Deciding Between Traditional and Online Formats: Exploring the Role of Learning Advantages, Flexibility, and Compensatory Adaptation

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1 Deciding Between Traditional and Online Formats: Exploring the Role of Learning Advantages, Flexibility, and Compensatory Adaptation Thomas Daymont Gary Blau Deborah Campbell Temple University ABSTRACT We use qualitative and quantitative analyses to examine the format choice decision among undergraduate management students. The results indicate that students who prefer the traditional format do so for several reasons, but they most commonly cite a preference for instructor presence and the learning advantages of face-to-face interactions. Online students do not cite learning advantages for their format choice; instead, flexibility was the overwhelming reason given. Our results expand the applicability of the compensatory adaptation model. This model asserts that many students choose the online format because it offers greater flexibility even though it requires greater self-discipline, and will compensate by, for example, putting more effort into time-management. Introduction The growth in online education has been one of the more prominent developments in higher education in recent years. Defining an online course as one in which most of the content is delivered online and typically has no face-to-face meetings, Allen and Seaman (2008) found that between 2002 and 2007, online enrollments in higher education grew by 146 percent while the total enrollments grew by 8 percent. Nearly 22 percent of all higher education students were taking at least one online course in the fall of 2007 (Allen & Seaman, 2008). More generally, in a survey of adults who were interested in postsecondary education, about one-half said that they would prefer a delivery mode that was either primarily online or balanced between online and traditional formats (Garrett, 2007). This study presents new information on the factors that influence students in their preferences for online versus traditional formats. The data come from a survey of students in five traditional and two online sections of an undergraduate management course. The survey contains closed and open-ended questions regarding their beliefs, perceptions, and preferences relating to online and traditional formats. Although more and more students are choosing online courses, there has been a lack of research explicitly studying the format choice decision, or studying preferences for Copyright (c) 2011 Institute of Behavioral and Applied Management. All Rights Reserved. 156

2 (asynchronous) online courses versus traditional classroom courses. This study helps fill this void. In addition, most previous studies have examined the online format from a distance learning perspective. However, the dramatic growth in online courses suggests that no longer can courses without a face-to-face component be viewed primarily as an option of last resort by students who cannot attend class meetings. Increasingly, online courses are attractive to students who live within commuting distance from their college. It appears that the anytime is becoming as important, or more important, than the anywhere part of anytime, anywhere education for students. By studying students, almost all of whom live within commuting distance of campus, this paper focuses on a growing, but understudied, segment of online students. This study sheds new light on the degree to which a student s preference for an online versus a traditional course format is influenced by a desire for face-to-face interactions with the instructor and fellow students, a preference for a flexible schedule, and a belief that the online format may require more self-discipline and time-management. This study also tests an expanded version of the compensatory adaption model: that a significant proportion of students will choose the asynchronous online format because it offers greater flexibility despite a belief that it requires greater self-discipline, and that they plan to compensate by putting more effort into time-management. Review of Literature and Development of Hypotheses While there has been a lack of research explicitly studying preferences for (asynchronous) online courses versus traditional classroom courses, there have been several investigations of students preferences for important components of these formats, namely face-to-face interactions and asynchronous discussions. Support for the idea that students would prefer, and learn more from, face-to-face communications comes from a variety of theoretical perspectives including social presence (Short, Williams, & Christie, 1976), media naturalness (Kock, 2005; Kock, Verville, & Garza, 2007), and especially, media richness (Daft & Lengel, 1986; An & Frick, 2006). Media richness theory suggests several advantages of face-to-face communications including body language, auditory cues, other non-verbal cues, and immediacy of feedback. Conceptual frameworks used to understand why students may prefer, and learn more from, asynchronous discussions include constructivism and social constructivism (Hung & Chen, 1999; Vygotsky, 1978; Woo & Reeves, 2007), the community of inquiry model (Arbaugh, Cleveland-Innis, Diaz, Garrison, Ice, Richardson, & Swan, 2008; Garrison, Anderson, & Archer, 2000), and compensatory adaptation (Kock, 2005; Kock, Verville, & Garza, 2007). Constructivism and social constructivism have had a strong appeal among educators in general, and among web-based education scholars in particular (e.g., Arbaugh & Copyright (c) 2011 Institute of Behavioral and Applied Management. All Rights Reserved. 157

3 Benbunan-Fich, 2006; Arbaugh, Cleveland-Innis, Diaz, Garrison, Ice, Richardson, & Swan, 2008; Garrison, Anderson, & Archer, 2000; Garrison, 2003; Ho & Swan, 2007; Rovai, 2004; Williams & Humphrey, 2007). Rovai (2004) argues that discussion boards that are often a significant component of asynchronous online courses can be used to facilitate a constructivist learning environment by promoting more reflective interaction than is often the case in the more spontaneous interactions typical in traditional classroom discussions. Online students have the opportunity to reflect on their classmates contributions while creating their own, as well as to reflect on their own writing before posting it (Garrison, 2003; Ho & Swan 2007). An and Frick (2006) surveyed 105 residential students who were studying in the main library of a large mid-western university and were taking traditional (face-to-face) courses that included asynchronous computer-mediated communications (CMC) discussions. They asked the students a variety of questions including questions about whether they preferred face-to-face or asynchronous discussions. They found that about two-thirds of the students were more comfortable with face-to-face discussions, and one-third with asynchronous discussions. Students who preferred asynchronous discussions tended to be more technically savvy, more self-directed, and more shy in speaking in front of groups. In a recent study focusing specifically on comparing graduate student perceptions of face-to-face and written online discussions, Meyer (2007) found that, overall, the majority of students preferred face-to-face discussions, but they saw advantages for each medium. The advantages of face-to-face discussions included the emotional content, the energy, the fluidity, the ease, the ability to read non-verbal signs, and the more immediate feedback. In contrast, the advantages of written online discussions included (1) the opportunity to take time and care to reflect on what response should be made, (2) that the discussions were more reasoned, more informative, and contained deeper analyses, and (3) the opportunity for quieter students to open up online. This previous research leads us to hypothesize: Hypothesis 1a: The most common reasons cited by students for preferring a traditional section will involve a preference for face-to-face interactions or oral communications. Hypothesis 1b: A preference for oral communications will be negatively related to a preference for an online format. Can Learning Advantages Explain Interest in Asynchronous Online Courses? A preference for a course enhanced with web-based tools or material delivered through virtual media does not necessarily mean that students prefer a course without face-toface meetings. For example, in a small but interesting ethnographic study of liberal arts students, Lohnes and Kinzer (2007) found that while what they referred to as today s Net Generation students were eager to use computers, the internet, and related technology outside of the classroom, they preferred the face-to-face interaction with the professor in the classroom. Similarly, in a broad survey of undergraduates, Kvavik, Copyright (c) 2011 Institute of Behavioral and Applied Management. All Rights Reserved. 158

4 Caruso and Morgan (2005) report that students tended to prefer only a moderate amount of technology in the classroom. Similar to the findings of other researchers (e.g., Tiene, 2000), Kvavik, Caruso and Morgan (2005) concluded that students view technology in the classroom as supplemental to, not as a substitute for, the classroom experience. In addition, if we consider the results of Meyer (2007) described above that suggested that face-to-face and online discussions complement each other, then it would appear that students would benefit if courses contained both face-to-face and online discussions. Thus, from a learning perspective, students would benefit from and presumably prefer a web-enhanced traditional classroom or a blended course. If this is correct, then where does this leave asynchronous online classes that contain no, or very few, face-to-face meetings? Do students actually want asynchronous online classes? And, if so, why? Flexibility Although not explicitly studying the format choice decision, prior research suggests that the most common reason for students to choose the asynchronous online format appears to be flexibility or convenience (An & Frick, 2006; Bocchi, Eastman, & Swift 2004; Hiltz & Shea, 2005; Hirschheim, 2005). Students may prefer the online format even though they perceive the communication medium as poor in order to avoid certain problems, such as traffic and long commute times (Kock, Verville, & Gaza, 2007). Daymont & Blau (2008) suggest a range of reasons why some students may find online courses convenient. For some students, inconvenience is such an overwhelming issue that it is actually a constraint. Because of work or travel schedule, or distance from campus, it may be impossible for some students to take a traditional classroom course. For others, it may be possible to take a traditional classroom course but more convenient to take an online course because of, for example, a changing or uncertain work schedule. For still others, convenience may reflect a more superficial and less rational decision making process that is often ultimately incorrect. That is, the obvious implication of a lack of face-to-face meetings on the student s workload is more salient to the busy student than the likely greater amount of work required outside of class. On the other hand, a preference for convenience can be rational and promote efficiency. That is, the anytime, anywhere nature of asynchronous online courses allows more flexibility for students to choose the times when they are productively engaged in learning activities rather than being constrained by the scheduled meeting time for the class. Thus, we hypothesize: Hypothesis 2a: The most common reasons cited by students for preferring an online section will involve a preference for flexibility or convenience. Hypothesis 2b: A preference for a flexible schedule will be positively related to a preference for an online format. Hypothesis 2c: A preference for a structured schedule will be negatively related to a preference for an online format. Copyright (c) 2011 Institute of Behavioral and Applied Management. All Rights Reserved. 159

5 We suspect that the mean value for belief that online courses provide greater flexibility will reflect the fact that students tend to agree with this belief, and: Hypothesis 2d: A belief that online courses provide greater flexibility will be positively related to a preference for an online format. Hypothesis 2e: Having schedule constraints will be positively related to a preference for an online format. Compensatory Adaptation Model Kock (2001; 2005) has proposed a compensatory adaptation model that may help explain why the less rich or less natural online format can make sense. This model recognizes that individuals may be constrained or choose for other reasons an option, such as an online course, that offers a less rich and less natural communication medium than a traditional course. However, the model argues that the deleterious effects on performance wane over time as users become more familiar with the available medium and develop ways to adapt and compensate. Kock, Verville, and Gaza (2007) used a longitudinal methodology to test the model with data from online and traditional sections of an undergraduate information systems course and obtained qualified support for the model. We believe that the compensatory adaptation model needs to be expanded to consider the possibility that online students may have to compensate for another factor, perhaps somewhat related to the communication medium, in order to succeed in an online format. Asynchronous online courses typically have less structure due, to the lack of regular face-to-face meetings. Consequently, students in these courses will likely have to compensate by putting a greater emphasis on or greater effort into time-management and/or disciplining themselves to keep on an effective pace. We expect that students will tend to perceive this and that this will be reflected in the mean for the independent variable belief that online courses require greater self-discipline. Ultimately, the compensatory adaptation theory predicts that (most) students will be able to compensate sufficiently to perform as well as they would have in a traditional course. However, we suggest that another and more immediate prediction of the compensatory adaptation theory is that students who desire a format that offers greater flexibility will tend not to be deterred by a belief that the online format also requires greater selfdiscipline and/or time-management. Thus, in contrast to Hypothesis 2d above, we hypothesize: Hypothesis 3: A belief that online courses require greater self-discipline will not be related to the strength of the preference for an online format. Copyright (c) 2011 Institute of Behavioral and Applied Management. All Rights Reserved. 160

6 Methods The data for the study come from data gathered from student records and a survey of students in 5 traditional and 2 online sections of an undergraduate organization and management course taken during the fall and spring semesters of the academic year in a large public university in a large eastern metropolitan area. This course is part of the core business curriculum and is required for all business majors and business minors, and is also taken by some other students outside of the business school. All of the sections in this study were taught by the same instructor. The technical requirements for the online section were rather minimal; in fact, they were essentially the same as for the traditional sections. In both formats, the students needed to be able function in the Blackboard platform. Possessing moderate skill in navigating the internet was probably a small advantage. A total of 63 students were enrolled in the two online sections at the beginning of the semester. These were the only online sections of this course offered during the academic year. A total of 196 students were enrolled in the 5 traditional sections included in this study at the beginning of the semester. The survey was conducted during the first 3 weeks of the semester. Students were invited to go to an external website to complete the anonymous survey. A small amount of extra credit was offered as an incentive to complete the survey. Of the 196 students in traditional sections, 182, or 93%, responded. Of the 63 students in online sections, 57, or 90%, responded. The overall response rate of 92% is a significant strength of the study. The survey contained questions about preferences relating to oral versus written communications and course format as well as beliefs about their learning characteristics and about online and traditional formats. Respondents selected their response from a 6- level scale from Strongly Disagree (= 0) to Strongly Agree (=5). The survey also included an open-ended question, In your own words, why did you choose this version (online or traditional) of the course? In addition, the survey included questions about the number of online courses that the student had previously taken and their age. In addition, we had the survey data linked with information from student records on gender, minority status, major field of study, grade point average, and year in school. In this study, we used both qualitative and quantitative analyses. The qualitative analysis was based on the responses to the open-ended question, In your own words, why did you choose this version (online or traditional) of the course? We followed standard techniques (Maxwell, 1996) to collect together responses that expressed the same or very similar reasons for choosing either the online or traditional format. When more than one reason was given, the categorization was based on which reason was emphasized in the response, and, if a difference in emphasis could not be determined, then which reason was mentioned first. The quantitative analysis involved a hierarchical regression analysis designed to help explain the factors influencing the direction and strength of the preference of the online versus the traditional delivery format. The dependent variable was the strength of the Copyright (c) 2011 Institute of Behavioral and Applied Management. All Rights Reserved. 161

7 student s preference for an online format and came from the survey question in which students were asked the degree to which they agreed with the statement, I would have registered for the online section if there had been space available in the online section of this course. Independent variables included the following (all of the independent variables were measured on a 6-level scale from Strongly Disagree (= 0) to Strongly Agree (=5): Prefer oral communications ( I prefer to express myself in oral versus written communications ). Prefer flexible schedule ( I prefer a flexible schedule so that I can decide for myself when and how to meet my obligations ). Prefer structured schedule ( Given my school work and other commitments, I prefer a structured schedule to help me meet these commitments ). Have schedule constraints ( My work, home responsibilities, and/or other important outside activities substantially limit my ability to find classes that will fit my schedule ). Believe online provides greater flexibility ( I believe that an online management course would provide greater flexibility than a traditional management course ). Believe online requires greater self-discipline ( I believe that an online management course would require greater self-discipline than a traditional management course ). Believe online require greater technical skill ( I believe that an online management course would require greater technical sophistication (savvy) than a traditional management course ). Control variables included the following: Comfortable with internet ( I am comfortable working on a computer and the internet ). Have strong time-management skills ( I have strong time-management skills so that I can juggle work, school and non-work responsibilities ). Number of previous online courses ( How many online or web-based college courses have you previously taken? ). Age 24 or older (= 1 if 24 or older, = 0 if younger). Female (= 1 if female, = 0 if male). Minority (= 1 if racial, ethnic minority, = 0 otherwise). Business Major (= 1 if business major, = 0 otherwise). Grade Point Average (Grade point average through semester this course was taken with the effect of the grade in this course removed). Freshman (= 1 if freshman, = 0 otherwise). Junior (= 1 if junior, = 0 otherwise). Senior (= 1 if senior, = 0 otherwise) (Sophomore is omitted category to avoid singularity.). Copyright (c) 2011 Institute of Behavioral and Applied Management. All Rights Reserved. 162

8 Results and Discussion Tables 1 3 show the distribution across categories of the responses to the survey question, In your own words, why did you choose this version (online or traditional) of the course? Table 1 summarizes the responses of traditional students whose format choice was constrained by a lack of availability or information. Table 2 summarizes the reasons for choosing the traditional format of students whose format choice was not constrained. Table 3 summarizes the reasons of students who chose the online format. Regarding the 182 respondents in traditional sections, we should first make a distinction between students whose choice of format was made on the basis of their preference and students whose choice of format was constrained by a lack of information or availability. We find that 56, or 31 percent, indicated that they were either not aware of the availability of an online section of the course, or they knew that the online section was closed. Table 1 breaks these responses into sub-categories depending on (a) whether they knew that the section was closed, or they were unaware of the online option, and (b) whether or not they would have preferred the traditional or online format. Of these 56 who could not or did not consider the online option, 40 did not indicate which format that they would have preferred. One indicated that they still would have chosen the traditional section even if they had known about an online option. Fifteen indicated that they would have preferred an online section if one had been available. Effects of Preference for Face-to-Face Interactions and Oral Communications on Format Preference This leaves 126 students whose choice of format did not appear to be constrained and who registered for a traditional section (Table 2). Of these, 54 said in various ways that they preferred the face-to-face interactions in a traditional format. Some students expressed a preference for having the instructor in front of them guiding the learning process. Others focused on the advantages of face-to-face interactions with instructors or with both instructors and other students. The preference for face-to-face interactions was the most commonly cited reason for preferring a traditional format by a substantial margin. Students giving this reason were 43 percent of students whose unconstrained choice was the traditional format, and 59 percent of students who provided a reason for their choice. Thus, Hypothesis 1a is supported. Twelve students said in various ways that their learning was facilitated because the traditional format provided more structure and/or made it easier to keep on schedule. Fifteen said that they believed that the traditional format facilitated learning but were not more specific as to how. Thirteen indicated or suggested that their choice of the traditional format was conditional on the traditional section fitting their schedule, and that if there were a bad fit, they would opt for, or seriously consider, an online section. Among the other responses, six said that they chose the online format because they were more familiar with it. Copyright (c) 2011 Institute of Behavioral and Applied Management. All Rights Reserved. 163

9 Table 1. Reasons for Choosing Traditional Format and Preference: Traditional Format Choice Constrained by a Lack of Availability or Lack of Information (n = 56) No. % * Would have chosen traditional section anyway Online not an option (e.g., Online section closed) Ex.: There were no online classes available at the time of my registration. I do feel I benefit more from the traditional classes though. Not aware of online option Did not indicate preference if online were available Online not an option (e.g., Online section closed). Ex.: I choose the traditional version because I couldn t find any online class available. Ex.: the online class was filled up Not aware of online option Ex.: I was not aware that there was an online version of the course. Ex.: I had no idea an online course was offered in this subject. Would have chosen online section if available Online not an option (e.g., Online section closed). Ex.: I wanted the online version because my work schedule fluctuates but it was full so I had to take this class. I would of preferred the online class. Ex.: The online class was filled. I did the professor to confirm Not aware of online option. Ex.: I didn t really think about taking an online course this semester. If I would have known it was offered I would have taken the class online *The percentage are based on the number of respondents in the traditional sections (n = 182). Copyright (c) 2011 Institute of Behavioral and Applied Management. All Rights Reserved. 164

10 Table 2. Reasons for Choosing Traditional Format: Traditional Format Choice Not Constrained (n = 126) No. % Prefer face-to-face interactions in classroom Learn from instructor in classroom. Ex.: I choose traditional course settings because I like to be in class and hear directly from the professor, listen to his view on things and how he reasons. It helps develop my mind. Ex.: Feel better being there face to face with an instructor rather than looking at a computer screen. Interaction with instructor. Ex.: I like having a teacher that a student is able to speak to in person. Ex.: I would rather have a traditional course because of the teacher and student communication that happens in the classroom. Interaction with instructor and classmates. Ex.: I know that in the end, I will get more out of a traditional course, as I communicate with the professor and other students, receive feedback, and learn something new each time I am in class. Meanwhile, I feel that the online class would not leave me with much other than the learning material of itself. Interaction, not further specified. Ex.: I like interacting and working with others in person. Ex.: With online, there are limits, such as questions or answers. Not aware of online option. Ex.: I was not aware that there was an online version of the course. Ex.: I had no idea an online course was offered in this subject Copyright (c) 2011 Institute of Behavioral and Applied Management. All Rights Reserved. 165

11 Table 2 (continued). Provides more structure or promotes discipline. Ex.: I like to go to class because it would keep me on track. Ex.: I do not have much information on how online classes work. In my mind traditional courses seem to require you to attend each class and stay focused while online classes allow you to slack off somewhat, I might be completely off on how I view things but that is the way I perceive it. Provide better learning, not further specified. Ex.: I wanted the online version because my work schedule fluctuates but it was full so I had to take this class. I would of preferred the online class. Ex.: The online class was filled. I did the professor to confirm. Fun or interesting. Ex.: more fun/interesting to be in. Traditional is easier than online. Ex.: I have taken online courses at another college and found them to be much more demanding, In my experience, instructors assign more work in online classes with weekly deadlines in order to make sure students are keeping up. Fit schedule. Ex.: I have never taken an online course and didn t think to look for it this time. The traditional class fit into my schedule so I chose it. I do, however, often look for online classes to take but they are usually not offered for the classes I need. Ex.: It would depend on my schedule. Online would be more convenient, but sometimes a mixture of both online and traditional is the best choice. As long as I was able to contact a professor with any questions or problems, I would be pro-online. Lack technical skills. Ex.: I chose the traditional because I would prefer a more flexible schedule, I am not as good with a computer as I would like to be, and as a result would feel nervous about not knowing how to use all the different aspects of the software that is required. No. % Copyright (c) 2011 Institute of Behavioral and Applied Management. All Rights Reserved. 166

12 Table 2 (continued). Advisor recommended. Ex.: Didn t choose, let my advisor choose. More familiar with traditional format than online format Ex.: Conservative. Stick with what I know/used to. Reason not specified or not clear. Ex.: I do not want online courses. Table 3. Reasons for Choosing Online Format (n = 57) No. % No. % Flexibility or convenience Flexibility when to do coursework Ex.: Online courses allow me to do the majority of work on the weekends when I have more free time to dedicate to schoolwork. Ex.: I choose this version because I work full time as well as being a full time student, and doing an internship. I felt that taking an online class would allow me to schedule when I can get work done knowing that my work schedule changes week to week because of the type of industry I manage. Flexibility in scheduling classes Ex.: I work full-time and go to school full-time, so it is hard for me to find classes that fit around my work schedule. Having this course online allows me to be more flexible with my time and other commitments. Ex.: I needed my classes on MWF and it seemed very wise to do an online class so I m not at the university from sun up to sun down. Distance too great to commute to class Ex.: I choose online because I intern in another city and find commuting to school cumbersome. Flexibility or convenience, not further specified Ex.: It fit into my schedule very easily. Ex.: My schedule was already hectic, so I thought it would be helpful if one of my classes was online. Better opportunity to develop time-management skills. Ex.: I wanted to experience a different way of learning that way I could know which I am better at. Also, I thought it would help teach me better time management skills Copyright (c) 2011 Institute of Behavioral and Applied Management. All Rights Reserved. 167

13 The descriptive statistics for the regression analysis are shown in Table 4 and the regression results are shown in Table 5. The results indicate that whether or not we control for other independent and control variables, a preference for oral communications is not significantly related to a preference for the online format. Thus, while the results discussed above supported Hypothesis 1a, the results from our regression analysis do not support Hypothesis 1b. Looking again at the types of reasons given by students for choosing a traditional format (Table 2) may help explain why Hypothesis 1b was not supported by the data. A preference for oral versus written communications appears to be only one aspect of a complex of reasons for a preference for face-to-face interactions with classmates and, especially, the instructor. As reviewed above, in a study of face-to-face versus online discussions in a graduate education course, Meyer (2007) found that the advantages of face-to-face discussions included the emotional content, the energy, the fluidity, the ease, the ability to read non-verbal signs, and the more immediate feedback. In our present study of undergraduate business students, the respondents comments suggested that they felt that the instructor has more of a presence in the traditional format and is a more important source of course content and information relative to the textbook and/or other sources. For example, one student said that it was better, listening to the instructor, and taking notes rather than doing most of that on my own. Another discernable thread from the student responses was that the traditional format provided more immediate feedback and more fluid two-way communications with the professor, where I can ask questions after class or in class rather than via . Or, where there is a teacher right in front if I have a question. Some students indicated that they gained from greater interaction with the instructor by listening to someone who has knowledge on the topic while in class or learning from his/her experiences. Other students valued the guidance provided by an instructor in the classroom by letting me know what I am doing right and what I am doing wrong. Or, It is easier to understand what points the instructor wants you to understand when you are in the classroom. Effects of Flexibility and Scheduling Constraints on Format Preference All but one of the 57 students who preferred the online format indicated that flexibility or convenience was the reason (Table 3). Thus, Hypothesis 2a is strongly supported. Some online students liked the flexibility in deciding when they will make contributions to class discussions and do other coursework less constrained by a class schedule. Others were attracted by the lack of the need to find a traditional section of the course with a class time that fit their busy school and work schedule. Only one cited distance from campus (about 100 miles in their case) as a reason for their preference for the online format. Of course, this result would be different at an institution where students tend to live further from campus or where attracting long-distance students was a greater part on the institution s marketing strategy. The one online student who did not cite flexibility said that they wanted the opportunity to experience a format different from the traditional format and develop better time-management skills. Copyright (c) 2011 Institute of Behavioral and Applied Management. All Rights Reserved. 168

14 Table 4. Descriptive and Correlations Variable Mean S.D Prefer OL Format Prefer Oral Comm Prefer Flexible Sch Prefer Structured Sch Sch. Constraints Bel. OL Prov. Flex Bel. OL Req. Self-Disc Bel. OL Req. Tech. Skill Comfort with Internet Time-Mgmt. Skills No. of OL Courses Age 24 or Older Female Minority Business Major Grade Point Average Freshman Junior Senior Variable No. of OL Courses Age 24 or Older Female Minority Business Major Grade Point Average Freshman Junior Senior Notes: Variables 1-10 measured on 6-point scale from 0 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree. Correlations.12 and above are significant at the p <.05 level. Correlations.17 and above are significant at the p <.01 level. Correlations.22 and above are significant at the p <.001 level. The regression results indicate that whether or not we control for other factors, (1) students who preferred a flexible schedule (β =.162, p <.01) tended to also prefer the online format, (2) students who preferred a structured schedule (β = -.147, p <.05) tended to NOT prefer the online format, (3) students who had schedule constraints because of work, home responsibilities, and/or outside activities (β =.172, p <.01) tended to also prefer the online format, and, especially, (4) students who believed that online courses provide greater flexibility (β =.331, p <.001) tended to also prefer the Copyright (c) 2011 Institute of Behavioral and Applied Management. All Rights Reserved. 169

15 online format (Table 5). Each of these relationships was substantial and statistically significant. Thus, these results support each of Hypotheses 2b, 2c, 2d, and 2e. Taken together, these results indicate that a preference for flexibility and/or schedule constraints, combined with a belief that the online format provides greater flexibility, are important factors in understanding students preferences for the online format. Table 5. Results of Regression Analysis on Preference for Online Format Variable Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Age 24 or Older Female Minority Business Major Grade Point Average Freshman Junior Senior.149 * Have Strong Time-Management Skills Number of Previous Online Courses.239 *** Prefer Oral Communications.014 Prefer Flexible Schedule.162 ** Prefer Structured Schedule * Have Schedule Constraints.172 ** Believe Online Provides Flexibility.331 *** Believe Online Requires Self-Discipline Believe Online Requires Technical Skill Comfortable with Internet F *** 7.30 *** df 8,230 10,228 18,220 R Adj. R Change in R Note: Standardized regression coefficients reported. + p <.10. * p <.05. ** p <.01. *** p <.001. Compensatory Adaptation Hypothesis The mean for Believe online provides flexibility is 3.69 (on the zero to five scale), indicating that, on average, students tended to agree with the statement that the online format provides greater flexibility than the traditional format (Table 4). In fact, 86 percent agreed, ranging from slightly to strongly agreed, with this statement. Similarly, the mean for Believe online requires self-discipline is 3.66, indicating that, on average, students Copyright (c) 2011 Institute of Behavioral and Applied Management. All Rights Reserved. 170

16 tended to agree with the statement that the online format requires greater self-discipline than the traditional format (Table 4). In fact, 81 percent agreed, ranging from slightly to strongly agreed, with this statement. While the level of agreement with these two beliefs was similar, the degree to which these beliefs influenced behavior, or at least stated preferences, was quite different. The regression results indicate that whether or not we control for other factors, a belief that the online format requires greater self-discipline (β = -.065, p >.10) is not significantly related to a preference for the online format. In contrast, as we noted above, a belief that the online format provides greater flexibility (β =.331, p <.001) is strongly related to a preference for the online format. Thus, the compensatory adaptation hypothesis (Hypothesis 3) is supported. The compensatory adaptation model is relevant to the present context where a substantial proportion of students see an advantage and a disadvantage to the online format. The advantage is that the online format offers flexibility. The disadvantage is that it typically requires greater self-discipline, and a less rich communication medium. The compensatory adaptation model asserts that many of these students will assess that the advantage outweighs the disadvantage and will compensate for the disadvantage by, for example, putting a greater emphasis into time-management. Consequently, they will not be deterred by the greater need for self-discipline from taking the online format. Limitations and Implications There are important limitations of this study, some of which could be addressed by future research. For example, we wonder how our regression analysis results might have been different if we had used broader or multi-dimensional measures of preference for oral communications and/or aspects of face-to-face interactions. Our measure of preference for oral communications did not help explain the format preference. The open-ended responses of the students in our study and the results from other studies (e.g., Meyer, 2007) suggest the potential explanatory power of measures of preferences for communications media that facilitate expressing emotion, revealing personalities, providing more immediate feedback, instinctual versus reflective responses, inclusion of visual images, and providing a record of previous communications. Regarding the last item, for example, some students may see it as an advantage to have a record of prior communications to back up or strengthen a claim or point. Others may not think it very important. Still others may see it as undesirable to have a record because it may impose a greater burden or responsibility to refer back to it from time to time, or increase the risk of being called to account if they are prone to be inaccurate or careless in what they say. The open-ended student responses also suggested that it may be useful to include measures of the degree to which students believe that the instructor is an important source of information, knowledge, and guidance, in comparison to the textbook or other sources. The high response rate for our survey (92%) improves the chances that our results reflect the preferences, beliefs, and characteristics of the students taking the organization and management course under investigation. However, an important limitation of this study is the degree to which our results are generalizable to other students at other schools and in other disciplines. Or, whether the questions addressed Copyright (c) 2011 Institute of Behavioral and Applied Management. All Rights Reserved. 171

17 here may have different answers depending on whether, for example, the students are graduate or undergraduate, and whether students or prospective students live far from the school. Our review of the theoretical and empirical literature revealed that face-to-face communications offer several advantages that enhance learning, including more emotional content and energy, a greater ability to read non-verbal signs, and more immediate feedback. Our review also identified important advantages of asynchronous threaded discussions that enhance learning including that they were more thoughtful, reflective, democratic, and contained deeper analyses. Student responses to openended questions, both in Meyer (2007) and in our present study, often cited the learning advantages of face-to-face discussions as things that they liked. However, students, even students who preferred the online format, rarely cited the learning advantages of asynchronous online discussions as things that they liked. Perhaps the students in our study perceive that more effort is required on their part in order to realize the learning advantages of asynchronous online discussions. The online format offers greater flexibility for a student to decide when to construct their contribution to the threaded discussion, but it often takes more time and effort to develop a thoughtful comment or an in-depth analysis. Indeed, the students in Meyer s (2007) study said that one of the things that they liked about face-to-face discussions relative to online discussions was that the face-to-face discussions were easier. As we discussed above, our results are consistent with a compensatory adaptation hypothesis that, when applied to our context, asserts that a significant proportion of students will choose the asynchronous online format because it offers greater flexibility despite a belief that it requires greater self-discipline, and that they will find ways to compensate by perhaps putting more effort into time-management. However, the support from our study is limited because it only addresses the format choice decision, not whether students actually compensate, and learn as well as they would have in the traditional format. There is some empirical support for the notion that students actually do compensate. As part of their study, Kock, Verville, and Gaza (2007) examined student s performance in online and traditional sections at both the middle and end of the semester. They found that at the middle of the semester, the performance of online students was significantly below that of students in the traditional section. However, as predicted by the compensatory adaptation model, by the end of the semester, there was no significant difference in performance between the two groups. Also, there is a large aggregation of previous research that has found that student performance in online courses is at least as high as in traditional courses (Arbaugh & Stelzer, 2003; Daymont & Blau, 2008; Friday, Friday-Stroud, Green, & Hill, 2006; Hansen 2008; Summers, Waigandt, & Whittaker 2005). Another recent study by Anstine and Skidmore (2005) used two econometric models designed to control for sample selection bias and their result suggested that the online learning environment is substantially less effective than the traditional learning environment. However, they concluded that, despite the limitations of the online learning environment, online students rely on intangible (unobservable) characteristics, which enable them to perform about as well as students in a traditional class environment (Anstine & Skidmore, 2005, p.125). While this Copyright (c) 2011 Institute of Behavioral and Applied Management. All Rights Reserved. 172

18 research is not a test of the compensatory adaptation model, it is largely consistent with it. Future research should examine the role that self-discipline and time-management play in allowing or facilitating students making use of the potential advantage of the flexibility of the online format. Some existing research suggests that self-discipline and timemanagement may play a significant role. Loomis (2000) studied the relationship between ten dimensions of individual study and learning styles with student performance in an online research methods class. The results indicated that the strongest relationship was between time-management and final grades. Holder (2007) examined factors that differentiated between students who did and did not persist in online professional programs at the associate s, bachelor s, or master s level. The results showed a significant relationship between time and study management and subsequent persistence in their online program. Conclusions We used both qualitative and quantitative analyses to examine the format choice decision among students in an undergraduate organization and management class. Among students whose choice was not constrained and chose the traditional format, the most common reason by a large margin was that they preferred face-to-face interactions with classmates and, especially, with the instructor. Flexibility was the overwhelming reason for students who chose the online format. Previous theoretical and empirical research has identified important learning advantages of face-to-face communications including emotional content and more immediate feedback. Moreover, students frequently cite these learning advantages as things that they like. Previous research has also identified important learning advantages of asynchronous threaded discussions including that they tend to be more thoughtful and reflective. However, students seldom cite these learning advantages as things that they like. Is this because more effort is required on the part of students in order to realize the learning advantages of asynchronous online discussions? Our results support and expand the applicability of the compensatory adaptation model. When applied to our context, this model asserts that a significant proportion of students will choose the asynchronous online format because it offers greater flexibility despite a belief that it requires greater self-discipline, and that they will find ways to compensate by putting more effort into time-management. However, more work needs to be done to test the validity of the compensatory adaptation model; and, to the extent that it is valid, better understand the mechanism through which online students compensate for the greater need for self-discipline and/or a less rich communications medium. It does appear, however, that online instructors can facilitate the students compensatory behavior by providing structure and guidance to students, and by promoting a friendly environment in the class discussions that encourages thoughtful and constructive communications. Copyright (c) 2011 Institute of Behavioral and Applied Management. All Rights Reserved. 173

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