LASER APPLICATIONS IN MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY

Transcription

1 LASER APPLICATIONS IN MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY Volume 2 Edited by M. L. Wolbarsht Professor of Ophthalmology and Director of Research Department of Ophthalmology Duke University Medical Center Durham, North Carolina PLENUM PRESS NEW YORK AND LONDON

2 Contents Chapter 7 Microbeams 1 by Michael W. Berns 1. Introduction 1 2. Instrumentation General Considerations Ruby Laser Microbeams Argon Laser Microbeams Neodymium Laser Microbeams Other Laser Microbeam-Like Systems Available Laser Wavelengths Methodologies Employed with Microbeam Irradiation Cell Culture Vital Dye Sensitization Light Microscopy Electron Microscopy Biochemical Analysis Studies on Cell Function and Structure Multicellular Plants Unicellular Organisms Embryos and Eggs Tissue Culture Cells Ruby and Neodymium Lasers Tissue Culture Cells Argon Laser Microbeam Studies on the Nervous System Conclusion 37 Acknowledgments 38 References 38 xi

3 xii Contents Chapter 2 Lasers in Ophthalmology 41 by B. F. Hochheimer 1. Introduction Coherence Consequences of Coherence Fringe Visibility Beam Collimation Resolution Lasers Ideal and Real Lasers Lasers Used in Ophthalmology The Eye The Laser Refractor Laser Acuity Testing The Acuity of the Eye Modulation Transfer Function Laser Visual Acuity Tester Retinal Visual Acuity in the Case of Cataracts The Laser Cane Laser Treatment for Corneal Ulcers Laser Photocoagulation Ruby Laser Coagulator Argon Ion Laser Coagulator Conclusion 73 References 74 Chapter 3 Holography of the Eye: A Critical Review 77 by K. D. Vaughan and R. A. Laing in collaboration with R. L. Wiggins 1. Introduction Applications Three-Dimensional Records Detection of Abnormalities Measurement of Abnormalities in Three Dimensions Information Storage 80

4 Contents xiii 2.5. Retrospective Study of the Entire Eye Contour Mapping Measurement of Changes Within the Eye High Resolution of Fundus Measurement of Optical Constants of the Eye Possible Methods of Hologram Formation Fresnel Hologram Fraunhofer Hologram Fourier Transform Hologram Lensless Fourier Transform Hologram Methods of Achieving Magnification Magnification Due Solely to the Holographic Process Holography of a Premagnified Object Magnification Subsequent to the Holographic Process Special Holographic Techniques Holographic Interferometry Holographic Contour Generation Choice of Parameters Wavelength Retinal Energy Density Exposure Duration Recording Materials Speckle Holograms of the Eye Ill 9. Proposed Applications of Ocular Holography Holographic Interferometry High-Resolution Image of the Optic Fundus Measurement of Optical Constants of the Eye Summary 124 Acknowledgments 125 Appendix Information Content of Eye Holograms 126 References 128 Chapter 4 Quantitative Laser Microprobe Analysis 133 by I. Harding-Barlow 1. Introduction 133

5 xiv Contents 2. Instrumentation Laser Head Microscope Head Emission Spectrography Mass Spectrometry Atomic Absorption Standardization Sample Preparation Applications Forensic and Toxicological Applications Applications to Tissues Applications to Teeth, Bones, and Skin Applications to Body Fluids Applications to Plants Applications to Nonmammalian Biology Sensitivity Laser Microprobe vs. Other Probes Conclusions 147 References 147 Chapter 5 Laser Flow Microphotometers for Rapid Analysis and Sorting of Individual Mammalian Cells 151 by P. F. Mullaney, J. A. Steinkamp, H. A. Crissman, L. S. Cram, and D. M. Holm 1. Introduction Flow Microphotometry General Considerations Laminar Flow Chamber Input Beam Optics Light Collection Systems Electronic Signal Processing Flow Microfluorometry (FMF) FMF II Beam Optics Signal Processing Results Resolution 165

6 XV 4. Biological Applications of FMF II Life Cycle Analysis and Relative DNA Quantitation Chemotherapeutic Agent Effects Cell-Surface Architecture Studies Fluorescein-Labeled Antigen-Antibody Measurements Preparation of Cell Samples for FMF Analysis Cell Dispersal and Fixation DNA Staining Procedures Protein Staining Multiparameter Cell Analysis and Sorting Description of the Multiparameter Cell Sorter (MPS-1) Electronic Cell Sensing Fluorescence Detection Light Scattering Multiparameter Signal Processing Multiparameter Analysis and Sorting Applications Tumor Cell Identification and Separation White Blood Cell Differential Light Scattering Models for Mammalian Cells Exact Electromagnetic Theory Considerations Experimental Verification for Live Mammalian Cells in Suspension Flow Microphotometric Measurements Future Applications Instrumentation Biological Applications 199 Acknowledgments 200 References 200 Chapter 6 Biological Damage Resulting from Thermal Pulses 205 by Frank Stephenson Barnes 1. Introduction Calculation of the Temperature Distribution 207

7 xvi Contents 3. Chemical Rate Equations Biological Results at Elevated Temperatures 218 Acknowledgments 220 References 220 Chapter 7 Laser Protective Eyewear 223 by David H. Sliney 1. Introduction Applications Laser Viewing Enhancement Goggles Parameters of Laser Eye Protection Wavelength Optical Density Laser Beam Irradiance or Radiant Exposure Visual Transmittance of Eyewear Laser Filter Damage Threshold (Maximum Irradiance) Filter Curvature Methods of Construction Selecting Appropriate Eyewear Commercial Sources of Laser Eye Protection Testing Laser Eye Protection Marking of Eye Protection Eye Protection for Infrared Lasers Eye Protection for Pump Lamps and Tunable Wavelength Lasers Polarizing Filters Dynamic Eye Protection Devices Future Developments 239 References 239 Chapter 8 Lasers in Surgery 241 by Stanley Stellar, Thomas G. Polanyi, and Herbert C. Bredemeier 1. Introduction Scope of Review 242

8 xvii 1.2. Characteristics of Lasers Interaction of Radiation with Tissue Critical Review and History of Laser Surgery Pulsed Ruby and Neodymium Laser Surgery Carbon Dioxide Laser Surgery Carbon Dioxide Laser Surgery Instrumentation Surgical Applications Clinical and Experimental Surgical Applications of Other Lasers Ruby Laser Argon Ion Laser Neodymium in Yttrium, Aluminum, Garnet (Nd YAG) The Future of Lasers in Surgery Summary and Conclusions 289 Acknowledgments 290 References 290 Chapter 9 The Carbon Dioxide Laser in Clinical Surgery 295 by Isaac Kaplan, Uzi Sharon, and Ralph Ger 1. Introduction Skin Healing Skin Grafts Hemostatic Effect Postoperative Pain Observations on the Applicability of the Carbon Dioxide Laser in Specific Clinical Conditions Burns Mastopathy Hemangioma Cervical Erosions Hemorrhoids Malignant Tumors Rectal Carcinoma Design and Development of a New Carbon Dioxide Surgical Laser The Laser and Optical Bench The Articulated Arm and Balancing System 302

9 xviii Contents 3.3. The Manipulator Safety Measures Mobility and Compactness of the System Remote Control Attachments for Specific Surgical Procedures Conclusions 307 References 308 Chapter 10 The Formulation of Protection Standards for Lasers 309 by M. L. Wolbarsht and D. H. Sliney 1. Introduction Application of the Protection Standards The Need for Regulations Analysis of Safety Regulations in Massachusetts Philosophy of Laser Regulation and Registration Definitions Exemptions and Exceptions Data Collection Protection Standards Measurements for Conformance and Survey Regulation Specific Precautions for Outdoor Installations Personnel Protection Medical Surveillance Appendix to Massachusetts Board of Health Rules and Regulations The Outlook for Federal Regulations State Regulations in the United States Protection Standards for Retinal Hazards: Considerations of Biological Data Useful Presentation of Biological Data Sources of Error in the Biological Data Laser Accident Data Combining Data Points Standards for Different Wavelengths The Selection of Proper Format and Levels Neither Too Detailed Nor Too Conservative The Degree of Safety 331

10 xix 6.2. Military Protection Standards Specification of Protection Standards Retinal Exposure Levels and Corneal Exposure Levels Specification of Pupil Size Extrapolation Interpreting the Biological Data From Cornea to Retina and Back Again Relation Between Different Retinal Image Sizes and Associated Retinal Injury Thresholds Thermal Models Retinal Detachment Melanin Granules in Pigment Epithelium as Local Hot Spots Other Factors Influencing Laser Injury Spot Size: Biological and Physical Amplification Infrared and Ultraviolet Laser Protection Standards The ANSI-Z-136 Standards Formulation of Protection Standard Exposure Levels Limiting Apertures Extended Sources Correction Factor Л (С А ) Repetitively Pulsed Lasers Laser Hazard Classification Other Standards Present Problems and Future Plans 354 References 356 Chapter 11 Dentistry and the Laser 361 by Ralph H. Stern 1. Introduction Anatomy of Dental Structures Dental Diseases Early Laser Investigations Investigations Leading to Laser-Induced Caries Inhibition 367

11 Contents 3.1. Ruby Laser Pulsed Carbon Dioxide Laser Laser Effects on Dental Soft Tissue Potential Applications Summary 386 Acknowledgments 386 References 387 Author Index 389 Subject Index 399