TRANSLATION AND INTERPRETING STUDIES IN TURKEY: A General Overview of Training and University Programs

Transcription

1 TRANSLATION AND INTERPRETING STUDIES IN TURKEY: A General Overview of Training and University Programs Ayşe Şirin OKYAYUZ YENER 1 The European Higher Education Area (better known as the Bologna Declaration) states the following: enlargement prospects for education, together with deepening relations with other countries... an awareness of shared values and belonging to a common social and cultural space... the importance of education and educational cooperation in development, the achievement of greater compatibility and comparability of the systems of higher education and promoting concrete measures to achieve tangible forward steps and... experts and scholars from all our countries... provide us with very useful suggestions on initiatives to be taken. 2 The Bologna process and the Sorbonne Declaration preceding it both imply an exchange of ideas for the development of relations and education itself. 3. Translation Studies has its own idiosyncratic nature, that helps or hinders in the realization of the process within the field. A general perusal of translation and interpreting programs in universities in Europe and studies 4 show a great diversity not only in terms of credit systems, duration of education, educational levels, but also other fundamental differences. This leads to the purpose of this study. The first step to any kind of cooperation is realizing that the parties have to know one another. The circumstances that necessitate or bring about the differences in translation and interpreting education is of utmost importance. Translation and interpreting programs, which aim to educate translators and interpreters, may be judged on the basis of how well they fulfill this need in that specific country or environment. The implementation of overall general prin- 1 Dr. Şirin Yener, Department of Translation and Interpreting (English French Turkish), Bilkent University, Ankara, Turkey, January, To contact: [email protected]. 2 The European Higher Education Area: better known as the Bologna Declaration. < CulturalCo-operation/education> 3 Realizing the European Higher Education Area, Communiqué of the Conference of Ministers responsible for Higher Education. < 4 HAGEMANN, Susanne Project Presentation: BA/MA Progammes: An International Perspective. Project presented at the Fifth International Symposium on Teaching Translation and Interpreting: BA/MA Programmes: An International Perspective, Germersheim, Germany, 9 11 December 2004.

2 2 ciples like credit systems (i.e. ECTS) or any other system requires that we have a comparative and detailed outline of the systems themselves. The basic aim here is to know one another. Who are the parties who should know one another? The universities in certain regions and countries that have parallel departments and universities abroad who provide the same education in other languages and cultures. The aim of this study is to briefly introduce the following: 1) Higher Education in Turkey 1.1) Turkey as a partner in the Bologna Process 1.2) The legal, structural, financial aspects of the Turkish Higher Education System 1.3) University admission and degree structure in Turkey 1.4) Developments in Turkey in terms of the Bologna Process 2) Selected translation and interpreting departments which may serve as partners in the Bologna Process 2.1) Boğaziçi University, Hacettepe University and Bilkent University 2.2) Qualifications provided by different degree levels 3) Presentation of the findings of surveys and interviews with academic personnel, professional translators and administrators in T&I Departments 3.1) Views on the university entrance examination 3.2) Views about BA programs 3.2.1) Types of courses 3.2.2) Instructor profiles 3.2.3) Technical innovations 3.3) Views about the profession and the future 3.3.1) The translation and interpreting market 3.3.2) Profiles of translators according to wage groups 4) Improvements for the future of T&I and the T&I market 4.1) What may be done by the universities 4.2) What may be done by the students and the translators 4.3) What may be done within the Bologna Process 4.3.1) Major handicaps possible solutions 5) Considerations in terms of European cooperation 5.1) What T&I departments in Turkey may do 5.2) What may be done through foreign cooperation 1) Higher Education in Turkey 1.1) Turkey as a partner in the Bologna Process After the signing of the Bologna Declaration in June 1999, Turkey joined the Bologna Process in May 2001 in Prague, in the follow-up conference in relation to the Bologna Process. Thus, Turkey participates in all conferences, seminars and projects related to the Bologna Process. Turkey also participates in the European Action program in the Field of Education SOCRATES. Within the framework of the Association Agreement with the EU, Turkey has been included in the decision for SOCRATES II. For this purpose, Turkey has established a

3 3 National Agency, which is responsible for promoting, managing, monitoring and evaluating the programs. After the setting up procedures and the legal and the financial procedures undertaken in , Turkey is able to fully participate in programs as of the academic year. 5 Turkey is also a member of ENIC (European Network of Information Centers) and NARIC (National Academic Recognition Information Centers) through its Association Agreement with the EU. There are also regional conventions which Turkey is a party to The UNESCO Regional Convention on the Recognition of Studies, Diplomas and Degrees in Higher Education in Asia and the Pacific (signed 1983, ratified 1987); The UNESCO International Convention on the Recognition of Studies, Diplomas and Degrees in Higher Education in the Arab and European States bordering on the Mediterranean; The UNESCO International Convention on the Recognition of Studies, Diplomas and Degrees in Higher Education in the States belonging to the European Region (signed 1979, ratified 1988). Some universities in Turkey are also members of the European University Association (EUA); 34 universities are full members, and 2 universities are associate members. Also, 56 universities in Turkey are members of the IUA International Association of Universities ) The legal, structural, financial aspects of the Turkish Higher Education System Higher education in Turkey is defined as all post-secondary programs with durations of at least two years. At the undergraduate level there are 53 state universities and 23 private (foundation) universities. The supreme authority for the regulation of higher education is the Council of Higher Education (YÖK), which is a fully autonomous national board of trustees without any political or governmental affiliation. The Council is composed of 22 members who are academics (mostly rectors) and are mostly appointed by the President of the Republic. There are three other upper administrative bodies in the field of higher education which are: the Inter-University Council (UAK) an advisory body; The Turkish University Rectors Committee (TURC); and the Higher Education supervisory Board, which supervises and con- 5 Bologna Declaration, International Perspective: Bologna Process and Turkey. < metu.edu.tr/highereducation/recognition.htm> 6 Bologna Declaration, International Perspective: Bologna Process and Turkey. < metu.edu.tr/highereducation/recognition.htm>

4 4 trols the universities. The Higher Education Law No is the main law that governs higher education in Turkey. In terms of financial administration there are several sources: annual budgetary allocations, aids from institutions, fees and payments received, income from sales and publications, income from movable and immovable property, profit from the enterprises of the revolving fund, donations, bequests and sundry. 7 The structure of the Turkish higher education system is defined as a unitary system and basically consists of universities. According to Article 3 of the Higher Education Law No. 2547, Translation and Interpretation Departments are usually affiliated to the Faculty of Letters under a university. (Bilkent University is one of the few exceptions in which the Department of Translation and Interpreting is affiliated to the School of Applied Languages.) After the completion of the preparatory language courses, all programs span at least four academic years (8 semesters) ) University admission and degree structure in Turkey In order to enroll in an undergraduate program in Turkey it is necessary to hold a secondary/high school diploma and attain a sufficient score from the Student Selection Examination (ÖSS). ÖSS is a central university entrance examination administered by the Student Selection and Placement Center (ÖSYM) affiliated to the Council of Higher Education (YÖK). The examination consists of two tests. These multiple choice tests are used to measure the candidates verbal and quantitative abilities. To be able to enroll in a four year undergraduate program candidates need to attain at least 185 collective points. Each Department s entrance score changes (even if slightly) every year with respect to the students who apply to enroll in the Department when they make their choices. Translation and Interpreting Departments entrance scores are usually within the top 1% range. 9 7 Higher Education in Turkey Implementing the Assumptions of the Bologna Declaration I. Overall Condition of Higher Education in Turkey Administration. < catalogue.pdf> 8 Higher Education in Turkey Implementing the Assumptions of the Bologna Declaration I. Overall Condition of Higher Education in Turkey Main Institutions of Higher Education. < Socrates/docs/tur/Arion_catalogue.pdf> 9 Higher Education in Turkey Implementing the Assumptions of the Bologna Declaration I. Overall Condition of Higher Education in Turkey Main Institutions of Higher Education Access to Higher Education. <

5 5 1.4) Developments in Turkey in terms of the Bologna Process The structure of the Turkish higher education degrees is a two tier system: undergraduate and graduate levels of study. 10 At the undergraduate level there are four year Bachelor s degrees in Translation and Interpreting. And there are two graduate programs in Hacettepe University, Ankara, and Boğaziçi University, Istanbul. All programs at the graduate level require a period of courses plus a thesis. A Masters degree is awarded after the successful completion of a minimum of seven courses, one seminar course (which is non-credit only pass/fail) plus a minimum of 21 credits 11. The usual minimum duration is two years. A Ph.D./Doctorate degree is awarded after the completion of a minimum of seven courses, a qualifying examination, a dissertation proposal and a dissertation. The duration for these programs is usually four years. The Diploma Supplement (foreseen by the Bologna Declaration Process), has been designed by the Council of Higher Education and universities have issued their first supplements in the academic year. Thus, the degree structure of the Turkish Higher Education is already in line with the Bologna Declaration 12. All higher education institutions use a credit system that very much resembles that of the North American universities. In that credit system each course is allotted a predetermined number of credit hours. These include all of the weekly theoretical course hours, plus half of the weekly laboratory, practical and studio course hours 13. Rules and procedures for credit transfer are regulated according to Article 7/c of the higher Education Law No Students who have successfully completed at least one academic year (not including preparatory language courses) at a higher education institution have the right to transfer to an equivalent program in Turkish universities; and a student who has suc- 10 Higher Education in Turkey Implementing the Assumptions of the Bologna Declaration II. Activities Undertaken to Implement the Assumptions of the Bologna Process Degree Structure. < Socrates/docs/tur/Arion_catalogue.pdf> 11 Higher Education in Turkey Implementing the Assumptions of the Bologna Declaration II. Activities Undertaken to Implement the Assumptions of the Bologna Process Degree Structure Second Stage University Level Qualifications. < 12 Higher Education in Turkey Implementing the Assumptions of the Bologna Declaration II. Activities Undertaken to Implement the Assumptions of the Bologna Process Degree Structure Third Stage University Level Qualifications. < 13 Higher Education in Turkey Implementing the Assumptions of the Bologna Declaration II. Activities Undertaken to Implement the Assumptions of the Bologna Process Credit System and Credit Transfer. <

6 6 cessfully completed at least one semester in the Turkish universities is eligible to apply for transfer to another university abroad. Universities evaluate individual applications. 14 Since participation in Socrates and Erasmus will require stricter application of ECTS principles, most of the Turkish Universities have already converted their credit systems into ECTS credits. Ongoing projects for student mobility with the Eramus Project have been implemented since the academic year. There have been various seminars for pilot projects and these are still continuing 15. In terms of Academic Assessment and Quality Control in Higher Education there is no uniformly established accreditation system in Turkish Higher Education; there is presently only official recognition. Universities are founded by law, and affiliated faculties are founded by the decisions of Parliament. Likewise the establishment of a degree program at any level (undergraduate or graduate) is subject to ratification by the Council of Higher Education (YÖK). Therefore, all university programs are recognized by the Council of Higher Education (YÖK). 16 As of the academic year Regulation on Academic Assessment and Quality Control in higher education was initiated by the Inter-University Board. It envisages that all higher education degree programs are evaluated through self-assessment and external evaluators. There is a special commission for this process, which specifies the basic rules of the ways and mechanisms of the internal academic assessment of programs. This system is to be transformed into a national accreditation system in the long run, and there are presently some Turkish universities accredited by foreign agencies Higher Education in Turkey Implementing the Assumptions of the Bologna Declaration II. Activities Undertaken to Implement the Assumptions of the Bologna Process Credit System and Credit Transfer. < 15 Higher Education in Turkey Implementing the Assumptions of the Bologna Declaration II. Activities Undertaken to Implement the Assumptions of the Bologna Process Credit System and Credit Transfer. < 16 Higher Education in Turkey Implementing the Assumptions of the Bologna Declaration II. Activities Undertaken to Implement the Assumptions of the Bologna Process 3) Academic Assessment and Quality Control in Higher Education. < 17 Higher Education in Turkey Implementing the Assumptions of the Bologna Declaration II. Activities Undertaken to Implement the Assumptions of the Bologna Process 3) Academic Assessment and Quality Control in Higher Education. <

7 7 Free mobility for academic staff and students is possible and many universities organize exchange programs, workshops and summer schools with universities abroad. The major problem for mobility is funding. The National Agency Turkey has been active and promotes the Socrates and Leonardo da Vinci programs and will presently promote Erasmus in the academic year. The present procedure is to conduct student exchange schemes through bilateral agreements with the universities abroad 18. Also Turkey actively participates in various TUNING projects in many fields 19. There is no regulated requirement on life-long learning, but public training centers and continuing education centers of the universities serve as life-long learning centers. 20 There is presently no improvement in GATS/Transnational Education in Turkish Higher Education. 21 In terms of the European Dimension, three universities participated in the Quality Culture Project organized by the EUA. 22 The social dimension of higher education is also improving with regular student unions meetings. Though at present there is no student representative on the national level, in the long run, with the foundation of a national students union, students will be able to participate in the administration of Turkish higher education. The Universities Students Council Regulation initiated by the Inter-University Board on 05/09/2002 is the first step in this direction Higher Education in Turkey Implementing the Assumptions of the Bologna Declaration II. Activities Undertaken to Implement the Assumptions of the Bologna Process 4) Mobility. < Socrates/docs/tur/Arion_catalogue.pdf> 19 Tuning Educational Structures European Commission, Brussels May 21, < tr/~erasmus/ inf_pack/ects_user's_guide.doc> 20 Higher Education in Turkey Implementing the Assumptions of the Bologna Declaration II. Activities Undertaken to Implement the Assumptions of the Bologna Process 5) Life Long Learning. < gov.tr/socrates/docs/tur/arion_catalogue.pdf> 21 Higher Education in Turkey Implementing the Assumptions of the Bologna Declaration II. Activities Undertaken to Implement the Assumptions of the Bologna Process 6) GATS/Life Long Learning. < Higher Education in Turkey Implementing the Assumptions of the Bologna Declaration II. Activities Undertaken to Implement the Assumptions of the Bologna Process 7) European Dimension. < gov.tr/socrates/docs/tur/arion_catalogue.pdf> 23 Higher Education in Turkey Implementing the Assumptions of the Bologna Declaration II. Activities Undertaken to Implement the Assumptions of the Bologna Process 8) Social Dimension. < tr/socrates/docs/tur/arion_catalogue.pdf>

8 8 2) Selected translation and interpreting departments which may serve as partners in the Bologna Process A brief overview of selected Translation and Interpreting Departments in Turkey is as follows: The aim of these departments is to train (in at least a four year duration) highly qualified translators and interpreters by introducing programs at all levels of education. At the graduate level the Departments may at times offer training programs for graduates of non-language disciplines (e.g. medicine, foreign relations, economics etc.) Most Departments have ICT laboratories and booths for simultaneous interpreting and consecutive interpreting. Most Departments have a variety of instructors with different skills, which leads to the constant renewal of curricula and development of new teaching methods. Cooperation and coordination with the employers, employer organizations and the translation market has increased in the last few years. All Departments distinguish between the languages of instruction. First the primary language usually the mother tongue (Turkish) ; the second language, where quite a bit of prior knowledge is required (French, English, German etc.); and a third language, in which no prior knowledge is required (e.g. English, French, German, etc.). Most Departments conduct courses with one A language (Turkish) and one B language (English, French, German etc.). There are exceptions like Bilkent University, where there is a prerequisite for prior knowledge in two foreign languages: English and French. Students are expected to learn to translate and interpret from and into both (or more) languages of instruction. In some departments there is a distinction between translators and interpreters, whereas in others a diploma for translation and interpreting is awarded to all graduates. In all cases, translator training is considered basic and in those departments that award different diplomas to translators and interpreters, this choice is undertaken from the third year onwards. Oral and written exams are used to evaluate all the students. There is continuous evaluation (through exams, homework etc.) almost every month for each course. Students are usually also additionally evaluated through final examinations at the end of each course. There are many universities (both public and private) with translation and interpreting departments, some old and established, others newly founded. For the purpose of this study,

9 9 though Boğaziçi University, Bilkent University and Hacettepe University have been included as possible candidates for cooperation with foreign universities in the Bologna Process, the surveys and the research only encompass Hacettepe University and Bilkent University. 2.1) Boğaziçi University, Hacettepe University and Bilkent University A brief outline of the Translation and Interpreting Departments of the said universities is as follows: Boğaziçi University City: Languages: Degrees awarded: Specialization: Modularization: Students: Second foreign language: Istanbul Turkish English Turkish (Previous knowledge of English is a prerequisite) Undergraduate (minimum 4 years) Masters (minimum 2 years) Ph.D. (minimum 4 years) None None There is a distinction between translation students and interpreter students. Students who are to train as interpreters are selected from among the third year translation students. The students who wish to become interpreters have to pass an additional exam at the end of the third year. A second foreign language course is a must (French- German), but students are not taught translation and interpreting in these languages. 24 Hacettepe University City: Affiliation: Languages: Ankara Faculty of Letters Turkish English Turkish / Turkish French Turkish (Previous knowledge of English for the TIE Department and previous knowledge of French for the TIF Department is a prerequisite) 24 For further information see: <

10 10 Degrees awarded: Specialization: Modularization: Students: Second foreign language: Undergraduate (minimum 4 years) Masters (minimum 2years) None None There is no distinction between translation students and interpreter students. All students are trained in both translation and interpreting. A second foreign language course is a must (English- French- German) but students are not taught translation and interpreting in these languages. 25 Bilkent University City: Affiliation: Languages: Degrees awarded: Specialization: Modularization: Students: Third foreign language: Ankara School of Applied Languages Turkish English French Turkish (Previous knowledge of English or French and/or both is a prerequisite) Undergraduate (minimum 4 years) None None There is a distinction between translation students and interpreter students. Students who are to train as interpreters are selected from among the third year translation students. Students who wish to become interpreters have to pass an additional examination. A third foreign language is not a must. But, the university offers foreign language courses in many languages for those students who are willing to enroll. 26 There are other universities offering programs in French, English and German and other languages. In order to see what type of cooperation could be possible, first we need to take a look at the various aspects of the Translation and Interpreting Departments in the said universities. 25 For further information see: < and < 26 For further information see: <

11 11 2.2) Qualifications provided by different degree levels Generally it may be stated that the programs on different levels provide different qualification profiles, which are similar to those provided by T&I Departments in other European Universities. At the 1 st degree level the qualifications provided are good language proficiency, basic and professional skills, enhancing language, translation and interpreting skills with possibilities for specialization on the job. At the 2 nd degree level, a further enhancement of language and translation/interpreting skills and specialization with an MA/Ph.D. thesis. The common content of the BA programs is: grammar and usage, phonetics, discourse analysis, terminology, translatogy, history and culture, literature, linguistics, language proficiency, written and oral translation practice (these courses are complemented with courses from other fields like economics, law, medicine, technology, science, sociology etc. and the translation of texts from these fields). There is no specialization and students take the following courses at the graduate level: conference interpreting, community interpreting, specialized translation, dubbing and subtitling, technical and specialized translation, scientific and medical translation, literary translation. 27 3) Presentation of the findings of surveys and interviews with academic personnel, professional translators and administrators in T&I Departments 28 The results, findings and suggestions cited are drawn from research through a survey submitted to students and academicians, informal interviews with professional translators and graduates, and formal pre-set question interviews with administrators (heads of departments and 27 < < and < < 28 In the course of the research two different questionnaires consisting of a minimum of 60 questions were devised for students and academicians. These surveys were given to the 2 nd, 3 rd and 4 th year students in the T&I Departments at Hacettepe University and Bilkent University. The interviews were conducted with professional interpreters and translators who are graduates of T&I departments that work either freelance or for a certain institution (public and private); further interviews were conducted with heads of departments and administrators at both Hacettepe University and Bilkent University. All these documents comprise a very large amount of text. Thus, those wishing to attain further information concerning the questions, surveys and results please contact Dr. A. Şirin Okyayuz Yener [email protected].

12 12 schools). 29 The research has yielded findings that may be categorized under three major headings: a) The university entrance examination b) The period of study at the university i) courses and curriculum ii) instructors (profiles) iii) technical innovations and possibilities c) The future of translators and translation studies. There are two different aspects to be dealt with under each heading: i) internal concerns/problems that have to be resolved by the Turkish universities and ii) possibilities for outside assistance and cooperation with foreign universities. 3.1) Views on the university entrance examination An internal problem: In the eyes of both the students and the instructors the University Entrance Examination (ÖSS) is not adequate for determining/evaluating the aptitude of students who wish to attend Translation and Interpreting Departments. Students in some universities are required to take an additional foreign language proficiency examination (i.e. English language preparatory examination), but this examination is also a multiple choice examination. Some possible solutions are: Solution 1: An additional oral and written translation exam to test the students aptitude at entrance level. Solution 2: Raising the acceptable entrance scores of the Preparatory School Exams for Translation and Interpreting students and/or allowing the Translation and Interpreting Departments to be directly involved with educating their future students attending Preparatory School. 29 A list of references used as guidelines in formulating the surveys, questions for interviews and the results is given at the end.

13 13 What is being done: The Turkish educational system has been recently altered to provide foreign language education even at the primary school level. There are many new private schools which have courses in foreign languages; there are many private institutions which present individuals with the opportunity of learning a foreign language. Such developments will, in the long run, improve the foreign language aptitude of future students. Foreign cooperation: A second alternative is allowing these students (at least those of them that can afford it until funding is secured) to improve their language proficiency through exchanges. However, the students will have to have completed the first year of study at the university to be eligible for exchange through any program (i.e. Erasmus, Socrates etc.). 3.2) Views about BA programs The second set of questions addressed were about the courses: 3.2.1) Types of courses To be able to fully assess the results it is necessary to have at least a general notion about the courses, which can be broadly separated into four main groups. a) Language courses: linguistics, speaking, composition, lexicology etc. b) Culture courses i) Cultures of foreign civilizations: i.e. British culture, American, French culture etc. ii) General culture: foreign institutions, history etc. c) Translation courses i) interpreting: i.e. consecutive, sight, community interpreting, simultaneous interpreting etc. ii) translation: i.e. technical translation, literary translation, film translation etc. d) Specialized translation courses i) terminology courses: i.e. basic law, medicine etc. ii) translation courses: translation of economics, law, medicine etc. According to the results of the surveys and interviews, the instructors felt that the students were not as proficient as they should be in terms of language courses and culture courses, and the students felt that these courses did not directly contribute to their education as translators.

14 14 Internal problems: The students need to improve their language skills and cultural knowledge, but when they spend three semesters doing this without preliminary translation courses (as is the case with most university curricula) they feel that they are not being educated properly as translators. How to motivate the students in terms of language and culture courses? The answer to this question can be generalized with the following solutions: Solution 1: The number of translation courses in the first three semesters could be increased, allowing for preliminary translation practice and thus allowing the students to see how the other courses will be helpful in their translations. Solution 2: The course descriptions of each course could be changed to include a minimum of translation hours in relation to the subject of the course. Foreign cooperation: Giving students opportunities to learn about the culture of different civilizations and to learn languages where they are spoken as native languages, would allow the students to realize the importance of these courses and improve themselves as future translators ) Instructor profiles According to the research the instructor profiles can be separated into four main groups: a) instructors who are graduates of T&I departments they usually have worked and are still working as translators and/or interpreters they usually have an MA and/or a Ph.D. in T&I or related disciplines they prefer to teach in their own field of specialty b) instructors who are graduates of language departments many of them have worked or are still presently working as translators and/or interpreters they are usually graduates of linguistics, language teaching or literature departments those of them who do not translate actively, prefer to give courses in their own fields (literature, culture, comparative grammar, linguistics etc.) as do most of the others

15 15 c) professional translators: they are called in to give translation courses, i.e. simultaneous interpreting, translation of law etc. there are two types of professionals i) those that give regular courses (encompassing one semester as the teacher of the course) ii) they are invited to give seminars, and/or several weeks of the course are devoted to their teaching d) specialists they teach fields such as law, economy, medicine etc. and the translation of these fields i) they can either give these courses on a regular basis or ii) they may give seminars during the courses The results of the survey show that: i) there is constant information exchange between the translation market and the schools ii) professional translators contribute greatly to the education process 3.2.3) Technical innovations Technical innovations are a very important issue. Unfortunately, T&I departments in Turkey have not been able to keep up with technical innovations as much as they have wished. Bilkent University and Boğaziçi University have training cabins for interpreters and Hacettepe University has an extremely developed interpreting laboratory equipped with state of the art technical equipment which it can barely upkeep due to financial difficulties. There are computer labs in all universities, but there are no special computer translation systems or programs; this of course requires funding. 3.3) Views about the profession and the future 3.3.1) The translation and interpreting market Surveys show that graduates of different universities have different employment opportunities (this is of course a gross generalization). For example, whereas (presumably) Boğaziçi holds the Istanbul market for T&I, Hacettepe graduates tend to find work in the public sector and Bilkent graduates tend to prefer the private sector. It was noted that most of the individuals surveyed and interviewed did not believe that it is a prerequisite to graduate from a T&I department to work (or find employment) as either a

16 16 translator and/or an interpreter. The notion that in order to undertake any type of translation and interpretation one would need to be professionally educated in this field, is not a prevalent idea in the T&I market in Turkey, though in many ways and especially in recent years there have been many changes and developments in this context. In a country where a majority of the television programs are imported and translated, the news in the media is translated and the majority of the yearly publications are translations, it is clear that the translation industry did not simply flourish after the establishment of the departments, but existed before the T&I departments in universities were even established ) Profiles of translators according to wage groups Translators and interpreters may be roughly grouped (keeping in mind that there are exceptions) according to the wages they earn as follows: a) Those (simultaneous, consecutive, liaison etc.) interpreters who work freelance or with interpreters associations; translators who work for major publishing houses (i.e. Yapı Kredi, İletişim, Metis etc.) and the largest media groups are the highest wage earners. b) Interpreters and translators who work for the media (other newspapers, film companies, television etc.); translators and translation editors who work for medium or small scale publishing houses; translators and interpreters who work in international organizations, foreign companies/institutions are the middle range wage earners. c) Translators and interpreters who work for the government, private translation firms, notary public and universities are the lowest wage earners. 4) Improvements for the future of T&I and the T&I market There is always room for improvement of the status of the translator and interpreter and the wages that they earn. The universities, the T&I students and graduates and professional translators are all contributing to this development. There are many possibilities for improvement.

17 17 4.1) What may be done by the universities Some of the questions in the surveys and interviews were directed at identifying what the T&I departments of universities were doing to ensure the future of their students. The results are as follows: a) Departments are promoting students with special aptitude b) Trying to increase students willingness to become translators (the surveys showed that many students did not wish to become translators even though they were determined to graduate from the Department this has to do with the nature of the university examination) c) Setting better university and department profiles in the market d) Organizing career days to show students the realities of the market and possible job opportunities e) Promoting student internships to allow the students to get to know the market beforehand f) Organizing forums in which students, graduates and prospective employers can get together to share doubts and opinions g) Forming inter-university forums to allow universities to exchange ideas and data h) Trying to keep a link with the market through professional translators and graduates, with projects 30 i) Promoting exchanges with foreign universities 4.2) What may be done by the students and the translators T&I students and graduates are also trying to improve their field. The findings show that they have been doing the following: a) Promoting the profile of T&I departments through their work in workplaces b) Ensuring higher access for other T&I graduates once they reach positions in which they can select personnel c) Forming associations: The interpreters association is highly active and the newly founded translators association is also becoming active and attracting new members. These associations come together to protect translators and interpreters rights and to improve the working conditions d) Coming together on various platforms, both academic and professional, to promote their field 30 For examples of projects see: 1) Bilkent Üniversitesi Uygulamalı Yabancı Diller Yüksek Okulu, Avrupa Birliği Metinlerinin Çevirisine Yönelik Ekonomi Sözlüğü, Siyasal Yayınevi: Ankara, And 2) New Masters program for training simultaneous interpreters for the EU Boğaziçi University < undergraduate/foreign_languages>.

18 18 4.3) What may be done within the Bologna Process There are many forms of cooperation which may be achieved within the Bologna Process and there are certain handicaps pointed out during the course of the survey along with possible solutions. Four major handicaps and both internal solutions and solutions through foreign cooperation have been outlined as follows: 4.3.1) Major handicaps possible solutions Major handicap 1: The native (A language) of all T&I programs in Turkey is Turkish and most programs presently only include one foreign language. It seems unrealistic to suppose that T&I departments in Europe will implement (there are exceptions) Turkish as a language of instruction at any date in the near future. For graduate programs the following are the suggestions: a) One possible scheme would be to implement a system in which we would allow the students to participate in T&I programs abroad in his/her foreign language(s), thus to improve his/her language skills taking courses in language, linguistics, diction, culture, terminology etc. b) Another possible scheme would be to select those students who not only attain a certain GPA from the university courses, but also a certain percentage in language exams like TOEFL etc. Then taking this as a basis, allowing them to participate in translation courses in their two foreign languages (for example, English and French for Bilkent University students). c) Many exchange programs are being currently designed for students whose B language is Turkish, in order to allow foreign students willing to learn Turkish for translation and interpreting the opportunity to do so. In each case the duration of the education abroad would be one semester or a maximum of two semesters in the (earliest) second year of university. The student would then return to his/her own university implementing what he/she has learned in his/her mother tongue as well as in the foreign languages. The details would have to be worked out by a counselor so the students academic life would not be prolonged unnecessarily. The courses would be parallel and ECTS would be a great help. (Bilkent University and Hacettepe University and several universities in Belgium and France have formed such a partnership.)

19 19 In the case of postgraduate programs, both Ph.D. and masters, there are several examples of foreign cooperation. Hacettepe University send both Ph.D. and MA students to universities in the UK, where they are able to work on theses in English comprised of corpuses in Turkish and in English. There are also other universities that offer summer scholarships for MA and Ph.D. students to do research for their thesis with an advisor. In each case the A language requirements have been set aside. The universities need to sign a bilateral agreement and YÖK has to agree about the funding. The most valuable forms of cooperation on the graduate and postgraduate levels may be of two kinds: a) Allowing students who wish to specialize in one type of translation (i.e. interpreting for public services, translation of texts of economy etc.) to practice this in the environment of the foreign language, setting aside the mother tongue principle. (For example: taking courses in the economics department in English, law in French, simultaneous interpretation at a university where the languages of instruction are English and French etc.). b) Allowing students one semester in which they could undertake research for a thesis (i.e. educating translators and interpreters, literary translation, simultaneous interpretation etc.) in one of the foreign languages of the thesis. Major Handicap 2: The second major handicap is funding. Most universities in Turkey are public universities where the resources have to be distributed equally among the departments and T&I departments do not usually rate very high on the priority lists. Private universities are also not extremely well funded. Very few students have the private resources to study abroad and the academicians have practically none. The possible internal solutions to this problem are: a) Getting the private sector and the prospective employers involved, thus providing funding for exchanges. b) Establishing graduates and professionals organizations, which would provide scholarships and funding on a merit basis. Foreign cooperation may also be of help in terms of funding: The following are the possible solutions:

20 20 a) Forming affordable exchange programs in which the student can pay for tuition and other expenses through part time jobs or long term loans. b) Looking for possible sources for the donation of technical equipment. c) Cutting down on the expenses of exchange by inviting foreign instructors to Turkey to initiate cooperation. Major Handicap 3: Instructors usually know one foreign language. The second foreign language that they know is usually passive, and they would not prefer to teach translation to and from this second foreign language (there are of course exceptions). Most foreign universities offer opportunities to only those instructors with (at least) two foreign languages (one of which is rarely Turkish). Some possible internal solutions that have been implemented are as follows: a) A certain degree of language proficiency has been set as a prerequisite for Ph.D. and Assoc. Professorship. All instructors have to pass an exam in their second foreign language to be able to attain these degrees. b) Several universities have opened courses for instructors to teach them a second foreign language or to improve their aptitude in the second foreign language. The universities provide this service free of charge. In terms of foreign cooperation the following are possible solutions: a) Academicians may be allowed to form exchanges in their B language irrespective of their second foreign language. Thus, they may exchange ideas, they may watch and evaluate courses, examine course material, discuss possible methods to overcome difficulties in teaching, acquaint themselves with new technologies they may in turn implement in their mother tongue. b) Foreign academicians may be sponsored to attend seminars, workshops etc. in Turkish universities to allow them to do the same. Major Handicap 4: There is presently no specialization or modularization in the T&I departments in universities in Turkey. Since most European universities have specialization and modularization this is a handicap for exchanges. The nature of the translation market in Turkey presently does not allow for specialization. The universities cannot assure or in any way guarantee that the stu-

21 21 dents will be able to find employment if they specialize in a certain type or a certain field of translation. Not that universities would be required to guarantee such a thing, but students would prefer not to attend these specialized courses when it is hard enough to find high paying jobs with the variety of skills that they graduate with. There are of course possible solutions to this problem. The internal solutions would be as follows: a) T&I departments could pinpoint markets that need new T&I training. (For example translators for the EU are a current rage in Turkey.) b) T&I departments could increase the number of electives so that those students willing to specialize could take these courses without missing out on their other courses and at the same time achieving a certain background in the field they wish to specialize in. c) In the long run, when conditions change and allow for specialization and modularization for Turkish students and foreign students who wish to specialize in Turkish, certain carefully selected and designed modules can be implemented. In terms of foreign cooperation the best possible solution would be to allow those students and academicians willing to specialize, the opportunity to do so abroad in the short term. 5) Considerations in terms of European cooperation There are several players in the Bologna Process all of whom need to shoulder a certain amount of the responsibility and each player needs to look at what they can do to further the process. In light of these thoughts the studies yielded the following results: 5.1) What T&I departments in Turkey may do T&I departments in Turkey can play a crucial role in facilitating all levels and types of interaction through the translation and interpretation services rendered for every academic field. Primarily T&I needs have to be assessed on a national scale and new curricula have to be designed to meet these new needs. These would be implemented at different levels. New technologies have to be urgently integrated into the educational system. Departments need to further cooperation between the students, the schools, the market and foreign institutions to provide guidance and support to the sector. And finally T&I departments need to be on the

22 22 constant lookout to pinpoint areas/types of T&I training that need to be instigated and improved. 5.2) What may be done through foreign cooperation Foreign cooperation, entailing everything from the exchange of ideas to the exchange of students, would enable T&I departments in Turkey to achieve quite a lot of things. Primarily this would equip students and instructors with a better understanding of the foreign language and culture that they learn/teach. Foreign contact would ensure a higher status for the profession and allow foreign universities to achieve the same. Bilateral agreements would be a first step in a larger cooperation process. Such improvements would bring developments to T&I departments in Turkey and abroad. Turkey s partnership in the European Education Area and its possible full accession to the EU, necessitate this type of cooperation. Conclusion In conclusion, the studies and the interviews conducted to formulate this study showed that the actors in the T&I departments in Turkey hoped for better cooperation with the market, the professionals and universities (both local and foreign), a more fruitful education process and platform which is more versatile and meets future needs. And above all, almost all persons surveyed showed great enthusiasm in making Turkey a very active partner in T&I studies in Europe. The basis of the Bologna Process is cooperation and this is possible when we feel we are a part of the process, when we designate the rules and the requirements together, when we feel we have something to contribute, when we are aware of our similarities and differences and when we know each other, as is the aim of this study.

23 23 References Selected Papers, Reports, Newsletters, Workshops: BECKS, Daniel, Report on Curriculum Innovation: Belgium, Lessius Hogeschool, Antwerpen, DAVIS, Paula and Michael Kelly, Curriculum Innovation Synthesis Report from National Reports written by members of the TNP2 Scientific Committee for Curriculum Innovation, TNP Languages, December Convention on the Recognition of Qualifications Concerning Higher Education in Europe The European Treaty Series no. 165 Council of Europe UNESCO Joint Convention archive, Lisbon, 11 April FRASER, Thomas and Karen M. Lauridsen, Multilingualism and New Learning Environments Workshop: Meeting Society s Language Needs, Freie Universität Berlin, June < GILE, Daniel and Christina Schäffner, EST Newsletter No. 20 (June 2002). KWEIK, Marek, European Research and Education Area, the Bologna declaration and the Lisbon strategy: Developments (working title), University of Twente, The Netherlands, < summer_school/2004/lectures/lectureskweik.doc> MENSCHING, Guido and Robert Hagen, From Bologna to Arhus Languages and Curriculum Innovation in Europe, 4 th CEL/ELC Conference, Aarhus School of Business, Freie Universität Berlin, TNP Languages, Selected internet sites for full texts of Declarations, Meetings, etc.: A.B Eğitim Bakanları Konferansı Sonuç Bildirgeleri: Sorbon Deklarasyonu Avrupa Yüksek Eğitim Sistemi Mimarının Uyumlu Ortak Deklarasyonu, Paris Sorbon 25 Mayıs 1998, 2002 T.C. Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı. < Avrupa Eğitim Bakanları 4. Konferansı Haziran 2000 Bükreş-Romanya Ortak Avrupa Eğitim Evinin Güçlendirilmesi Sosyal Uyum ve Kalite Eğitim için Bİr Mücadele Sonuç Bildirgesi, 2003, T.C. Mili Eğitim Bakanlığı. < Bolonya Deklarasyonu Avrupa Yüksek Öğretim Alanı. < The Bologna Process. < The European Higher Education Area. Joint Declaration of the European Ministers of Education, convened in Bologna on the 19 th of June < Towards the European Higher Education Area: Communiqué of the meeting of European Ministers in charge of Higher Education in Prague, May 19 th <