your water balance are not equal, consider: Where else is water coming from or effluent going to? Are there hidden losses (e.g. an undetected leak)? How accurate is the? Can it be improved? 2.4.8 Account for discrepancies As well as checking that there are no hidden losses, it is also important to look for inconsistencies in your data. Table 8 lists ways of identifying inconsistencies. Detecting leaks The methods outlined in Table 9 will help you to detect major leaks. Before carrying out a night flow test, switch off any automatic devices (e.g. urinal automatic flushing devices), but don t forget to switch them back on afterwards. Calculate the rate of water leakage from the difference between the meter readings and the time between meter readings. Alternatively, when no water is being used, lift manholes and check for effluent flows. There is also the possibility of groundwater leaking into drains and stormwater/rainwater additions to drains. New meters identify expensive water leak A company manufactures high-quality packaging at one of its. Historically, the site only metered incoming mains water, but this did not provide sufficient on water use. As part of the company s water efficiency campaign, 28 meters were installed around the site and water use was recorded and monitored. A major leak, costing 11,000/year, was identified and repaired. Table 8: Identifying discrepancies in your water balance Method Reason for inconsistency/solution General Walk around site Hold discussions with staff Institute employee suggestion scheme Hold no-blame brainstorming Check for recycled flows or re-use Examine previous water and effluent bills Meters Check meters are read correctly Check for faulty meters Check meters are suitable for application and installed correctly Incorrectly set valves or control systems, leaks, broken valves, pipes or other equipment. Previously unidentified or cross connections, or unidentified take-up by product. Excessive or unnecessary use. Unknown or unauthorised use. Double accounting. If changes cannot be explained by process modifications, then investigate further. For example, relate water to output (i.e. m 3 per unit of production, department or area). Train staff. Service and calibrate meters regularly. Perform tank level test (i.e. pass a known volume of water out of a tank and check that the meter records the event correctly). Check specification of size and type. Check proximity to pipework obstructions such as bends.

WRAP Tracking Water Use to Cut Costs 30 Table 9: Leak detection methods Type Look Listen Test Contractors Method Inside walk around the site or process, examining water-using plant and supply pipework carefully. Outside look for lush vegetation or continuously boggy/damp areas. Check the proximity of these areas to supply pipes. When the area is quiet, listen for drips or flow of water. Carry out a night flow test and listen for flow at meters: -- read the water meter when all employees have left and all processes have stopped; -- read the meter again some time later before anyone returns and uses water; and -- if the water meter shows a significant increase, suspect a leak and investigate further. Use sub-meters around the site to carry out detailed investigations in different areas. Use a leak detection service provided by a water company or external contractor. 2.5 Step 5 Using the water balance to save money As you carry out investigations for your water balance, you may find taps left on, faulty valves and leaks. You can often take action to sort out such problems immediately. Note down what you have done and record the anticipated savings. Many of the benefits of producing a water balance arise from increasing people s awareness of the importance of using water efficiently. However, the full effects will only be gained by analysing each use of water carefully. 2.5.1 Identifying opportunities to reduce water use Use the water balance to identify major water uses and sources of wastewater/effluent generation. Then use the checklist in Figure 7 (see Section 2.2) to help you analyse water use and effluent generation. Your answers to the questions in this checklist will help you to identify opportunities to reduce water use and thus save money. Photocopy this checklist as necessary for use by your water saving team. Suggestions for reducing water use are given in Table 10. Many of these suggestions are no-cost and low-cost measures. The others are likely to cost more, but are still worth considering. Use the cost data from your completed water use worksheet (see Section 2.4.6) to help you prioritise and implement measures to reduce water use and wastewater/effluent generation. Water balance leads dairy to significant cost benefits and water savings A detailed water balance prepared by staff at a milk processing factory highlighted the areas where significant amounts of water were used and wastewater generated. A major source of wastewater was evaporative condensate. This warm and relatively clean wastewater stream is now recovered, treated by reverse osmosis and re-used for a number of applications on site including boiler feed make-up water and hot CIP operations. The reliance on mains water has reduced significantly, with potential savings of up to 1,100m 3 /day. Ask the people who operate water-using equipment for their suggestions for reducing water use and wastewater/effluent generation.

WRAP Tracking Water Use to Cut Costs 31 Table 10: Cost-effective water saving opportunities Issue Technique Examples Potential cost General Good housekeeping (i.e. using water wisely). Use dry cleaning methods initially to minimise water use to one short wash (i.e. use scrapers or brushes first to remove material from equipment for disposal as solid waste). Low Reduce unnecessary garden watering or water with perforated pipes instead of a hose or sprinkler to reduce water loss by evaporation. Low Keeping foul sewer, trade effluent and surface water drains separate. Ensure rainfall run-off (from uncontaminated areas) drains to surface water drains or collect for re-use. High High-grade and low-grade water supply systems. Collect rainwater for low-grade uses (e.g. garden watering and yard washing). Low Monitoring Measuring to manage. Set staged goals for reducing water use. Low Real-time reporting. Report water use and effluent generation daily or weekly so that excessive use can be identified and remedial action taken immediately. Low Training Waste reduction culture. Promote with progress reports, competitions, suggestion schemes, etc. Low Environmental awareness and water savings. Use leaflets, posters, stickers and department/group meetings to educate employees. Low Improved maintenance Equipment repair. Repair leaking valves, seals and pipes, dripping taps and overflowing cisterns immediately. Low Preventive maintenance. Service equipment regularly to reduce unplanned downtime of machinery and associated washing operations. Low Operations Production scheduling. Reduce need for washing by progressing from light/clean to dark/dirty items or production, re-using wash water where possible. Low Procedural changes. Encourage the use of showers rather than baths where possible. Low Optimise the number of cleaning rinses and rinsing methods. Low Replace worn-out equipment with low-water use models. On dishwashers and washing machines, also look for features such as quick washes for lightly soiled loads. High Replace manual cleaning with cleaning-in-place (CIP) automated systems. High Key: Low = easy no-cost and low-cost measures (i.e. less than a few hundred pounds); High = higher cost, more detailed measures.

WRAP Tracking Water Use to Cut Costs 32 Table 10: Cost-effective water saving opportunities (continued) Issue Technique Examples Potential cost Operations (continued) Modification of operational techniques. Try to use machines (e.g. dishwashers and washing machines) only when they have a full load. Low Rinse items in a sink rather than under running water. Low Avoid washing rinses that overflow. Use a mixer or hot water or allow equipment to soak in order to use water efficiently. Low Reduce the size of washing bowls or other vessels to decrease the amount of water needed to fill them. High Use sprays or jets of high pressure water instead of larger quantities of low pressure water. High Collect wash water, effluent, blowdown or condensate, treat it and re-use. High Improved instrumentation and control. Use pressure reducers or flow restrictors to reduce water use (e.g. on hand washing basins and hoses). Low Install automatic flushing devices on urinals and/or reduce toilet cistern volumes. Low Use automatic shut-off valves for hoses (i.e. trigger guns) and tank filling pipework. Install push taps on basins. Low Install tamper prevention devices (e.g. locks for valves) to prevent unauthorised adjustment. Low Use automatic controls where possible (e.g. automatic blowdown control). High Consider using block valves (i.e. non-adjustable) instead of adjustable valves to avoid incorrect settings. High Replacement of process. Microwave food instead of boiling it. Low Consider dry cleaning for clothes and fabrics. Low Use air cooling instead of water cooling. High Matching quality and availability to requirements to re-use water. Re-use the last rinse usually clean as initial rinse of next wash cycle usually dirty (i.e. countercurrent rinsing). Low Re-use cooling water for another use (e.g. washing) or re-use after treatment (e.g. in a heat exchanger). High Key: Low = easy no-cost and low-cost measures (i.e. less than a few hundred pounds); High = higher cost, more detailed measures.

WRAP Tracking Water Use to Cut Costs 33 2.5.2 Examples to give you ideas The following examples are intended to give you ideas about how your company could save money by reducing water use. Company example 1 Water use in a commercial building was monitored using water meters and a water balance was developed. Comparison of water use in different areas revealed markedly different water use between two washrooms, even though they were a similar size and had a similar level of use. Investigations identified a leaking pipe, a broken tap (water was running continuously) and a faulty valve leading to excessive water for toilet flushing. Simple repairs saved 500m 3 /year of water and associated wastewater charges. Company example 2 During a survey of its water distribution system, a company noticed that cooling water was discharged straight to drain after only one use. Following investigation, it proved cost-effective to install a cooling unit to enable water re-use. Company example 3 Investigations at a site identified taps running continuously in workshops to provide cold drinking water (the supply pipes came through hot process areas) and to cool milk for tea. Significant amounts of water and money were saved by installing chilled drinking water fountains and small refrigerators for milk or bottled water. 2.6 Step 6 Continuous improvement Your first water balance should be reviewed and updated regularly. The review will allow you to demonstrate that savings are being made. Regular recording of flows, water and effluent costs, meter readings and updating of site drainage plans will minimise the work required during a water balance review. During your regular review: gather more detailed data (if necessary); improve estimated data by measurement or better estimation; update water supply and drainage system drawings/plans as appropriate; and incorporate any relevant changes (e.g. methods, products and employee numbers). With time, your water balance will become increasingly accurate as you account for and eliminate discrepancies (see Section 2.4.8). To maintain motivation, let everyone in the company know about the success of the water saving initiative through your intranet, via posters on notice-boards, in company newsletters, etc. Send regular reports to top-level management to maintain their commitment to water saving. Company example 4 One company found that its water balance did not balance ; the site meter registered much more water as being used than had been measured. To investigate the discrepancy, each water-using operation was examined more closely. In one area, it was found that a hose was frequently left on unnecessarily during a washing operation. Fitting a trigger gun to the hose solved the problem and reduced water and effluent charges significantly.

WRAP Tracking Water Use to Cut Costs 34 Talk to the relevant staff to obtain the necessary details and records. At larger,, it takes longer to refine the initial water balance and to identify and implement all cost-effective water saving opportunities. This section builds on Section 2 by explaining how you can investigate water and, particularly, effluent flows in more detail to uncover further water saving opportunities. 3.1 Gathering more data For Step 2 A preliminary review (see Section 2.2), it is necessary for to gather more data. Table 11 provides other sources of that will help you to complete the water balance for a more complex site. 3.2 Finding out more about effluent flows For, you need to investigate: discharges to sewers and watercourses; effluent removed off site in tankers; and other liquid wastes (e.g. small quantities removed from the site in drums). Talk to the relevant staff to obtain the necessary details and records. Table 11: Additional relevant data for Subject Details Site levelling data Drainage network details Water quality standards Water storage Water and effluent transfer Effluent removed from site Effluent disposal standards Effluent volume and strength Correspondence with regulators Rainfall data Process details Operational practices Substances and chemicals Future development proposals Potential future costs Historical data Site plan showing levels. Condition, age, size and materials of construction. Internal specifications for different plant/areas. System type and capacity. Whether pumped, gravity-fed or manual. Use of tankers and drums. Trade effluent consent conditions. Basis for calculation and billing (i.e. application of Mogden Formula). Details of any problems or pollution incidents. Run-off volume and rate calculations (e.g. Met Office data). Process equipment arrangements, sketches and plans. Cleaning routines, number of employees and shift patterns. Quantities used. Health and safety data sheets. Possible changes in production or number of employees. Changes to charging scheme. Increases in treatment/disposal costs. Forthcoming legislation. Past environmental, engineering, health and safety reports.

WRAP Tracking Water Use to Cut Costs 35 3.2.1 Carry out a drain entry point survey The points at which pipes or channels containing effluent enter the site drainage system are known as drain entry points. Carry out a site survey of drain entry points, measuring and recording all potential effluent flows to the drains. Figure 21 shows an example record from a drain entry point survey for a fictitious site. 3.2.2 Examine each effluent flow in more detail You now need to examine the effluent characteristics at each drain entry point. Useful includes: source of effluent; number of sources of each type of effluent; a description of the effluent (e.g. temperature, clarity and colour); what the water is used for to produce an effluent (e.g. cleaning); possible contaminants (e.g. raw material, product and detergents); details of the pipe or channel through which the effluent joins the drainage system; flow rate; whether the flow is intermittent or continuous; frequency of flow; and duration of flow. Record your observations and measurements on a suitable worksheet. Figure 22 shows an example worksheet for the same site as Figure 21.

WRAP Tracking Water Use to Cut Costs 36 Figure 21: Example drain entry point survey sheet Site: Amberly Road Feeding to drain entry point number: 14 Location: Building 3 Exact location: Manhole in path by north face Department: Processing Marked on map number: 2 of 3 Investigator: J. Smith Date: 31/03/12 Time: 14.30 For each pipe/channel feeding into drain entry point note: Source (if known) Number Construction material Colour of pipe Pipe diameter Horizontal or vertical Is flow present? Describe Characteristics of flow (e.g. hot/cold, clear/coloured, solids present, odour). Not known 1 Stainless steel Silvery grey 50mm Vertical Slight trickle Cold, milky colour

WRAP Tracking Water Use to Cut Costs 37 Figure 22: Example effluent source sheet Site: Amberly Road Feeding to drain entry point number: 14 Location: Building 3 Exact location: Manhole in path by north face Department: Processing Marked on map number: 2 of 3 Investigator: J. Smith Date: 31/03/12 Time: 14.30 For each pipe/channel feeding into drain entry point note: Source process Number Water use to produce effluent Intermittent or continuous Pipe or channel* Description of effluent Possible contaminants Rate of flow, frequency and duration (with units) Oven cleaning 1 Cleaning Intermittent Pipe, stainless steel, vertical Foaming, brown, hot Detergents, baked and burnt product 0.1m 3 /event including rinsing. Once every two weeks, plus annual shutdown clean of 0.2m 3 * Description as given on drain entry point survey sheet.

WRAP Tracking Water Use to Cut Costs 38 Measuring flow rates Consider the following questions before selecting a flow measurement system or contacting a supplier of flow measurement equipment: What level of accuracy is required? Will the flow rate obtained by bucket and stopwatch methods be sufficiently accurate? How big are the pipes and can they be opened to insert an invasive flow measurement system? What are the temperature, pressure and range of speed of the water/effluent? Is the water clean or dirty? If dirty, what is the nature of the contamination? Is pipework old and corroded? Corrosion can cause problems for strap-on flow meters. Is pipework insulated or trace heated? Will a pressure drop across an invasive metering element be acceptable? Is a signal for output to online monitoring or recording systems required? Flow measurement systems Flow measurement systems are summarised in Table 12. Note that the accuracy of flow measurement equipment is affected by the proximity of: valves; bends; and other items that affect the flow of water/ effluent. One benefit of using flow measurement systems is that the electrical signals produced by such systems can be collected in data loggers for trend analysis. Dip tube method Another method of measuring the water level is a variation of the pressure technique. This uses a small dip tube to gently blow air bubbles into the water from below the surface. The amount of excess air pressure required to expel air is related to the depth of water above the end of the dip tube; the deeper the water, the higher the pressure required to expel air.

WRAP Tracking Water Use to Cut Costs 39 Table 12: Commonly used flow measurement techniques Sensor element Type Principle Applicability Common problems Turbine (A) I Rotation of turbine blades by flow CW P Solids or solvents Rotameter I Variable area CW P Must be vertical Orifice (B) I Pressure differential CW P Solids may block pressure tappings Magnetic I Distortion of magnetic field CW/DW P Must remain full* Thermal dilution I Rate of cooling CW/DW P/C Ultrasonic (C) time-of-flight I/N Vector addition of velocities CW/SDW P Might not work in dirty water Ultrasonic (C) Doppler I/N Reflections from particles in water DW P Will not work in clean water Ultrasonic plus pressure I Doppler for flow pressure for depth DW P/C Small weir may be required Weir (D) I/N Level upstream of weir CW/DW C Settling solids will require removal Flume (D) I/N Level upstream of flume CW/DW C Settling solids will require removal Bucket and stopwatch Time taken to collect a known volume CW/DW Spot flow measurement Drop tank test (E) Rate of change of depth of tank Spot flow measurement * Some new systems will measure flow in part-full pipes. (A), (B), etc: see overleaf for notes on these different systems. Key: I = invasive N = non-invasive CW = clean water DW = dirty water SDW = slightly dirty water P = pipe C = channel

WRAP Tracking Water Use to Cut Costs 40 (A) Turbine meters Turbine meters usually provide a direct visual display of cumulative flow. Instantaneous flow signals can usually be acquired from optional sensors which bolt onto the turbine casing and provide pulsed electrical outputs. Installing a few inexpensive turbine-type water meters at key points in the water distribution system can enhance the results obtained from a water use survey. A flow meter for a 12.5mm (1/2 ) pipe costs about 45 and for a 50mm (2 ) pipe about 200. (B) Orifice meters Numerous versions of inexpensive orifice meters, which give direct readings of instantaneous flow, are available. (C) Ultrasonic meters Strap-on ultrasonic flow meters can give good results, but older pipework may cause problems. (D) Weirs and flumes Levels at weirs or flumes, and hence the flow, can be measured non-invasively by ultrasonic distance measuring systems or invasively by pressure gauges. (E) Drop tank test These can be used to calibrate flow measurement systems. It is important to consider the composition of the effluent. Foam on the surface of effluents can cause problems with ultrasonic systems. Effluent with a high solids content can block standard pressure transmitters. Large diameter diaphragm-based pressure systems may be more suitable in such cases. 3.2.3 Cooling towers and steam relief valves If your site has cooling towers and/or steam relief valves, use the simplified approach described in Appendix F to calculate water use and losses. However, a more costeffective approach to determining water use by a cooling tower is to fit a water meter on the make-up water pipeline. 3.3 Using the water balance to save money 3.3.1 Using the results of the water balance For Step 5 (see Section 2.5), the water balance should also be used to identify: opportunities to reduce water use and wastewater/effluent generation. It is possible to reduce cleaning costs by up to 60%; and materials present in the effluent that contribute to pollution load (for which you pay higher trade effluent charges). Look for ways of eliminating or reducing the presence of these materials. Such materials include: -- raw materials; -- products; -- by-products; and -- wastes. You could save a substantial amount of money by recovering raw materials and product from your effluents. Section 3.3.3 describes how to calculate the pollution load and the associated reduction in trade effluent charges. Chemical company recovers product worth 200,000/year from process effluent An investment of 20,000 in new pipework and tanks enabled a chemical company to recycle a liquid waste stream. This saved the company 20,000/year in effluent charges and 200,000/year in recovered product and reduced disposal costs. 3.3.2 Consider options for water re-use In some cases, it may be possible to re-use wastewater/effluents directly for another duty (e.g. low-grade cleaning) or to treat the effluent for water re-use and/or recovery of materials. When considering water re-use, assess quality requirements and potential problems by talking to operators, equipment suppliers and your maintenance, quality control and health and safety departments.

WRAP Tracking Water Use to Cut Costs 41 Factors you should consider include: water quality (as a minimum): -- ph; -- temperature; -- chemical oxygen demand (COD); -- dissolved and suspended solids; -- specific substances used in the process; -- microbiological concentrations; and -- toxicity issues; water availability; frequency of use; variability; and flow patterns. Major savings with improved cask washing process A brewery knew that its cask washing plant used water inefficiently. A quality improvement team formed to evaluate the washing process identified a number of opportunities to achieve major savings. Final rinse water from cask washing is now recovered and re-used in other stages of the process (i.e. external rinses, pre-rinses, oil cooling/bung finding equipment and conveyor washing). Water consumption at the brewery fell significantly to give annual savings worth 23,000. 3.3.3 Reduce the pollution load Pollution load in an effluent is commonly expressed as: COD - this is a measure of the potential oxygen requirement of an effluent during natural breakdown of the polluting substances (i.e. its pollution potential); and total suspended solids (TSS) - this is a measure of solids present in the effluent. Appendix G provides formulae to help you calculate the pollutant load and concentration of a pollutant in an effluent. The benefits of investigating and implementing measures to reduce the pollution load include: reduced material losses to drain, leading to increased profits; reduced trade effluent charges (see Appendix A); recovered raw materials (usually the largest cost saving); and reduced load on effluent treatment plant and other equipment. In some cases, it may also be possible to increase concentrations to the point where material recovery becomes cost-effective. To determine the concentration of material in an effluent flow: obtain a laboratory analysis of a representative sample; or calculate the average concentration based on the volume of effluent and the quantity of substance used. You will need to allow for the amount of substance released as product or to another waste stream, and thus not released in the effluent. This calculation will only provide a guideline figure. It is important to remember that material concentrations in an effluent could vary considerably owing to the nature of the process and the timescales involved. Advice on how to calculate concentrations and pollution loads for mixed flows is given in Appendix G.

WRAP Tracking Water Use to Cut Costs 42 Figure 23: Example annual effluent pollution load block diagram Location: Unit operation: Confectionery Sweets production Flow 1: Toffee cooker Flow 2: Milk make-up vessel COD 770kg/day TSS 50kg/day Volume 1,630m 3 /day COD 185kg/day TSS 23kg/day Volume 15m 3 /day Flow 3: Polishing pan cleaning COD 65kg/day TSS 7kg/day Volume 55m 3 /day Total effluent COD 1,020kg/day TSS 80kg/day Volume 1,700m 3 /day Annual pollution load Use your to calculate the pollution load (e.g. on an annual basis) for the different flows. Figure 23 shows this for an example factory (with three flows) displayed as a block diagram. Use the in your diagram to identify unnecessary or excessive pollution loads. Then consider ways of reducing the pollution load. Use A and G to estimate how much you would save by reducing the COD of your trade effluent. Don t forget to count the cost of recovered or avoided materials in the savings. Investigate those flows with a high pollution load. Find out: why the pollution load (i.e. COD or TSS) is so high; if the pollution load can be reduced; and if the flow can be reduced. Water companies use the Mogden Formula (see Appendix A) to calculate trade effluent charges. Reducing both the volume and the load of an effluent will reduce your costs. However, it is important to note that water saving measures that reduce individual effluents with a low pollution load will increase the average concentration of the overall effluent. It is therefore essential to check before taking action that the site s trade effluent consent conditions will not be breached.

WRAP Tracking Water Use to Cut Costs 43 4 Action plan Your organisation will have its own goals determined by its own policies and practices. You should now be in a position to begin to develop an action plan to identify activities to improve water use in your organisation. You should be able to identify some of these priority areas by looking at the data you have gathered. Your organisation will have its own goals determined by its own policies and practices. However, the easiest and lowestcost actions will probably be carried through first as they do not require capital investment or time commitments and produce results that can be seen very quickly. Development of a water balance should be carried out as part of a campaign to reduce water use and wastewater generation at your site. A systematic approach to reducing your water use is described in the WRAP guide Saving Money Through Resource Efficiency: Reducing Water Use (www.wrap.org.uk) and the four phases of a typical water saving campaign are shown in Figure 6 (see Section 1.5). If you want to reduce your water and effluent costs Find out how much your organisation is paying in water and effluent charges. Construct a water balance for your site by following the six-step described in this guide. Use your water balance to identify opportunities to reduce water use and effluent generation. Estimate potential savings from reducing water use and effluent generation. Agree targets. Identify and evaluate measures to reduce water use and effluent generation. Implement cost-effective measures and monitor progress. Review your water balance regularly. 4 Action plan 5 Further

WRAP Tracking Water Use to Cut Costs 44 5 Further Useful sources of WRAP guides and tools Saving Money Through Resource Efficiency: Reducing Water Use. Reducing Your Water Consumption. Resource Efficiency for Managers. Environmental Strategic Review Guide. Waste Mapping: Your Route to More Profit. Workforce Partnerships for Resource Efficiency. Green Office: A Guide to Running a More Cost-effective and Environmentally Sustainable Office. The Rippleffect: this provides a wealth of free advice and support to help your business to save money by using water more efficiently. Mogden Formula tool. Water monitoring tool. Useful links The Federation House Commitment: an agreement by companies in the food and drink industry to reduce their water use www.fhc2020.co.uk/fhc/cms/ Water Technology List: Visit www.hmrc.gov.uk/capital-allowances/fya/water.htm or call 0844 875 5885. The following agencies offer advice on regulations affecting water use and wastewater discharge: Environment Agency: Tel: 03708 506 506 www.environment-agency.gov.uk Environment Agency Wales: Tel: 0370 850 6506 www.environment-agency.gov.uk/aboutus/organisation/35675.aspx Scottish Environment Protection Agency (SEPA): Tel: 01786 457700 (Corporate Office) www.sepa.org.uk Northern Ireland Environment Agency (NIEA): Tel: 028 9262 3100 (Water Management Unit) www.doeni.gov.uk/niea/ The following organisations are regulators of the water and sewerage industry in the UK: Ofwat: The Water Services Regulation Authority (Ofwat) is the economic regulator of the water and sewerage industry in England and Wales. Tel: 0121 644 7500 (www.ofwat.gov.uk) Water Industry Commission for Scotland: Tel: 01786 430200 (www.watercommission.co.uk) Utility Regulator (Northern Ireland): Tel: 028 9031 1575 (www.uregni.gov.uk/) 5 Further 4 Action plan

WRAP Tracking Water Use to Cut Costs 45 WRAP WRAP (Waste & Resources Action Programme) works in England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland to help businesses and individuals reap the benefits of reducing waste, develop sustainable products and use resources in an efficient way. Since its creation WRAP has funded projects that will, over their lifetimes, deliver over 120 million tonnes of waste diverted from landfill and over 20 million tonnes of CO 2 equivalent greenhouse gases saved. Visit www.wrap.org.uk for more on all of WRAP s services. What support can you get from WRAP? UK businesses could save 23 billion per year and help create and protect jobs by improving the way they use resources. WRAP provides a range of free resource efficiency support for organisations including: WRAP Resource Efficiency Helpline on 0808 100 2040; online tools and guidance; online training initiatives; tailored business support for recycling companies; case studies; and guides. Visit www.wrap.org.uk to find out more. 5 Further 4 Action plan

WRAP Tracking Water Use to Cut Costs 46 Appendix A: UK charging schemes This appendix provides on UK charging schemes for April 2011-March 2012. However, such schemes are subject to change and updating. For the latest on charging schemes affecting your site, please contact your local water company, sewerage undertaker or the regulator. There is considerable variation throughout the UK with respect to charging for water and effluent services. There are a number of factors that affect charging, including: the service provider; the size of the meter; the tariff structure agreed with your service provider water volume is banded and the band into which a company falls will determine the charging tariff; and the year unit costs are reviewed on an annual basis. This appendix provides about how water and effluent bills are calculated to help you understand: how your site is being charged for water use and wastewater discharge; and the effect on your site s charges of different measures to reduce water use and effluent generation. Details of UK charging schemes are summarised in Table A11 at the end of this appendix. The type of provided on a water bill and a trade effluent bill, together with explanatory notes, is shown in Figure A1 and Figure A2 respectively. Get into the habit of comparing meter readings on your bills with your own records. This is particularly important when your bills are based on estimated readings. Figure A1: Information given on a water bill Customer address: Customer reference: Period: Water charge Present reading: Volume: Sewerage charge Meter serial no: Meter location: 1 Refers to pipe size (mm) Meter size (actual): (agreed): No. dials: 2 Refers to the number Tariff: shown as white digits to 3 Dictates unit costs X Previous reading: Y 5 Relates to agreed pipe size m 3 Pence/m 3 4 Unit cost related to tariff see note 3 6 Only applies to a few water companies Unit costs are specific to 8 the water provider and 7 May appear on will change each year trade effluent bill Pence/m 3 i.e.factor Water Company m 3 X Y Standing charge: TOTAL CHARGE Non-return to sewer allowance specific to each water company 9

WRAP Tracking Water Use to Cut Costs 47 Figure A2: Information given on a trade effluent bill 1 Refers to pipe size (mm) ed): 2 Refers to the number shown as white digits 3 Dictates unit costs 5 Relates to agreed pipe size Customer address: Period: Date A Trade effluent volume LESS volume allowances Water and Sewerage Company to Steam losses Water in product Date B Customer reference: Consent no: Sample point: The water company will take 4-6 samples a year to analyse for COD and suspended solids m 3 X m 3 2 3 total m 3 X 1 Refers to trade effluent consent agreement You will be asked to provide data/calculations for these allowances Other allowances/losses LESS domestic volume adjustment No. of employees or full-time equivalents No. of days worked in period Canteen present? 4 Y You will be asked to provide this Daily per capita consumption (litres/head) Average strengths and solids Z Average suspended solids mg/litre (St) Average COD mg/litre (Ot) 5 See note 2 CHARGING DETAILS Trade effluent Charge = (R + V + Bv + M + [B(Ot/Os)] + [S(St/Ss)]) x volume of effluent (m 3 ) R V Bv M B S Os Ss Pence/m 3 mg/litre 6 C = Flow x R C = Flow x V C = Flow x Bv C = Flow x M C = Flow x (S x St/Ss) C = Flow x (B x Ot/Os) Flow = (X-Y-Z)m Unit costs are specific to the sewerage undertaker and will change each year Domestic charge R V Bv M B S Os Ss Reception charge Primary treatment charge Additional volume charge (if there is biological treatment) Marine charge (effluent goes to sea) Biological treatment charge Sludge treatment charge Chemical oxygen demand of settled sewage Suspended solids concentration in crude sewage Volume (m 3) Z Pence/m 3 TOTAL CHARGE

WRAP Tracking Water Use to Cut Costs 48 Water use Mains supply Charges for mains supply consist of two components: standing charge a fixed annual sum, determined by the size of the meter; and volumetric charge a unit cost (pence/m 3 ) charged on the actual amount of metered water used on-site. For a standard user tariff, the average cost of mains supply water for the UK is 1.20/m 3 (2011/2012 prices), ranging from around 60p/m 3 to 1.83/m 3 depending on the service provider. The cost is subject to conditions (see below). Unit costs are revised each year in April and vary between service providers. For an up-to-date list for England and Wales, visit www.ofwat.gov.uk An example water bill is shown in Figure A1. For details of individual charging schemes, contact your service provider. Abstraction from borehole or surface water A charge for the abstraction of water from groundwater (borehole) or surface water (river, stream etc) applies to companies based in England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland. Abstractors are advised to consult their local regulator for up-to-date advice. Charges in England and Wales The annual charge payable under the abstraction licensing system administered by the Environment Agency is the sum of the standard charge and the compensation charge, calculated according to the following formula. Annual charge = standard charge + compensation charge = (V A B C SUC) + (V B C D EIUC) where: V = Volume specified on the licence (in thousand m 3 ) A = Source factor (supported, unsupported or tidal) B = Season factor (summer, winter or all year) C = Loss factor (high, medium, low or very low) SUC = Standard Unit Charge ( per thousand m 3 ) D = Adjusted source factor EIUC = Environmental Improvement Unit Charge ( per thousand m 3 ) Volume. The annual charge is calculated from the volume (V) specified on the licence (in thousand m 3 ) rather than volume abstracted. Source factor. The source factor (A) consists of three categories: -- Unsupported (factor 1.0) where supported and tidal do not apply; -- Supported (factor 3.0) if the source of the authorised abstraction is included in Schedule 1 of the Environment Agency Scheme of Abstraction Charges; and -- Tidal (factor 0.2) refers to those parts of inland waters downstream of the normal tidal limit as marked on the 1:25000 Ordnance Survey map. Season factor. The season factor (B) consists of three categories: -- Summer (factor 1.6) abstraction authorised between 1 April and 31 October inclusive; -- Winter (factor 0.16) abstraction authorised between 1 November and 31 March inclusive; and -- All year (factor 1.0) abstraction authorised all year or not covered by either of the above categories.

WRAP Tracking Water Use to Cut Costs 49 Loss factor. The loss factor (C) consists of four categories: -- High loss (factor 1.0) spray irrigation, dust suppression and other purposes where, due to evaporation, water use is not returned either directly or indirectly to any source of supply; -- Medium loss (factor 0.6) public and private supply, commercial and industrial purposes not specified elsewhere, boiler feed, use as a means of conveying material, bottling and uses which incorporate water in the product, agricultural purposes (excluding spray irrigation, fish farms and watercress growing) and anti-frost spraying; -- Low loss (factor 0.03) includes mineral and vegetable washing, and nonevaporative cooling; and -- Very low loss (factor 0.003) power generation of greater than 5MW, amenity pools through flow, hydraulic testing, fish farms, watercress growing, and effluent dilution. Standard Unit Charge (SUC). This refers to the fixed charge for the region in which the abstraction is authorised (in per thousand m 3 ) and is subject to annual review. The average SUC in 2011/2012 across nine regions in England and Wales was around 17.7 per thousand m 3. This equates to 1.7 pence/m 3 and is considerably cheaper than mains supply water. However, abstracted water may require treatment (e.g. softening) before use. Adjusted source factor. The adjusted source factor (D) consists of two categories: -- Non-tidal (factor 1.0) for supported and unsupported sources; and -- Tidal (factor 0.2). Environmental Improvement Unit Charge (EIUC). This funds compensation for the Restoring Sustainable Abstraction (RSA) programme and is collected on a regional basis. An abstraction licence is not required under the following conditions: abstraction of less than 20m 3 per day, used for any purpose; water used for fire fighting; and with the regulator s consent, abstraction of more than 20m 3 per day to test underground strata for the presence, quantity or quality of water. There are several other cases where an abstraction licence may not be required, but it is advised that you check with the Environment Agency if in any doubt. Charges in Scotland Under the Water Environment (Controlled Activities) (Scotland) Regulations 2011 (CAR), a CAR authorisation is required for abstraction from surface waters and groundwaters. Annual subsistence charges will apply to licensed abstractions. The abstraction subsistence charges are calculated for a licence and not for each individual controlled activity. This is because abstraction licences can include large numbers of activities managed within a single scheme. Monitoring and regulation is undertaken at the scheme level. In calculating abstraction charges, operators will only be charged once for the abstraction of water. Abstraction costs will be allocated between activities according to eight factors: Subsistence (annual) charge ( ) = Va Lo Le So x Se Pa Na x Fa where: Va = Volume abstracted factor (applies to the maximum daily volume authorised) Lo = Loss factor Le = Length affected factor So = Source of abstraction factor Se = Seasonality factor Pa = Proportion of flow factor Na = Number of abstractions factor Fa = Financial factor

WRAP Tracking Water Use to Cut Costs 50 Table A1: Charges in Scotland components, bands and factors Component Band Factor Va Lo Le So Se Pa More than 0m 3 to 50m 3 per day More than 50m 3 up to and including 100m 3 /day More than 100m 3 up to and including 2,000m 3 /day More than 2,000m 3 up to and including 10,000m 3 /day More than 10,000m 3 up to and including 50,000m 3 /day More than 50,000m 3 up to and including 150,000m 3 /day More than 150,000m 3 /day Non-consumptive use Partially consumptive use Consumptive use Returned less than 500m from abstraction Returned 500m to less than 1km from abstraction Returned 1km to 5km from abstraction Returned more than 5km from abstraction Coastal and estuary Inland waters Winter only (1 October to 31 March) Summer only (1 April to 31 October) All year Less than 10% of 95th percentile flow abstracted 10% 50% of 95th percentile flow abstracted More than 50% of 95th percentile flow abstracted 0 0.3 1 5 9.3 13.7 22.8 0.3 1 1.1 0.2 0.9 1.3 1.9 0.17 1 0.1 0.3 1 0.95 1 1.05 Na 1 5 6 25 26 100 More than 100 1 2 3.6 9.4 Fa Around 1,000, updated annually (2011 2012 is 1,102) Charges in Northern Ireland Abstraction is controlled under the Water Abstraction and Impoundment (Licensing) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2009 (Fees and Charges). Fees and charges: Annual charge ( ) = Vol x ST x S x Co x Fin Where: Vol = Volume (for abstractions more than 100m 3 per day) ST = Source type S = Seasonality Co = Consumptiveness Fin = Financial factor (annual standing charge)

WRAP Tracking Water Use to Cut Costs 51 Table A2: Charges in Northern Ireland components, bands and factors Component Band Factor Vol ST S Co Fin 20m 3 to 99m 3 /day 100m 3 to 499m 3 /day 500m 3 to 999m 3 /day 1,000m 3 to 1,999m 3 /day 2,000m 3 to 9,999m 3 /day More than 10,000m 3 /day Coastal and estuary Inland water (river, lough, wetland, groundwaters) Seasonal All year Non-consumptive Consumptive Annual charge financial factor (subject to annual review) 0 2 5 10 15 25 0.1 1 0.3 1 0.05 1 319 Disposal of wastewater Sewerage In the same way as mains water, domestic sewerage charges consist of a standing charge and a volumetric charge (pence/m 3 ). However, there are two different ways of calculating the volume attributed to this waste stream. Unit costs are revised each year in April and vary between sewerage providers. For further, contact your service provider. Domestic wastewater only. If the only wastewater generated at the site is domestic, the sewerage volume will be based on the consumption of water supplied to the site. The sewerage charge will appear on the water bill. If your water is supplied by a company that only supplies water, the bill will contain a charge on behalf of a sewerage undertaker. Domestic wastewater and trade effluent. If your site discharges both trade effluent and domestic wastewater, the sewerage charge will appear on the trade effluent bill. If the trade effluent is metered and the domestic wastewater is unmetered, the volume of domestic wastewater can be calculated by subtracting the volume of trade effluent from the total volume of water supplied to the site. However, this may not be accurate if there are non-return losses such as water in product and loss from evaporation. In such cases, the site will be required to provide the following : -- number of employees or full-time equivalents (A); -- number of days worked during the period covered by the bill (B); and -- whether the site has a canteen providing hot meals (C). The domestic allowance can then be calculated using the formula below: A B C where: C = typically 25 litres/person/day (no canteen) = typically 40 litres/person/day (canteen)

WRAP Tracking Water Use to Cut Costs 52 Trade effluent Water company charges for trade effluent discharged to sewer are based on the Mogden Formula. This formula links charges for a particular customer to the cost of treating the effluent (i.e. customers pay according to the volume and strength of their effluent). Unit costs are revised each year in April and vary between service providers. For further, contact your sewerage provider. An example trade effluent bill is shown in Figure A2. The Mogden Formula is expressed as follows in the UK. England, Wales and Northern Ireland C = R + M + V + Bv + B Ot + S St Os Ss where: C = Total charge (pence/m 3 ) R = Charge for reception and conveyance (pence/m 3 ) M = Charge for treatment and disposal where effluent goes to a sea outfall (M for marine) (pence/m 3 ) V = Charge for primary treatment (V for volumetric) (pence/m 3 ) Bv = Additional volume charge if biological treatment is required (pence/m 3 ). Also referred to as B1. Ot = Chemical oxygen demand (COD) of effluent after one hour quiescent settlement at ph 7 (mg/litre) B = Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) of settled sewage (pence/m 3 ). Also referred to as B2 Os = COD of crude sewage after one hour quiescent settlement (mg/litre) St = Total suspended solids (TSS) (mg/litre) of trade effluent at ph 7 S = Charge for treatment and disposal of primary sludge (pence/m 3 ) Ss = Settleable solids (mg/litre), suspended solids after one hour quiescent settlement Scotland In Scotland, there are two charges: Operating charge (based on the Mogden Formula): Operating charge = AVD x [Ro +Vo +Bo x (Ot/Os) + So x (St/Ss)] where: Ro R Vo V So S Bo = Secondary treatment charging component (pence/m³) AVD = Actual volume discharged (m 3 ) Annual availability charge (Ca): Ca = 365 [CDV (Ra + Va) + (Ba sbodl) + (Sa TSSl)] where: CDV = Chargeable daily volume (m 3 ) Ra = Reception charge (pence/m 3 /day) Va = Primary treatment charge (pence/m 3 /day) Ba = Biological capacity charge (pence/kg/day) Sa = Sludge capacity charge (pence/kg/day) sbodl = Settled biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) load (kg/day) TSSl = Total suspended solids (TSS) load (kg/day)

WRAP Tracking Water Use to Cut Costs 53 Estimating trade effluent charges Use the Mogden Formula tool on the WRAP website to: calculate your existing effluent charges; and determine how much money you could save by reducing the volume and strength (COD and TSS) of your effluent. The tool contains all the necessary unit costs for each component of the Mogden Formula for all UK sewerage undertakers. Discharge to surface and point source effluent to groundwaters England and Wales Since April 2010, discharges to surface waters and of point source sewage effluent to ground/groundwater have been subject to the Environmental Permitting Regulations. A company in England and Wales must obtain the consent of the Environment Agency to discharge to controlled waters. There are two types of charges for water discharges: application charges and subsistence charges. The subsistence charge depends on four factors: volume maximum daily volume; content of discharge; receiving water groundwaters, coastal, surface, estuarine; and financial factor fixed multiplier ( ). These are multiplied together to calculate the subsistence charge. Subsistence charge = A B C D where: A = Volume factor (maximum daily volume) B = Contents factor The volume factor (A) uses a banded approach and relates to the maximum daily volume (see Table A3). The contents factor (B) relates to the provisions in the consent issued by the Environment Agency controlling the contents of the discharge (see Table A4). For example, Band A includes wastewater containing organics such as pesticides, and aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons (chlorinated and non-chlorinated). The receiving waters factor (C) consists of four categories (see Table A5). The financial factor (D) is a fixed annual fee and is subject to an annual review. For 2011/2012, the charge is 684. Table A3: Volume factor: England and Wales Volume (m 3 ) Band Factor 0 5 5 20 20 100 100 1,000 1,000 10,000 10,000 50,000 50,000 150,000 More than 150,000 Table A4: Contents factor: England and Wales Band A B C D E F G H Factor A 14 B 5 C 3 D 2 E 1 F 0.5 G 0.3 0.3 0.5 1 2 3 5 9 14 C = Receiving waters factor D = Financial factor

WRAP Tracking Water Use to Cut Costs 54 Table A5: Receiving waters factor: England and Wales Type Band Factor such as pesticides, and aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons (chlorinated and non-chlorinated). Groundwater or land Coastal water Surface water Estuarine water G C S E 0.5 0.8 1 1.5 The receiving waters factor (R) consists of four categories (see Table A8). The number of point source activities (N) on a single site licence or associated on a single site or on a sewer network licence. Scotland Under the Water Environment (Controlled Activities) (Scotland) Regulations 2011 (CAR), a company must obtain SEPA s consent to discharge to controlled waters. Companies are also subject to an annual fee for the provision of the licence. The charging scheme is similar to that operating in England and Wales. Activities are charged according to the level of environmental risk. In turn, environmental risk directly influences the level of assessment, inspection and monitoring that SEPA carries out in relation to a regulated activity. Charges apply and, where on-going inspection and monitoring are required, subsistence (annual) fees may apply. These charges replaced the Control of Pollution Act and Groundwater charging schemes on 1 April 2006. The annual charge is calculated according to the formula: V C R N F where: V = Volume factor (maximum daily volume) C = Contents factor R = Receiving waters factor N = Number of activities factor F = Financial factor The volume factor (V) uses a banded approach and relates to the maximum daily volume (see Table A6). The financial factor (F) is a fixed annual fee and is subject to an annual review. For 2011 2012, the charge was 696. Table A6: Volume factor: Scotland Table A7: Contents factor: Scotland Table A8: Receiving waters factor: Scotland Type Volume (m 3 ) Band Factor Band 0 5 5 20 20 100 100 1,000 1,000 10,000 10,000 50,000 50,000 150,000 More than 150,000 V1 V2 V3 V4 V5 V6 V7 V8 Factor A 14 B 5 C 3 D 2 E 1 F 0.5 G 0.3 0.3 0.5 1 2 3 6 12 24 Factor The contents factor (C) relates to the provisions in the consent issued by SEPA controlling the contents of the discharge (see Table A7). For example, Band A includes wastewater containing organics Groundwater or land Coastal water Inland water Relevant territorial water 0.5 1.5 1 1.5

WRAP Tracking Water Use to Cut Costs 55 Northern Ireland Under the Water (Northern Ireland) Order 1999, a company must obtain the consent of the NIEA to discharge trade or sewage effluent to a waterway or into groundwater. The charging scheme is similar to that operating in the rest of the UK. The annual charge is calculated according to the formula: V C F where: V = Volume factor (maximum daily volume) C = Contents factor F = Financial factor The volume factor (V) uses a banded approach and relates to the maximum daily volume (see Table A9). The contents factor (C) relates to the provisions in the consent issued by the NIEA controlling the contents of the discharge (see Table A10). For example, Band A includes wastewater containing organics such as pesticides, and aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons (chlorinated and non-chlorinated). The financial factor (F) is a fixed annual fee and is subject to an annual review. For 2012, this charge is 445. Table A9: Volume factor: Northern Ireland Volume (m 3 ) Factor Table A10: Contents factor: Northern Ireland Band Surface drainage Factor A 14 B 5 C 3 D 2 E 1 F 0.5 G 0.3 Surface drainage refers to rainwater from roof run-off and from car park run-off that discharges to the public surface drainage sewer. It should not be confused with discharge direct to surface water (covered above). A company can be charged for surface drainage: on the basis of the rateable value of the property; as part of the sewerage standing charge; as part of the sewerage volumetric charge; and on the basis of the surface area of the site. If your company diverts surface water drains to foul sewer or to an effluent treatment plant prior to discharge, then you may be being charged twice (i.e. once as surface water and then again as trade effluent). Consult your service provider as you may be entitled to a rebate. 0 5 5 20 20 100 100 1,000 1,000 10,000 10,000 50,000 50,000 150,000 More than 150,000 0.3 0.5 1 2 3 5 9 14 Non-return allowance In cases where water and wastewater do not return to sewer, you may be entitled to a nonreturn allowance. These include the following. Domestic sewerage allowance. Most, but not all, water companies assume that on average up to 10% of the metered water supplied to the consumer is not returned to sewer. This allowance should be included in the calculation of charges and appear on the bill as a factor (e.g. a 10% allowance would appear as a factor of 0.90).

WRAP Tracking Water Use to Cut Costs 56 Process allowance. Where water is used in processing and not discharged to sewer (e.g. as water in product and losses from evaporation), the company must provide records or calculations to enable the water company to calculate these losses and adjust the sewerage or trade effluent charge accordingly. Leaks. No allowance for leakage is given against water supply charges. However, an allowance may be granted against sewerage volumetric charges if the leaked water did not return to the public sewer. Surface drainage. A reduction in the surface water drainage part of the sewerage charge can be claimed if none of the surface water from the site enters the public sewer (other than as metered trade effluent) or is discharged directly as surface water with the appropriate consent from your regulator. Fire-fighting water. Where mains water supply (metered) serves fire-fighting equipment as well as water for normal use, a reduction in the standing charge may be obtained. For example, if a site is fitted with a 100mm meter to allow for provision of fire-fighting water, but only requires a 50mm meter for normal operating conditions, the standing charge will be levied at the rate for the 50mm meter under normal operating conditions.

WRAP Tracking Water Use to Cut Costs 57 Table A11: Summary of UK charging schemes as of March 2012 Region Water Mains Abstracted England ü Volumetric charge + Standing charge ü Annual charge = (V A B C SUC) + (V B C D EIUC) Wales ü Volumetric charge + Standing charge ü Annual charge = (V A B C SUC) + (V B C D EIUC) Scotland ü Volumetric charge + Standing charge ü Annual charge = Va Lo Le So Se Pa Na x Fa Northern Ireland ü Volumetric charge + Standing charge ü Annual charge = Vol ST S Co Fin Region Wastewater Sewerage Surface drainage Trade effluent Discharge to controlled water* England ü V+S ü Various** ü Mogden Formula ü Annual charge = A B C D Wales ü V+S ü Various** ü Mogden Formula ü Annual charge = A B C D Scotland ü V+S ü Rateable value of property*** ü Operating charge and Availability charge ü Annual charge = V C R F Northern Ireland ü V+S ü Volume charge ü Mogden Formula ü Annual charge = V C F V+S Volumetric charge + Standing charge. Based on Mogden Formula. * Referred to as discharge consent in Northern Ireland. ** Includes volume charge, standing charge and surface area of site. *** A component of the sewerage charge. Unit costs are reviewed each year and vary between service providers. For further details including unit costs, contact your service provider.

WRAP Tracking Water Use to Cut Costs 58 Appendix B: Where do businesses use water? All businesses are different. However, an awareness of how other companies use water may help you to identify where your company uses water. Figures B1 B12 show the typical major uses in a number of different types of activity. Offices Figure B1: Water use in offices Cleaning 1% Cleaning Washing 1% 27% Washing Urinal 27% flushing 20% Urinal flushing 20% Canteen use 9% Canteen use WC 9% flushing 43% WC flushing 43% Food and drink industry Figure B2: Water use in food manufacture Offices and kitchens 1% Offices and kitchens Leaks 1% and overflows 3.6% Leaks and overflows Cooling 3.6% towers 24% Cooling towers 24% Effluent treatment 0.4% Effluent treatment Processing/ 0.4% cleaning 55% Processing/ cleaning 55% Boiler house 16% Boiler house 16% Conditioning 12% Conditioning Product 12% 15% Product 15% Brewhouse 3% Brewhouse 3% Packaging/ cleaning 70% Packaging/ cleaning 70%

towers towers 24% 24% Boiler house WRAP Tracking Water Boiler Use to house 16% Cut Costs 59 16% Figure B3: Water use in brewing Conditioning Conditioning 12% 12% Product Product 15% 15% Brewhouse Brewhouse 3% 3% Packaging/ Packaging/ cleaning cleaning 70% 70% Figure B4: Water use in soft drinks manufacture carbonates or dilutables category Rinsing of Rinsing of containers 4% containers 4% Boiler house 4% Boiler house 4% Pasteurisers 6% Pasteurisers 6% Equipment Equipment preparation 3% preparation 3% Other 1% Other 1% Floor washing 1% Floor washing 1% Domestic use 3% Domestic use 3% Product 78% Product 78% Figure B5: Water use in red meat processing Canteen use 9% WC flushing 43% Lairage washing 3% Vehicle washing 5% Knife sterilising 5% Cooling water 6% Floor/equipment cleaning 33% Scald tank 7% Personal hygiene 10% Sprays and rinses 31% Effluent treatment 0.4% Processing/ cleaning 55% Vehicle washing 1% (cold water) Personal hygiene 2% Scald tank 9% (hot water) Evisceration 24% (67% hot water) Feather fluming 1% (cold water) Crate and module washing 6% (cold water) Carcass chilling 27% (cold water)

43% 10% Scald tank 7% WC flushing Cooling water 6% Sprays and rinses 31% Sprays Personal and hygiene rinses 43% WRAP Tracking Water 31% 10% Use to Cut Costs 60 Sprays and rinses 31% Figure B6: Water use in poultry meat processing Effluent treatment Effluent 0.4% treatment 0.4% Effluent treatment Processing/ cleaning Processing/ 0.4% 55% cleaning 55% Processing/ cleaning Boiler 55% house 16% Boiler house 16% Boiler house 16% Vehicle washing 1% (cold Vehicle water) washing 1% (cold water) Personal hygiene 2% Personal Vehicle washing hygiene 1% 2% (cold water) Scald tank 9% (hot Scald water) tank 9% Personal hygiene 2% (hot water) Evisceration 24% (67% Evisceration Scald tank 9% hot water) 24% (67% (hot water) hot water) Evisceration 24% (67% hot water) Figure B7: Water use in skimmed milk processing Feather fluming 1% (cold Feather water) fluming 1% (cold water) Feather Crate and fluming module 1% (cold washing Crate water) and 6% module (cold washing water) 6% (cold water) Crate and module Carcass washing chilling 6% 27% Carcass (cold (cold water) water) chilling 27% (cold water) Carcass Floor washing chilling 30% 27% (cold (50% Floor water) hot washing water) 30% (50% hot water) Floor washing 30% (50% hot water) Brewhouse Brewhouse 3% 3% Brewhouse 3% Packaging/ cleaning Packaging/ 70% cleaning 70% Packaging/ cleaning 70% Boiler 10% Boiler 10% Fridge evaporative Fridge Boiler condenser evaporative 10% 38% condenser 38% Fridge Hygiene evaporative 3% Hygiene condenser 3% 38% Hygiene 3% CIP hot 13% CIP hot 13% CIP CIP hotcold 13% CIP cold 13% 13% Process applications Process CIP cold 13% 23% applications 23% Process applications 23% Leather and textile industries Equipment preparation Equipment 3% preparation 3% Other 1% Floor Equipment Other washing 1% 1% Domestic Floor preparation washing use 3% 3% 1% Domestic Other 1% use 3% Floor washing 1% Domestic use 3% Product 78% Product 78% Product 78% Figure B8: Water use in leather manufacture Processing 20% Processing 20% Processing General 20% washing General 25% washing 25% General washing 25% Rinsing 55% Rinsing 55% Rinsing 55%

WRAP Tracking Water Use to Cut Costs 61 Figure B9: Water use in textile dyeing and finishing fibre and yarn sector Floor/equipment cleaning 33% Floor/equipment cleaning Scald tank 33% 7% Personal Scald tank hygiene 7% 10% Floor/equipment Personal hygiene Sprays cleaning 10% and 33% rinses 31% Sprays Scald tank and rinses 7% 31% Personal hygiene 10% Sprays and rinses 31% eather fluming 1% cold water) eather fluming 1% cold water) Crate and module washing 6% Crate (cold water) and module Feather fluming 1% washing 6% (cold water) (cold water) Carcass chilling 27% (cold Crate water) and module Carcass washing chilling 6% 27% (cold (cold water) water) Floor washing 30% (50% hot water) Carcass Floor washing chilling 30% 27% (cold (50% water) hot water) Floor washing 30% (50% hot water) CIP hot 13% CIP hot 13% CIP cold 13% CIP cold 13% Process CIP hot applications Process 13% 23% applications 23% CIP cold 13% Process applications 23% Rinsing 55% Boilers 10% Boilers Finishing 10% 15% Finishing 15% Boilers 10% Finishing 15% Figure B10: Water use in textile dyeing and finishing woven cloth sector Boilers 10% Boilers Finishing 10% 13% Finishing Preparation 13% Boilers 27% 10% Preparation 27% Finishing 13% Preparation 27% Vacuum systems 1% Chemical industry Housekeeping Vacuum systems 3% 1% Product washing 3% Figure Housekeeping B11: Water use 3% in speciality chemicals manufacturing Domestic Product washing uses 3% 3% Plant Vacuum Domestic and systems uses vessel 1% 3% washing Housekeeping 4% 3% Plant and vessel washing Product 4% washing 3% Raw material Domestic uses 3% 21% Raw Plant material and vessel 21% washing 4% Raw material 21% Other 3% Hoses 4% Other 3% Chemical carrying water Hoses 4% 4% Chemical carrying Pulper water showers Other 4% 3% 5% Pulper Sheet Hoses 4% showers 5% knock-off Chemical 5% carrying Sheet water 4% 2 Box A six-step lubrication knock-off 5% showers Pulper 8% Box showers lubrication 5% showers 8% Batch dyeing 75% Batch dyeing 75% Batch dyeing 75% Batch dyeing 50% Batch dyeing 50% Batch dyeing 50% Cooling 27% Cooling 27% Effluent dilution 6% Effluent dilution 6% Cooling Air 27% pollution control 7% Air pollution Effluent control 7% dilution Steam6% production Steam 25% Air pollution production control 7% 25% Steam production 25% Felt cleaning 2% Screen rejects dilution 2% Felt cleaning 2% Refiner sealing water 2% Screen rejects dilution 2% Refiner sealing water 2% Felt cleaning 2% Vacuum pump 29% Screen rejects Vacuum dilution pump 2% Refiner sealing 29% Disc water thickener 2% showers 10% Disc thickener Vacuum showers pump 10% 29%

Plant and vessel CIP hot washing 4% Air pollution 13% WRAP Tracking Water Use control to Cut 7% Costs 62 CIP cold 13% Process applications 23% Raw material 21% Paper and board industry Steam production 25% Figure B12: Water use in paper and board processing Rinsing 55% Other 3% Hoses 4% Chemical carrying water 4% Pulper showers 5% Sheet knock-off 5% Box lubrication showers 8% Felt cleaning 2% Screen rejects dilution 2% Refiner sealing water 2% Vacuum pump 29% Disc thickener showers 10% Pump gland sealing water 10% Wire showers 16% Even for companies in the same line of business, water use varies from company to company. The factors that affect the amount of water used by a company include: raw materials used; number of different products made; technologies employed; throughput; number of staff; and staff facilities on site. Typical water uses are listed in Table B1. When considering your water balance, you may find it useful to consider your water use in three categories: general use this may include on-site washroom facilities and a canteen. Substantial savings can be obtained by detecting and fixing leaks, faulty control valves, leaking cisterns, etc. You may wish to include some process-related issues (e.g. leaks and overflows from pipes/ storage tanks) in this category; process use this includes cooling towers, liquid ring vacuum pumps, heat exchanger circuits, etc. Substantial savings can be achieved, but these are generally site specific; and cleaning and washdown this covers mainly process-related activities, but may also include cleaning offices and washrooms. Cleaning often provides major opportunities for cost savings. In particular, watch out for extravagant use of hoses you could save thousands of pounds per year.

WRAP Tracking Water Use to Cut Costs 63 Table B1: Typical water uses at industrial and commercial Type Description Examples General Sanitary Toilet flushing Sinks Showers Domestic Recreation Gardens Garage Heating/air-conditioning Laundry Drinking Cooking Washing up Swimming Jacuzzi Ice rink Watering plants/lawns Fountains Vehicle washing Vehicle maintenance Industrial Heating/cooling/sealing Rotating machinery and process materials Heat exchange Condensing vapours Processing Cleaning and washing Steam raising Treating spills/leaks/drips Dilution/mixing Heating/cooling Separation Product use Tanks Vessels Floors Pipework Pumps Process use Heating Trace lagging Abnormal events where water is used to dilute and disperse Commercial Cleaning and washing Canteens Laundries Laboratories Condensers Vacuum pumps Special Hospital therapy pools

WRAP Tracking Water Use to Cut Costs 64 Appendix C: Unit operations for a boiler and cooling tower Figure C1 and Figure C2 show the water flows for two common operations. Figure C1: Boiler house operations Mains water 164 0 2 Water meter Inputs Outputs Recirculation Regeneration chemicals Ion exchange column Steam and hot water Condensate recovery Sub-meter Regeneration wastewater to sewer Make-up water Pump Boiler Hot well Blowdown to sewer Figure C2: Cooling tower operations Inputs Outputs Recirculation Mains water Evaporation, spray and mist to atmosphe re Inputs Outputs Recirculation 164 0 2 Water meter Cooling tower Pump Cold well Blowdown to sewer Blowdown to sewer Leaks and overflows Process cooling

WRAP Tracking Water Use to Cut Costs 65 Appendix D: Example water balances Example industrial site Figure D1 shows the water inputs and outputs for an example industrial site, which has the water balance shown in Figure D2. Note the need to consider recirculated water. Figure D1: Water inputs and outputs for an example industrial site Water supply Steam and evaporation drying processes Cooling tower 1 6 4 0 2 Water meter Cleaning chemicals, raw materials 164 0 2 Cold water Hot water Industrial/manufacturing processes and utilities (including laboratory operations, toilets/wash block/canteen) Water in products 1 6 4 0 2 Water leaks into ground including fire-fighting water* Surface water discharges including via oil interceptors 164 0 2 Treatment chemicals Effluent treatment plant Sludge storage Water in liquid wastes, including sludge Treated effluent Discharges to sewer including fire-fighting water* and domestic sewage Surface water Inputs Outputs *Potentially contaminated fire-fighting water should be collected separately.

WRAP Tracking Water Use to Cut Costs 66 Figure D2: Water balance for an example industrial site 164 0 2 164 0 2 1 6 4 0 2 1 6 4 0 2 Water meter Water meter Water in products Water in products Water supply Water supply Water meter 164 0 2 555m 3 /day Water meter 164 0 2 555m 3 /day 2m 3 /day 535m 3 /day liquid Industrial/manufacturing process 537m 3 /day 2mraw materials /day 535m 3 /day liquid raw Industrial/manufacturing process 537m 3 /day materials 5m 3 /day 1m 3 /day leaks 1 6 4 0 2 to atmosphere 5m 3 /day 1 6 4 0 2 1m 3 /day leaks 489m 495m 3 /day /day 1 6 4 20m 3 0 2 to atmosphere 1 6 4 0 2 /day 1 6 4 0 2 Cooling Effluent 489m 495m 3 /day /day 20m 3 /day tower 1 6 4 0 2 treatment Sludges Cooling Effluent plant tower 495m 3 /day treatment Sludges plant 19m 3 /day blowdown 19m to sewer /day 495m 3 /day 38m 3 /day to foul 38m sewer /day 484m 3 /day to sewer 484m or river /day blowdown to foul to sewer to Inputs sewer Outputsewer Recirculation or river 3m 3 /day steam and evaporation 3m 3 /day steam and evaporation 2m 3 /day in products 2m 3 /day in products 5m 3 /day sludge tankered 5m 3 /day off sludge site tankered off site liquid wastes, luding sludge liquid wastes, luding sludge Inputs Outputs Recirculation Example hotel Figure D3 shows the water inputs and outputs for an example hotel, which has the water balance shown in Figure D4. Figure D3: Water inputs and outputs for an example hotel Water supply 1 6 4 0 2 Water supply Water 1 6 4 0 2 meter Water meter Evaporation and steam Evaporation and steam Laundry Detergents Detergents Kitchen Hotel Hotel Wash blocks and Wash bathrooms blocks and bathrooms Treatment chemicals Treatment chemicals Steam Steam Laundry Kitchen Inputs Inputs Outputs Outputs Domestic wastewater to foul sewer Domestic wastewater to foul sewer Boiler/air-conditioning/ heating/cooling tower Boiler/air-conditioning/ heating/cooling tower Blowdown and condensate to Blowdown foul sewer and condensate to foul sewer

WRAP Tracking Water Use to Cut Costs 67 Figure D4: Water balance for an example hotel Water supply Water meter 1 6 4 0 2 9m 3 /day 3m 3 /day steam and evaporation 0.005m 3 /day evaporation and steam 2m 3 /day 0.005m 3 /day liquid raw materials 1m 3 /day 5m 3 /day 1m 3 /day 0.05m 3 /day treatment chemicals 0.05m 3 /day steam day 2m 3 /day in products Laundry Washing machine Kitchen Dishwasher Sink Hotel bathrooms Toilets Showers and baths Boiler/ air-conditioning system ges 5m 3 /day sludge tankered off site 2m 3 /day Inputs Outputs 1m 3 /day 9m 3 /day domestic wastewater 5m 3 /day 1m 3 /day blowdown/ condensate blocks and rooms Treatment chemicals Steam Boiler/air-conditioning/ heating/cooling tower Blowdown and condensate to foul sewer Constructing a water balance for a medium-sized hotel The water and sewerage Mains water charges at one of the hotels in a chain had jumped from 8,496/year to 38,969/year Water in consecutive years. 1 6 4 0 2 21,650m 3 /year meter The hotel has 30 bedrooms, with a restaurant 1,554m 3 /year and bar (open to non-residents). Ten of the rooms are in a separate new wing. All of the bedrooms are equipped with a bath, shower and WC. Other facilities include a swimming pool and leisure facilities. The hotel 4m 3 /year also has its own kitchens equipped with two large dishwashers and separate laundry facilities with two washing machines. Outside there are extensive gardens. 298m 3 /year The hotel is supplied with water only from the mains. In addition to Sub-meter the water company s meter, there are sub-meters on the old bedroom complex (fed by an independent 149m 3 /year pipeline off the incoming water main), on the kitchens and on the pipeline serving the swimming pool, leisure facilities and new bedroom complex. 2,241m 3 /year Sub-meter 248m 3 /year In the year with the particularly high water and sewerage charges, the hotel had a 60% Known occupancy rate. The gardens were only Estimated watered on two afternoons in July using a hose fed off the mains supplying Calculated the bar and toilets. Because some laundry is charged to clients, a record is kept of machine use. The Restaurant/bar larger (23kg wash) was used 231 times during the Dishwasher year and the other (5.5kg wash) was used Toilets 450 times. Machine specifications show that the larger machine uses 112 litres/fill and each wash cycle takes five fills. The smaller Gardens machine takes 60 litres/fill and seven fills. Hoses The sub-meters on the kitchens show that 248m 3 of water was used during the year. Old The 20-bedroom first step complex is to draw a block representation Showers/baths of the hotel and fill in available Toilets and sinks data for the year. The first values to be entered are those from the sub-meters: New 10-bedroom wing Showers/baths 298m 3 for the old bedroom complex; Toilets 2,241m and 3 sinks for the flow to the swimming pool, leisure complex and new bedroom wing; and 3 248m for the kitchens. Swimming pool Make-up water Leisure facilities Showers/baths Toilets and sinks Kitchens Dishwashers

WRAP Tracking Water Use to Cut Costs 68 The next step is to do some calculations to determine other flows. At a cost of around 1.80/m 3 (water and sewerage combined), the year s bill of 38,969 gives a water input from the mains supply of 21,649m 3 /year. In the laundry, the large machine used 129m 3 /year (see equation A) and the small machine used 189m 3 /year (see equation B). This gives a total of 318m 3 /year. Equation A = (231 uses 112 litres/fill 5 fills/use)/1,000 Equation B = (450 uses 60 litres/fill 7 fills/use)/1,000 The average water consumption of an occupied bedroom is approximately 68 litres/day. A cross-check shows that the metered water use for the old bedroom complex agrees with the value calculated from the occupancy rate and assumed average water use (i.e. 298m 3 /year) (see equation C). Assuming the two sets of bedrooms use water at the same rate, then water use for the ten-bedroom wing is 149m 3 /year. Equation C = (20 bedrooms 68 litres/day 365 days/year 0.6 occupancy rate)/1,000 In the garden, one hose was used for two afternoons in July say for four hours. A garden hose uses 8.3 litres/minute as a minimum. The water use is estimated at 4.0m 3 /year (see equation D). Equation D = (2 hoses 8.3 litres/minute 60 minutes/hour 4 hours)/1,000 No data exist for the restaurant and bar. It is estimated at two sinks with a maximum of two taps each with one tap running for 6 hours/day for 5 days/ week. Assuming that the taps run at the same rate as the hose, a reasonable guessestimate is 1,554m 3 /year (see equation E). Equation E = (2 taps 8.3 litres/minute 60 minutes/hour 6 hours/day 5 days/week 52 weeks/year)/1,000 Figure D5 shows the water balance for the hotel. The total water consumption by the various areas of the hotel therefore equals 4,663m 3 /year (1,554 + 298 + 2,241 + 248 + 318 + 4). This compares favourably with the value for total water use of 4,720m 3 /year calculated from the first year s bill. Managers have thus proved that water use had been excessive in the second year.

ges 2m 3 /day 1m 3 /day 5m 3 /day 1m 3 /day WRAP Tracking Water Use to blowdown/ Cut Costs 69 condensate 5m 3 /day sludge Inputs tankered Outputs 9m off site /day domestic wastewater Figure D5: Water balance for the hotel Water meter Mains water 1 6 4 0 2 21,650m 3 /year Known Estimated Calculated 1,554m 3 /year Restaurant/bar Dishwasher Toilets Treatment chemicals Steam 4m 3 /year Gardens Hoses blocks and rooms 298m 3 /year Sub-meter Old 20-bedroom complex Showers/baths Toilets and sinks 149m 3 /year New 10-bedroom wing Showers/baths Toilets and sinks Boiler/air-conditioning/ heating/cooling tower Blowdown and condensate to foul sewer 2,241m 3 /year Sub-meter Swimming pool Make-up water Leisure facilities Showers/baths Toilets and sinks 248m 3 /year Sub-meter Kitchens Dishwashers Food preparation 318m 3 /year Laundry Washing machines Steps that the hotel could take to investigate its water use include: checking the accuracy of the incoming water meter; turning off all water-using devices and then observing the meters and checking the drains for any flow (but not the drains that also receive rainwater); fitting more sub-meters to obtain more accurate data; looking for leaks; examining water use in the swimming pool and leisure facilities; and checking comparative occupancy rates between the new and old bedroom complexes.

WRAP Tracking Water Use to Cut Costs 70 Appendix E: Producing and using site drainage plans Producing site drainage plans Locate all drainage manholes and draw a sketch plan of their approximate location. Identify the type of each drain, for example: -- foul (domestic) sewer (F); -- effluent (E); -- surface water (S); and -- combined. Record this on your plan. Mark (F, E, S) or colour-code the manholes for future reference. Identify the direction of flow. If there is no flow, pour in some water and see which way it drains. If there is a flow, add a tracer dye or an object that will float and observe its flow. Be careful not to contaminate the effluent, risk pollution, break consent conditions or block the drains. Identify connections to other manholes (using added water or tracer dye) and draw on the plan. Using drainage plans to identify effluent sources Obtain drainage plans for the different drainage systems. For each drainage system: lift the manholes and draw all pipes or channels connecting to the manhole on the plan. Note the number, size and direction of pipes (even if no flow is observed) and number them; trace the pipes or channels back to above-ground connections. These are called drain entry points. Look for trench scars on the floor or, if necessary, use water/tracer dyes; at each entry point, note the pipes or channels feeding into it from process equipment and number them on the plan; and identify the process plant/equipment feeding each pipe/channel (i.e. the sources of effluent).

WRAP Tracking Water Use to Cut Costs 71 Appendix F: Calculating water flows for cooling towers and steam relief valves Calculating cooling tower water consumption The following simplified approach gives an estimate of the water used by a cooling tower (see Figure F1). The variations and inaccuracies in water use can be large, particularly between summer/winter and day/night. To calculate water use by a cooling tower (i.e. volume of make-up water required), you need to know: flow (i.e. the flow rate of cool water to the process). This is obtained from a flow meter or pump hours-run meter; T out (i.e. the temperature of process water leaving the cooling tower in C); T in (i.e. the temperature of process water entering the cooling tower in C); airflow (i.e. the flow rate of air into the cooling tower). If this is not known, assume it is equal to the flow of cool water to the process; and T air (i.e. the temperature of air entering the cooling tower in C). Then follow the steps in Table F1 to calculate water use by the cooling tower. The units for the flow and the airflow should be litres/second and kg/second respectively. Figure F1: Cooling tower schematic Evaporation T in Airflow T air Cooling tower Process Make-up water T out Flow Blowdown V D Steam vent stack

WRAP Tracking Water Use to Cut Costs 72 Table F1: Calculation of water consumption by a cooling tower Step Calculation Symbol Units Formula 1 Thermal load A kw A = Flow 4.2kJ/kg C (T in - T out ) Evaporation where 4.2kJ/kg C is the specific heat of water. 2 Cooling load due to airflow B kw B = Airflow 1kJ/kg C [(T air - (T in - 3))] 3 Evaporative load C kw C = A + B T where 1kJ/kg C is the specific air Airflow heat of air. NB B could be negative. Cooling tower 4 Evaporation D kg/second Make-up D = C water 2,430kJ/kg where 2,430kJ/kg is the latent heat of evaporation of water at 30 C. 5 Make-up volume Vs litres/ second Vs = D ( 1 + ( 1 )) N 1 where N = number of concentrations* in the tower. Blowdown Typical N values are: 1.5 very hard water 2 hard water 3 soft water 6 deionised water * Relates to the extent to which solids are concentrated in the cooling tower cold well. Calculating water release from a steam vent The following simplified approach gives an estimate of the water lost from a steam vent (see Figure F2). Figure F2: Steam vent stack schematic V To calculate the volume of water lost from the steam vent you need to know: the diameter of the stack (D) in metres; and the velocity of steam exiting the vent (V) in metres/second. If this is not known, assume a value of 3 metres/second. D Steam vent stack Then follow the steps in Table F2 to calculate the water loss from the vent. Table F2: Calculation of water loss from a steam vent Step Calculation Symbol Units Formula 1 Surface area of the stack A m 2 A = 3.14 x D 2 4 2 Volumetric release rate R m 3 /second R = A V 3 Water loss V m 3 /second V = R 0.6 where 0.6kg/m 3 is the density of water vapour at 100 C and 1 atmosphere pressure.

WRAP Tracking Water Use to Cut Costs 73 Appendix G: Determining pollutant loads The pollutant load and concentration of a pollutant in an effluent can be calculated using the following formulae (remember 1m 3 = 1,000 litres and 1kg = 1,000,000mg): Load (mg/day) = Concentration (mg/litre) Flow volume (m 3 /day) 1,000 Load (kg/day) = Concentration (mg/litre) Flow volume (m 3 /day) 1,000 1,000,000 = Concentration (mg/litre) Flow volume (m 3 /day) 1,000 Concentration (mg/litre) = Load (kg/day) 1,000,000 Flow (m 3 /day) 1,000 = Load (kg/day) 1,000 Flow (m 3 /day) Example calculations Rows 1 and 2 of Table G1 show an example calculation of the load in kg/day of total dissolved solids (TDS) in a cleaning effluent and a boiler blowdown. The flow volume and concentration of the dissolved solids have been either measured or estimated. Row 3 of Table G1 shows the calculation of the concentration of a combined flow made up of the two individual flows the cleaning effluent and boiler blowdown in rows 1 and 2. The total volume was determined by adding together the volumes for the individual flows, and the total load by adding together the loads for the individual flows. The concentration was then calculated using the formula given above. Table G1: Example calculation of pollutant concentration and load Row Effluent Contaminant Flow volume (m 3 /day) Concentration (mg/litre) Load (kg/day) 1 Cleaning effluent TDS 5 500 2.5 2 Boiler blowdown TDS 20 2,500 50 3 Combined flow TDS 25 2,100 52.5

WRAP Tracking Water Use to Cut Costs 74 We hope that you have found this guide helpful on your route to greater resource efficiency. Don t forget that WRAP is here to help you to improve resource efficiency. Visit the website at www.wrap.org.uk or contact the WRAP Resource Efficiency Helpline on 0808 100 2040. While we have tried to make sure this guide is accurate, we cannot accept responsibility or be held legally responsible for any loss or damage arising out of or in connection with this being inaccurate, incomplete or misleading. This material is copyrighted. You can copy it free of charge as long as the material is accurate and not used in a misleading context. You must identify the source of the material and acknowledge our copyright. You must not use material to endorse or suggest we have endorsed a commercial product or service. For more details please see our terms and conditions on our website at www.wrap.org.uk Waste & Resources Action Programme The Old Academy 21 Horse Fair Banbury, Oxon OX16 0AH Tel: 01295 819 900 Fax: 01295 819 911 Email: info@wrap.org.uk Resource Efficiency Helpline: 0808 100 2040 www.wrap.org.uk/brehub March 2013