Australia Group Common Control List Handbook. Volume I: Chemical Weapons-Related Common Control Lists

Transcription

1 Australia Group Common Control List Handbook Volume I: Chemical Weapons-Related Common Control Lists

2 On the cover: Top left: Toxic gas monitoring system (Figure II.A) Top centre left: Crate for a glass-lined agitator impeller and shaft (Figure 1.2.F) Top centre right: Zirconium liquid distributor (Figure 4.D) Top right: Fluoropolymer-lined magnetic drive pump (Figure 8.B) Middle centre: Glass-lined chemical reaction vessel (Figure 1.1.C) Middle right: Heat exchanger with silicon carbide tube bundle and glass shell (Figure 3.B) Bottom left: Tote bin containing phosphorus pentasulphide (Figure 2) Bottom centre: Bricks of sodium cyanide (Figure 45.A) Bottom right: Zirconia-lined butterfly valves (Figure 6.C)

3 Table of Contents Volume I: Chemical Weapons-Related Common Control Lists Foreword...v Introduction The Australia Group (AG)...vii Australia Group Guidelines...xi Introduction to Chemical Weapons and Dual-Use Chemical Technology...1 Chemical Weapons Precursors Chemical Packaging and Transportation...9 Export Control List: Chemical Weapons Precursors Thiodiglycol Phosphorus Oxychloride Dimethyl Methylphosphonate Methylphosphonyl Difluoride (DF) Methylphosphonyl Dichloride (DC) Dimethyl Phosphite (DMP) Phosphorus Trichloride Trimethyl Phosphite (TMP) Thionyl Chloride Hydroxy-1-Methylpiperidine N,N-Diisopropyl-(beta)-Aminoethyl Chloride N,N-Diisopropyl-(beta)-Aminoethane Thiol Quinuclidinol Potassium Fluoride Chloroethanol Dimethylamine Diethyl Ethylphosphonate Diethyl N,N-Dimethylphosphoramidate Diethyl Phosphite Dimethylamine Hydrochloride Ethylphosphinyl Dichloride Ethylphosphonyl Dichloride Ethylphosphonyl Difluoride Hydrogen Fluoride Methyl Benzilate Methylphosphinyl Dichloride N,N-Diisopropyl-(beta)-Amino-Ethanol itable of Contents

4 Table of Contents 28. Pinacolyl Alcohol O-Ethyl 2-Diisopropylaminoethyl Methylphosphonite (QL) Triethyl Phosphite Arsenic Trichloride Benzilic Acid Diethyl Methylphosphonite Dimethyl Ethylphosphonate Ethylphosphinyl Difluoride Methylphosphinyl Difluoride Quinuclidone Phosphorus Pentachloride Pinacolone Potassium Cyanide Potassium Bifluoride Ammonium Bifluoride Sodium Bifluoride Sodium Fluoride Sodium Cyanide Triethanolamine Phosphorus Pentasulphide Diisopropylamine Diethylaminoethanol Sodium Sulphide Sulphur Monochloride Sulphur Dichloride Triethanolamine Hydrochloride N,N-Diisopropyl-2-Aminoethyl Chloride Hydrochloride Methylphosphonic Acid Diethyl Methylphosphonate N,N-Dimethylaminophosphoryl Dichloride Triisopropyl Phosphite Ethyldiethanolamine O,O-Diethyl Phosphorothioate O,O-Diethyl Phosphorodithioate Sodium Hexafluorosilicate Methylphosphonothioic Dichloride ii

5 Dual-Use Chemical Manufacturing Facilities and Equipment and Related Technology and Software Overview of Materials of Construction for Australia Group Chemical Manufacturing Equipment Control List of Dual-Use Chemical Manufacturing Facilities and Equipment and Related Technology and Software I. Manufacturing Facilities and Equipment 1. Reaction Vessels, Reactors or Agitators Storage Tanks, Containers or Receivers Heat Exchangers or Condensers Distillation or Absorption Columns Filling Equipment Valves Multi-Walled Piping Pumps Incinerators II. Toxic Gas Monitoring Systems and their Dedicated Detecting Components Toxic Gas Monitoring Systems and their Dedicated Detecting Components III. Related Technology Related Technology IV. Software Appendices Software Appendix A: Export Control List of Chemical Weapons Precursors Appendix B: Control List of Dual-Use Chemical Manufacturing Facilities and Equipment and Related Technology and Software Appendix C: Chemical Precursor Descriptions: Definitions and Resources Appendix D: Glossary Appendix E: Unit Conversions Appendix F: Bibliography Appendix G: Figure Attributions Table of Contents iii

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7 Volume I: Chemical Weapons-Related Common Control Lists Foreword Australia Group Common Control List Handbook Volume I The Australia Group (AG) is an informal arrangement of countries which, through the harmonisation of export control measures, seeks to ensure that exports of materials, equipment, and technology do not contribute to the development of chemical or biological weapons. 1 Founded in 1985 in response to chemical weapons use in the Iran-Iraq War and the lack of uniformity in different countries export controls, the AG since has grown to encompass 41 participating countries and the European Commission. From an initial focus on chemical weapons precursors, it has expanded its scope to include not only dual-use chemicals, but also biological materials, chemical and biological equipment, and related technology and software. Since its founding, the AG has played an important role in hindering the spread of chemical and biological weapons. The AG Common Control Lists of dual-use materials, equipment, technology, and software and guidelines for their responsible transfer provide a framework for effective chemical and biological trade controls. While the AG has established sound lists of strategic chemical and biological goods, there remains a need for commodity-oriented training materials to enhance the capabilities of enforcement officers to identify dual-use materials and equipment in cargo shipments. Such resources also can assist other trade control officials in evaluating the legitimacy of transfers of these items. The Australia Group Common Control List Handbook aims to serve as such a resource. The Handbook covers commodities found on each Common Control List and is divided into two volumes according to the threat posed by items on a particular list: Volume I: Chemical Weapons-Related Common Control Lists Chemical Weapons Precursors Dual-Use Chemical Manufacturing Facilities and Equipment and Related Technology and Software Volume II: Biological Weapons-Related Common Control Lists Human and Animal Pathogens and Toxins Plant Pathogens Dual-Use Biological Equipment and Related Technology and Software Chapters within each section provide an overview of the appearance, key features, uses, and global producers of each item on each control list. Brief introductions to dual-use technology are also included to provide context for the chemicals, pathogens, and equipment discussed, and additional supporting information can be found in the appendices to both volumes. We intend and hope that this Handbook will be a practical resource for personnel engaged in chemical- and biological-related trade controls from enforcement officials working in the field and license analysts desiring a better understanding of controlled items, to those responsible for training such personnel on dual-use commodities. The AG Handbook is produced by the United States Government for the purpose of facilitating effective export controls on AG-controlled items. Unlike the AG Guidelines and the AG Common Control Lists, the AG Handbook itself is not an official Australia Group publication of record. The images, websites, and other references included in this Handbook are intended to give examples of materials and equipment with features similar to those that the AG Common Control Lists describe. It is important to note that presence of certain items or equipment in a photograph, on a website, or in a reference does not necessarily mean that the pictured or referenced item meets AG control specifications. Decisions on the control status of an item are made by considering the technical specifications of a specific product on a case-by-case basis. June See the AG website at and the Introduction to the Australia Group in both volumes of the Handbook. vforeword

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9 Introduction The Australia Group (AG) The Australia Group: Origins, Objectives, and Activities 1 The Australia Group (AG) is an informal arrangement that aims to minimise the risk of assisting chemical and biological weapons (CBW) proliferation through the harmonisation of export control measures. The AG meets annually to discuss ways to increase the effectiveness of participating countries national export licensing systems in an effort to prevent proliferators from obtaining materials, equipment, and technology for CBW programs. AG participants do not undertake any legally binding obligations; the effectiveness of their collaboration depends solely on a shared commitment to CBW nonproliferation goals and the strength of their respective national measures. When formulating control lists and guidelines for adoption by participants, the AG considers the following key characteristics of effective export licensing measures: they should be effective in impeding the production of CBW; they should be practical and reasonably easy to implement; and they should not impede the normal Iceland Ukraine trade of materials and equipment used Ireland for legitimate purposes. United Kingdom Italy United States All countries participating in the AG are Japan States Parties to the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) and the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention (BTWC), and they strongly support efforts under those treaties to rid the world of CBW. As of June 2014, the AG includes 41 participating countries plus the European Commission. This section provides an overview of the AG s history, its objectives, and the activities it undertakes to strengthen nonproliferation export controls on CBW-related goods and technologies. Origins of the Australia Group As noted on the AG website, 2 a United Nations investigation team found in 1984 that Iraq had used chemical weapons (CW) in the Iran-Iraq war in violation of the 1925 Geneva Protocol, and that at least some of the precursor chemicals and materials for its CW program had been sourced through legitimate trade channels. In response, several countries introduced export controls on certain chemicals that could be used to manufacture CW. 1 The text of this section is taken largely from the AG website; 2 AG, The Origins of the Australia Group; AG Participants (as of June 2014) Argentina Latvia Australia Lithuania Austria Luxembourg Belgium Malta Bulgaria Mexico Canada The Netherlands Croatia New Zealand Republic of Cyprus Norway Czech Republic Poland Denmark Portugal Estonia Republic of Korea European Republic of Turkey Commission Romania Finland Slovak Republic France Slovenia Germany Spain Greece Sweden Hungary Switzerland Introduction The Australia Group vii

10 However, these controls suffered from a lack of uniformity, and it soon became apparent that attempts were being made to circumvent them. This led Australia to propose a meeting of countries with export controls with the aim of harmonising their national licensing measures and enhancing cooperation. The first meeting of what subsequently became known as the Australia Group took place in Brussels in June At that meeting, 15 participating countries and the European Commission agreed that there was value in exploring how existing export controls might be made more effective to prevent the spread of CW. 3 The AG has met regularly since then, with plenary meetings currently held annually in Paris and intersessional meetings held on an as-needed basis. The scope of the controls discussed by the AG has evolved to address emerging threats and challenges. Evidence of the diversion of dual-use materials to biological weapons (BW) programs in the early 1990s led to development of control lists on specific pathogens and toxins. Over time, the control lists have expanded to include certain equipment, technology, and software that can be used in the manufacturing or disposal of CBW. Australia Group Objectives The primary objective of AG participants is to use licensing measures to ensure that transfers of certain chemicals, pathogens, toxins, dual-use chemical and biological facilities and equipment, and related technologies do not contribute to the proliferation of CBW. The AG achieves this by harmonising participating countries national export licensing measures. The AG s activities are especially important because chemical and biotechnology sectors worldwide are targeted by proliferators as sources of materials, equipment, and technology that can be used to support CBW programs. Participants have recognised from the beginning of the AG that export licensing measures are not a substitute for the strict and universal observance of the Geneva Protocol, the BTWC, and the CWC. All participants in the AG are States Parties to both the BTWC and the CWC. Support for these treaties and their objectives remains the overriding aim of AG participants. Export licensing measures instituted by individual member countries assist in implementing key obligations under the CWC [Article I, 1 (a) and (d)] and the BTWC [Articles I and III]. Export licensing measures also demonstrate participants resolve to avoid not only direct but also inadvertent involvement in the proliferation of CBW, and to express their opposition to the use of these weapons. It is also in the interests of commercial firms and research institutes and of their governments to ensure that they do not inadvertently supply dual-use materials, equipment, technology, or software for use in the manufacture of CBW. Chemical and biological industries worldwide have firmly supported this principle. Introduction The Australia Group Australia Group Activities As previously mentioned, the AG is an informal arrangement. The purpose of AG meetings is to explore ways to increase the effectiveness of existing controls through exchange of information, harmonisation of national control measures and, where necessary, changes to the scope of controls. All AG decisions are made by consensus. All AG participants agree to require licenses for the export of specific: Chemical weapons precursors; Dual-use chemical manufacturing facilities and equipment and related technology and software; Human and animal pathogens and toxins; Plant pathogens; and Dual-use biological equipment and related technology and software. 3 AG, The Origins of the Australia Group; Ibid. viii

11 The above items form the basis for the AG s Common Control Lists, which have been developed through AG consultations and are adjusted periodically to ensure their continued effectiveness in the face of technological advancements. Measures agreed upon by AG participants are applied on a national basis. Under these measures, exports are denied only if there is a well-founded concern about potential diversion for CBW purposes. AG participants encourage all countries to take the necessary steps to ensure that they and their industries are not contributing to the proliferation of CBW. Controls will be more effective if similar measures are introduced by all potential exporters of listed items, as well as by potential transshipment countries. Export licensing measures demonstrate the determination of AG countries to avoid involvement in the proliferation of these weapons, which would be a violation of international law and norms. In addition to being consistent with the nonproliferation provisions of the CWC and BTWC, such measures are required of all states to ensure compliance with UN Security Council Resolution 1540 and its extensions. The Australia Group Common Control List Handbook This Handbook is designed to assist officials in implementing controls on AG Common Control List (CCL) items. It provides basic descriptions of and information on the notable features, packaging, and typical applications of AG listed CW precursors, pathogens, toxins, and dual-use chemical manufacturing and biological processing equipment. In addition, it discusses CCL entries on related technology and software. The Handbook is based on the AG CCLs as of March The most current version of the AG CCLs can be accessed via the AG website at The AG Handbook is produced by the United States Government for the purpose of facilitating effective export controls on AG-controlled items. Unlike the AG Guidelines and the AG CCLs, the AG Handbook itself is not an official Australia Group publication of record. The Handbook is organised like the AG CCLs, with additional sections providing background information pertinent to understanding the controls. Each section on materials and equipment follows the same format: the AG control language is reproduced in a highlighted text box, followed by a basic description of the item, its notable features, packaging, and typical applications, as well as illustrative images. The images, websites, and other references included in this Handbook are intended to give examples of materials and equipment with features similar to those that the AG CCLs describe. It is important to note that presence of certain items or equipment in a photograph, on a website, or in a reference does not necessarily mean that the pictured or referenced item meets AG control specifications. Decisions on the control status of an item are made by considering the technical specifications of a specific product on a case-by-case basis. Any AG control Notes relevant to a particular item have been included with the actual control text. Each listed item is discussed separately. Where applicable, side boxes identifying the headquarters locations of companies that can produce particular items accompany the text. These lists of countries that might produce specific items are representative and not necessarily exhaustive, since subsidiaries or trading companies in other countries may be capable of supplying such items. Introduction The Australia Group ix

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13 Australia Group Guidelines Guidelines for Transfers of Sensitive Chemical or Biological Items 4 June 2012 The Government of xxx has, after careful consideration and consistent with its obligations under the BTWC and the CWC, decided that, when considering the transfer of equipment, materials, technology and software that could contribute to chemical and biological weapons activities, it will act in accordance with the following Guidelines. 1. The purpose of these Guidelines is to limit the risks of proliferation and terrorism involving chemical and biological weapons (CBW) by controlling tangible and intangible transfers that could contribute to CBW activities by states or non-state actors, consistent with Article III of the Biological Weapons Convention, Article I of the Chemical Weapons Convention, and all relevant United Nations Security Council Resolutions. In accordance with Article X of the Biological Weapons Convention and Article XI of the Chemical Weapons Convention, these Guidelines are not intended to impede chemical or biological trade or international cooperation that could not contribute to CBW activities or terrorism. These Guidelines, including the attached Australia Group (AG) control lists and subsequent amendments thereto, form the basis for controlling transfers to any destination beyond the Government s national jurisdiction or control of materials, equipment, technology and software that could contribute to CBW activities. The Government will implement these Guidelines in accordance with its national legislation. 2. These Guidelines will be applied to each transfer of any item in the AG control lists. However, it is a matter for the Government s discretion to determine whether and to what extent to apply expedited licensing measures in the case of transfers to destinations it judges possess consistently excellent non proliferation credentials. Vigilance will be exercised in the consideration of all transfers of items on the AG control lists. Transfers will be denied if the Government judges, on the basis of all available, persuasive information, evaluated according to factors including those in paragraph 3, that the controlled items are intended to be used in a chemical weapons or biological weapons program, or for CBW terrorism, or that a significant risk of diversion exists. It is understood that the decision to transfer remains the sole and sovereign judgment of the Government. 3. In fulfilling the purposes of these Guidelines, national export control legislation, including enforcement and sanctions for violations, plays an important role. 4. To fulfil the purposes of these Guidelines, the evaluation of export applications will take into account the following non-exhaustive list of factors: a. Information about proliferation and terrorism involving CBW, including any proliferation or terrorism-related activity, or about involvement in clandestine or illegal procurement activities, of the parties to the transaction; b. The capabilities and objectives of the chemical and biological activities of the recipient state; c. The significance of the transfer in terms of (1) the appropriateness of the stated end-use, including any relevant assurances submitted by the recipient state or end-user, and (2) the potential development of CBW; d. The role of distributors, brokers or other intermediaries in the transfer, including, where appropriate, their ability to provide an authenticated end-user certificate specifying both the importer and ultimate end-user of the item to be transferred, as well as the credibility of assurances that the item will reach the stated end-user; 4 Text of the Guidelines is reproduced from Australia Group Guidelines xi

14 e. The assessment of the end-use of the transfer, including whether a transfer has been previously denied to the end-user, whether the end-user has diverted for unauthorised purposes any transfer previously authorised, and, to the extent possible, whether the end-user is capable of securely handling and storing the item transferred; f. The extent and effectiveness of the export control system in the recipient state as well as any intermediary states; g. The applicability of relevant multilateral agreements, including the BTWC and CWC. 5. In a manner consistent with its national legislation and practices, the Government should, before authorising a transfer of an AG-controlled item, either (a) satisfy itself that goods are not intended for reexport; (b) satisfy itself that, if reexported, the goods would be controlled by the recipient government pursuant to these guidelines; or (c) obtain satisfactory assurances that its consent will be secured prior to any retransfer to a third country. 6. The objective of these Guidelines should not be defeated by the transfer of any non-controlled item containing one or more controlled components where the controlled component(s) are the principal element of the item and can feasibly be removed or used for other purposes. (In judging whether the controlled component(s) are to be considered the principal element, the Government will weigh the factors of quantity, value, and technological know-how involved and other special circumstances that might establish the controlled component or components as the principal element of the item being procured.) The objective of these Guidelines also should not be defeated by the transfer of a whole plant, on any scale, that has been designed to produce any CBW agent or AG-controlled precursor chemical. 7. The Government reserves the discretion to: (a) apply additional conditions for transfer that it may consider necessary; (b) apply these guidelines to items not on the AG control lists; and (c) apply measure to restrict exports for other reasons of public policy consistent with its treaty obligations. 8. In furtherance of the effective operation of the Guidelines, the Government will, as necessary and appropriate, exchange relevant information with other governments applying the same Guidelines. 9. The Government encourages the adherence of all states to these Guidelines in the interest of international peace and security. (Latest versions of Control Lists to be attached) 5 Australia Group Guidelines 5 This parenthetical remark is reproduced from the Guidelines on the AG website. The complete Common Control Lists can be found at xii

15 Further Provisions Applicable to Australia Group Participants In addition, participants in the Australia Group, consistent with their obligations under the BTWC and CWC and in accordance with their national legislation have, after careful consideration, decided also to give equal respect to the following provisions. Catch-All 1. Participant states will ensure that their regulations require the following: a. an authorisation for the transfer of non-listed items where the exporter is informed by the competent authorities of the Participant State in which it is established that the items in question may be intended, in their entirety or part, for use in connection with chemical or biological weapons activities; b. that if the exporter is aware that non-listed items are intended to contribute to such activities it must notify the authorities referred to above, which will decide whether or not it is expedient to make the export concerned subject to authorisation. 2. Participant states are encouraged to share information on these measures on a regular basis, and to exchange information on catch-all denials relevant for the purpose of the AG. No Undercut Policy In accordance with the Group s agreed procedures, a license for an export that is essentially identical to one denied by another AG participant will only be granted after consultations with that participant, provided it has not expired or been rescinded. Essentially identical is defined as being the same biological agent or chemical or, in the case of dual-use equipment, equipment which has the same or similar specifications and performance being sold to the same consignee. The terms of the Group s no undercut policy do not apply to denials of items under national catch-all provisions. Common Approaches AG participants implement these Guidelines in accordance with the Group s agreed common approaches on end-user undertakings and chemical mixtures. Intra EU Trade So far as trade within the European Union is concerned, each member State of the European Union will implement the Guidelines in the light of its commitments as a member of the Union. Brokering Services AG members should have in place or establish measures against illicit activities that allow them to act upon brokering services related to items mentioned in the AG control lists which could contribute to CBW activities. AG members will make every effort to implement those measures in accordance with their domestic legal framework and practices. Australia Group Guidelines xiii

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17 Introduction to Chemical Weapons and Dual-Use Chemical Technology Chemical Weapons: An Overview CW-Related Terminology Traditionally, a chemical weapon (CW) is thought of as a toxic chemical loaded into a delivery system such as a munition i.e., a complete device for exposing a population to a substance that can cause death or other injuries through its chemical action. The Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) broadens this traditional definition significantly, 1 for the purpose of achieving the treaty s goal of complete and effective prohibition of the development, production, acquisition, stockpiling, retention, transfer and use of chemical weapons, and their destruction. 2 According to the CWC, Chemical Weapons means the following, together or separately: 3 a. Toxic chemicals and their precursors, except where intended for purposes not prohibited under this Convention, as long as the types and quantities are consistent with such purposes; b. Munitions and devices, specifically designed to cause death or other harm through the toxic properties of those toxic chemicals specified in subparagraph (a), which would be released as a result of the employment of such munitions and devices; c. Any equipment specifically designed for use directly in connection with the employment of munitions and devices specified in subparagraph (b). A toxic chemical is further defined as any chemical which through its chemical action on life processes can cause death, temporary incapacitation or permanent harm to humans or animals. This includes all such chemicals, regardless of their origin or of their method of production, and regardless of whether they are produced in facilities, in munitions or elsewhere. The CWC Schedules of Chemicals identify certain toxic chemicals and precursors for application of the verification measures called for in the treaty. These definitions are familiar to CWC National Authorities and are well-suited for successful implementation of the treaty and achievement of its goals. They further address the fact that many toxic chemicals and precursors have legitimate, peaceful uses. The CWC recognises that such chemicals should not be considered to be CW when they are (1) used for purposes not prohibited under the CWC (e.g., industrial, agricultural, research, medical, pharmaceutical, or protective purposes) and (2) are of the types and quantities that would be consistent with these peaceful purposes. However, for the objectives of this Handbook, a more traditional approach to CW-related terminology is taken in order to succinctly describe the potential roles of various chemicals (and equipment) in a CW program. In this Handbook, a toxic chemical that could be used as a CW will be simply referred to as a CW agent; precursors to CW agents are not considered to be CW in the context of this Handook, but rather chemicals that can be used to produce CW agents. 1 For further explanation of the rationale behind the CWC s definitions, see the OPCW s Brief Description of Chemical Weapons ; 2 Chemical Weapons Convention, Preamble; 3 Chemical Weapons Convention, Article II, Paragraph 1; 1Introduction to Chemical Weapons and Dual-Use Chemical Technology

18 CW agents typically are grouped into classes based upon their effect on living organisms. These biochemical effects are directly related to the structure and reactivity of the agent molecules; therefore, substances in a given agent category frequently have similar chemical structures i.e., the same types of atoms connected in similar ways. This section gives a very brief overview of the agent classes and their relationship to chemical structure. Information on the effects of agent exposure is found widely in the open literature 4 and is summarised in the paragraphs below. Choking Agents Choking agents damage lung tissue, leading to pulmonary edema. The victim thereby is choked by fluid in the lungs this is often referred to as dry-land drowning. Choking agents frequently have reactive chlorine atoms in their structure. The most basic choking agent is chlorine gas itself (Cl 2 ), which was used extensively in World War I. Phosgene (Figure 1) is another example. 5 Figure 1. Chemical structure of phosgene. Introduction to Chemical Weapons and Dual-Use Chemical Technology Blood Agents Blood agents interfere with oxygen transport from blood to body tissues. The most well-known blood agents hydrogen cyanide and cyanogen chloride contain a cyanide (C N) group. The cyanide group reacts with an enzyme called cytochrome oxidase, resulting in an inhibition of enzyme function that prevents cells from using oxygen. Therefore, oxygen is not transferred from the blood to body tissues, and the victim exposed to the agent dies. Figure 2 shows the chemical structures of hydrogen cyanide and cyanogen chloride. H C N Vesicants (Blister Agents) Vesicants are also known as blister agents. As described by the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW), they are oily substances that act via inhalation and contact with skin. They affect the eyes, respiratory tract, and skin, first as an irritant and then as a cell poison. As the name suggests, blister agents cause large and often life-threatening skin blisters which resemble severe burns. Exposure to vesicants can result in blindness and permanent respiratory damage. Sulphur mustards and nitrogen mustards have a central electronegative atom (sulphur or nitrogen, respectively) bonded to carbon-chain arms that terminate in chlorine atoms. The arsenic-based vesicant Lewisite has a central arsenic atom bound to chlorine atoms and carbon-based groups. These three types of vesicants have reactive chlorine atoms in common; however, the symptoms of exposure to the more structurally-similar sulphur and nitrogen mustards resemble each other more closely than those of Lewisite. Examples of vesicants are mustard gas, a type of sulphur mustard; nitrogen mustards HN-1, HN-2, and HN-3; and Lewisite. Figure 3 shows the chemical structures of some of these blister agents. Figure 3. Chemical structures of mustard gas (left), HN-3 (centre) and Lewisite (right). Cl C N Figure 2. Chemical structures of hydrogen cyanide (left) and cyanogen chloride (right). 4 For example, see fact sheets by the U.S. centres for Disease Control and Prevention ( asp); the OPCW s chemical agent descriptions ( and D. Hank Ellison, Handbook of Chemical and Biological Warfare Agents (Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press), For compactness, organic chemistry shorthand is used in most of the structures shown in this Handbook. Each carbon atom is represented by the end of a line or the intersection of two lines instead of being shown explicitly as a C. See Appendix C for more information. 2

19 Nerve Agents Nerve agents contain a P=O group, where the phosphorus atom is also bound to three other atoms. Nerve agents bind tightly to an enzyme in the body called acetylcholinesterase. This enzyme normally destroys acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter that signals muscles to contract. When a victim is exposed to a nerve agent, acetylcholine builds up and continuously stimulates the muscles because the blocked enzyme is unable to deactivate the neurotransmitter molecules. Several physical symptoms result, from pupil constriction to muscle paralysis due to fatigue. Exposure to nerve agents ultimately can lead to death by respiratory failure as noted by the OPCW, muscular paralysis caused by nerve agents also affects the respiratory muscles. Nerve agents also affect the respiratory centre of the central nervous system. The combination of these two effects is the direct cause of death. Consequently, death caused by nerve agents is a kind of death by suffocation. Nerve agents include G-series agents tabun, sarin, and soman, and the V-series agents Amiton and VX. Figure 4 shows the chemical structures of tabun, sarin, and VX. Figure 4. Chemical structures of tabun (left), sarin (centre), and VX (right). Incapacitants Incapacitants, like their name suggests, are used with the intention to incapacitate rather than kill a victim. This is the most diverse class of chemical substances, since different types of chemicals can cause different physiological effects that could be incapacitating. The major types of incapacitants are psychochemical, vomiting/ sneezing, and tear (riot control) agents. These are also called nonlethal chemical agents; however, it is important to keep in mind that such agents can be lethal in sufficiently large doses. The use of these substances in war is prohibited by the CWC. BZ (Figure 5) is one example of an incapacitant. Table 1 gives LC 50 and LD 50 values for selected agents as derived from data in D. Hank Ellison s Handbook of Chemical and Biological Warfare Agents (Boca Raton: CRC Press LLC, 2000). 6 These values are shown to compare the relative lethality of the agent types. 7 6 These values are based on 10 minutes of exposure for a 70 kg person with a respiratory tidal volume of 15 L/minute. Values in Table 1 were converted from parts per million to mg/m 3 and grams/person to mg/kg, two more commonly used units. In general, values were rounded to whole numbers, with consideration of significant digits. 7 The exact value of these figures may vary from one information source to another. OH C O C Figure 5. Chemical structure of BZ. O N 3Introduction to Chemical Weapons and Dual-Use Chemical Technology

20 Table 1. Exposure hazards posed by selected CW agents/toxic chemicals Introduction to Chemical Weapons and Dual-Use Chemical Technology Agent name Type LC 50 (mg/m 3 ) LD 50 (mg/kg) BZ Incapacitant Chlorine Choking 1900 Phosgene Choking 320 Hydrogen cyanide Blood Sulphur mustard Vesicant Nitrogen Mustard-3 Vesicant Lewisite Vesicant Tabun Nerve Sarin Nerve 7 24 Soman Nerve 7 5 VX Nerve Dual-Use Chemical Technology The chemicals and equipment employed in many sectors of the commercial chemical industry particularly those processing toxic or corrosive chemicals could also be used to produce CW agents. Therefore, the commodities and process operations that could be exploited to make CW agents are inherently dualuse. This section discusses the dual-use processes involved in chemical production in order to provide a context for the discussion of export-controlled chemicals and equipment in this Handbook. The development of chemical weapons can be represented by a sequence of operations. Figure 6 shows a schematic depiction of the CW development process, starting with chemical raw materials (precursors) and ending with filled delivery systems and, eventually, waste destruction. With the exception of CW munitions and the particularly harsh, stringent conditions required to destroy them, the components of this process are found in legitimate commercial activities unrelated to CW. It should be kept in mind that the types of chemical equipment subject to export controls have characteristics that make them suitable for use in CW agent production e.g., corrosion-resistant wetted surfaces 8 and/or design features related to safety. While equipment of concern remains dual-use in nature, these characteristics limit the number of industrial sectors in which controlled equipment would typically be used. These sectors are discussed in individual chemical equipment sections and in the section on materials of construction. The remainder of this section will be devoted to an overview of the steps depicted in Figure 6 from an industrial, dual-use perspective. CW Precursors Chemical weapons precursors are the chemical starting materials, or ingredients from which CW agents are prepared. Nearly all CW precursors are dual-use chemicals, although they vary in the extent of their legitimate use in commercial industry. Many of these chemicals are corrosive to common materials like stainless steel. This characteristic makes chemical equipment with highly corrosion-resistant wetted parts especially suitable for CW agent production; such equipment therefore is subject to export controls. Furthermore, the toxicity of CW agents and many precursors warrants special safety precautions in CW agent production, further driving the control specifications for several items on the AG chemical equipment control list. Chemicals on the AG precursor control list are discussed at length in the Chemical Weapons Precursors section in Volume I of this Handbook. 8 Throughout this Handbook, the term wetted surfaces is used to denote those surfaces coming into direct contact with the processed or contained chemicals i.e., the surfaces that must be made of corrosion-resistant materials according to AG specifications for chemical manufacturing equipment. 4

21 PRECURSORS SYNTHESIS PURIFICATION STORAGE DELIVERY WASTE DESTRUCTION Figure 6. Schematic of the chemical weapons development processes. Synthesis Chemical synthesis is a term used for the process of making a desired chemical from other substances via one or more chemical reactions. A common industrial example of a chemical reaction is the chlor-alkali process, i.e., electrolysis of brine (salt) water to make hydrogen gas, chlorine, sodium hydroxide (caustic soda), and sodium hypochlorite (bleach). Synthesis is defined as production in the text of the Chemical Weapons Convention, 9 but the term synthesis is used throughout this Handbook to be in line with more common usage in the chemical sciences. With respect to the CW development process of Figure 6, this is the step in which a CW agent is actually produced. Figure 7. Schematic depiction of the synthesis concept. Synthesis involves mixing chemicals under controlled conditions (such as temperature and pressure) to facilitate a chemical reaction. Figure 7 provides a schematic representation of the process. Precursors also called reactants are combined and undergo a chemical reaction to generate a desired chemical called the product. In the case of CW development, this product would be a CW agent. However, in reality, this process is not as simple as chemical A reacts with chemical B to give chemical C. For example, unreacted precursors could be left in the reaction mixture, and side reactions could produce unwanted chemicals. Multiple variables therefore must be managed to maximise the success of the reaction i.e., to maximise the amount of product created. Furthermore, multiple reaction steps will likely be required to obtain a given chemical, depending on what precursors are used. 9 Chemical Weapons Convention Article II, Definitions and Criteria; article-ii-definitions-and-criteria/ 5Introduction to Chemical Weapons and Dual-Use Chemical Technology

22 Temperature, pressure, material flow, and mixing are among the most important variables to manage in chemical synthesis. Chemical equipment used in synthesis must provide for control of these parameters, beyond simply providing containers in which the chemicals can react. Other considerations, such as the phases of the chemicals (gas, liquid, and/or solid), the hazards posed by the chemicals (e.g., corrosiveness or flammability), and the scale of the operation (laboratory scale, pilot scale, or industrial scale), as well as reliability and cost, must also be addressed. These factors influence the sizes, materials of construction, and design details of the equipment best suited for a particular synthesis operation. Key pieces of AGlisted chemical equipment relevant to the synthesis stage of CW development include reaction vessels (reactors), agitators, and heat exchangers. As with all other controlled pieces of manufacturing equipment, these items must have corrosion-resistant wetted surfaces to be eligible for control. Each reaction step may require a purification step along the pathway to make a final product. Introduction to Chemical Weapons and Dual-Use Chemical Technology Purification Purification is the process of isolating a desired chemical product from a mixture of substances. Even a successful chemical synthesis will often result in a mixture of the product with other unwanted chemicals. Therefore, some additional effort must be exerted to isolate the desired product as a pure substance. This process can be referred to as purification, separation, or isolation, but purification is a blanket term that will be used in this Handbook to describe numerous methods for obtaining a pure substance from a chemical mixture. Among the most common methods for accomplishing this are distillation and affinitybased (chromatographic) methods such as extraction, adsorption, and absorption. This section provides a brief discussion of these methods due to the presence of distillation and absorption columns on the AG chemical equipment control list. Other methods used in the chemical industry to purify or isolate chemical compounds include crystallisation, filtration, evaporation, and drying. Distillation is a separation technique based on differences in boiling points between different components of a chemical mixture. The composition of a liquid mixture and the vapour formed from it will generally differ due to the different boiling points or volatilities of the component chemicals. In a basic distillation process, the liquid mixture is heated, and various components in the mixture vapourise at their different boiling temperatures. The vapours coming off at different temperatures are cooled with a condenser, condensing the vapours to liquids for collection in a receiver vessel. A collected liquid fraction will be richest in the component of the original mixture that has a boiling temperature closest to that of the temperature range collected. A different receiver can be used for each temperature range for effective separation. As this simple distillation process is repeated, the collected fractions will become increasingly richer in each of the respective components, ultimately producing pure compounds. An efficient way to repeat this process is by using a distillation column; such columns have internal trays or packings on which vapour can repeatedly condense and re-evaporate at different temperatures to effectively accomplish multiple distillation steps. Distillation can be performed in a batch or continuous fashion, and several variations on the basic process are possible (e.g., steam distillation, vacuum distillation, etc.). 10 Figure 8 shows schematic depictions of the distillation process: on the left is a laboratory scale representation of a distillation apparatus and on the right is an industrial scale scheme. Each arrangement shares common elements: some sort of heat source to keep the liquid mixture boiling (a reboiler in the industrial scale apparatus, often using steam as a heat source), a distillation column, a condenser to cool and condense the vapour, and a receiver to collect the condensed product. Key AG-listed commodities relevant to distillation include distillation columns, heat exchangers, condensers, and receivers. 10 James R. Fair, Distillation in Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, Volume 8 (John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1993). 6

23 Figure 8. Schematics of distillation apparati. Left: Laboratory scale arrangement for batch distillation. Right: Diagram for a continuous industrial scale distillation. Often a portion of the condensed vapour is returned to the column; this is referred to as reflux. A variety of separation processes are based on differences in the affinity of chemicals in a mixture for different media. Liquid-liquid extraction uses two immiscible liquids (like oil and water) to accomplish separation. A liquid mixture containing a dissolved chemical compound that needs to be separated is contacted with an immiscible liquid for which the dissolved chemical has greater affinity. The chemical passes into the new extracting liquid because it is more soluble in that liquid and will be preferentially incorporated into it. The two liquids are then physically separated, producing a separation of the dissolved components. In adsorption processes, one substance preferentially adheres to a substrate, while others are not retained. The desired component then is removed from the substrate, or eluted, by washing with a different solution to which it binds more strongly than the adsorbent. Conversely, the unwanted components could be adsorbed onto the substrate, leaving the desired substance in the original, now purified, solution. In contrast to adsorption which involves binding to a surface absorption refers to a bulk uptake of one phase into another, such as a gas into a liquid or a liquid into a solid. Absorption is often used to remove gases from a mixture for environmental reasons (i.e., scrubbing to remove air pollutants), as well as for product recovery and production of solutions of gases. 11 Absorption columns appear in the AG chemical equipment control list in the same entry as distillation columns, and, while functionally different, the two types of columns are quite similar. Both columns must be made of or lined with corrosionresistant materials to be eligible for control. Chemical Transfer and Storage Chemicals, including precursors, intermediates, final products, and wastes, must be transferred between different locations throughout any chemical production facility, as well as stored at certain times. When handling CW agents or any dangerous substances, transfer and storage operations must take into account the hazardous nature of the chemicals involved. Therefore, while the general types of equipment that are needed to transfer and store chemicals are ubiquitous throughout the chemical industry, equipment subject to export controls has special features related to the hazards posed by CW precursors and agents namely toxicity and corrosiveness. These design features include corrosion-resistant wetted parts and provisions for remote operation or leak containment/prevention. Equipment such as pumps, valves, storage tanks, and multi-walled piping are used throughout CW development and production to facilitate the movement and storage of chemicals. Furthermore, remotely-operated filling equipment could be used to fill delivery 11 Manuel Laso and Urs von Stockar, Absorption in Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, Volume 1 (John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2003). 7Introduction to Chemical Weapons and Dual-Use Chemical Technology

24 systems with CW agents as well as safely fill other types of containers. All of these types of equipment appear on the AG chemical equipment control list. Like the other items on the list, this equipment also has legitimate uses in the commercial chemical industry for handling and storing corrosive, toxic, or otherwise highly hazardous chemicals. Waste Destruction With respect to CW, waste destruction can refer to the destruction of chemicals as well as munitions. The destruction of CW agents, precursors, and munitions represents a challenging and incredibly important operation. Fact sheets on CW destruction (also known as demilitarisation) can be found through the U.S. Army s Chemical Materials Activity website. 12 The most widely-used method of waste destruction is high-temperature incineration. Incinerators destroy CW agents and decontaminate munitions using very high temperature incineration with stringent safety requirements, controls, and monitoring of emissions. The AG chemical equipment control list includes high temperature incinerators designed for destroying CW agents, precursors, and munitions. Introduction to Chemical Weapons and Dual-Use Chemical Technology Other methods of CW destruction have also been explored. After incineration, the next most widely-used method is chemical neutralisation. Neutralisation involves mixing agents with hot water or hot water and sodium hydroxide to convert agents into less harmful chemicals. 13 Several other alternative destruction methods have been developed to varying degrees and are described in a lengthy report by an IUPAC working party on CW destruction. 14 Safety Considerations Protection from and mitigation of chemical releases are critical facets of any chemical operation, but they are of even greater importance in the case of CW agent production, storage, and destruction given the extreme toxicity of agents. Due to the multiple hazards posed by chemicals involved in CW development (as well as destruction), safety measures could be incorporated into facilities to protect workers from exposure and alert them to even small chemical releases. Chemical safety practices generally involve a combination of active, passive, and administrative controls, the last involving sound practices for safely handling chemicals. Active controls include the use of personal protective equipment, while passive controls include the use of air monitoring devices. Toxic gas monitoring systems and their dedicated detecting components are included in the AG chemical equipment control list due to their utility in sensitively monitoring for the release of hazardous chemicals in a CW facility. Summary The production of CW agents bears similarities to commercial chemical production. Certain chemicals and chemical equipment traded for use in legitimate applications therefore can pose CW proliferation concerns. The discussions of AG-listed CW precursors and chemical equipment in the following sections are intended to familiarise officials with these controlled items to facilitate their identification in the field and aid assessments of their proliferation risk. 12 Chemical Materials Activity; Some useful fact sheets are Incineration: A Safe, Proven Disposal Process ( and Neutralization of Chemical Agents ( CMA, Neutralization of Chemical Agents; 14 Graham S. Pearson and Richard S. Magee, Critical Evaluation of Proven Chemical Weapon Destruction Technologies (IUPAC Technical Report), Pure Appl. Chem. 74(2), (2002); IUPAC is an abbreviation for the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry. 8

25 Chemical Weapons Precursors Australia Group Common Control List Handbook Volume I Chemical Packaging and Transportation Introduction The safe storage and transport of chemicals relies on using proper containers and effective warning labels for any hazards posed by their release. The container must be compatible with the chemical and physical properties of the substance. At the most basic level, the physical state of the chemical determines the type of container that is appropriate: gases are shipped in thick-walled tanks or cylinders while liquids or solids are shipped in bottles, drums, bins, tanks, or other containers such as ISO containers. Furthermore, containers should be constructed from materials that do not react adversely with the chemicals being stored. For example, the highly corrosive fluoride salts should not be stored in glass because they will etch the container. Certain plastics or corrosion-resistant metals are better choices of packaging materials for these substances. Individual CW precursor entries in this Handbook discuss what types of containers are typically used for each chemical. The risk of a chemical release from even the most suitable containers requires measures to warn people of the hazards posed by chemicals in transit. International standards for the transport of hazardous materials dictate that containers bear specific markings and codes that identify the dangers associated with the shipped chemicals. These markings assist hazardous materials personnel in properly responding to a chemical release. In addition, international guidelines on labeling dangerous chemicals provide another set of measures for alerting personnel to the risks of chemical exposure. This section provides an overview of international guidelines on transporting and labeling hazardous chemicals. The information in this chapter is not only relevant to assessing the hazards of the chemicals on the AG Chemical Weapons Precursors Control List; recognising chemical containers and the markings on them can help identify dual-use chemicals in transport and potentially aid in their interdiction. United Nations Guidelines on the Transport of Dangerous Goods (UN Model Regulations) The UN Recommendations on the Transport of Dangerous Goods, commonly known as the UN Model Regulations, were first published in 1956 to provide guidance on the safe transport of dangerous items. The UN Model Regulations are currently in their eighteenth revised edition (2013). 1 This document provides guidance on classifying materials into different hazard categories and provides details on approved containers for them. However, the section of greatest interest for chemical identification is the Dangerous Goods List (DGL), which is given in Part 3 of the UN Model Regulations. The DGL lists specific chemicals, items, and categories of chemicals that are considered dangerous for transport. Each chemical, item, or category is assigned an internationally-recognised four-digit number called a UN number. This number is the most specific identification code provided by the UN Model Regulations and is found on the outermost packaging of chemicals, such as on a box or a tank truck. A Proper Shipping Name is associated with each UN number and must accompany it on any labeling. In some cases, the Proper Shipping Name corresponds to a particular chemical (e.g., phosphorus pentasulphide). If the UN number corresponds to a generic or n.o.s (not otherwise specified) category of hazard, a technical name not a trade name for the chemical should also be provided after the Proper Shipping Name. This information can be used by emergency responders to identify hazardous materials during transportation emergencies, but can also aid chemical identification for export control purposes. Each entry in the DGL is also assigned a Hazard Class. The Hazard Class assigns the chemical to a broader category of chemical or physical hazards (e.g., such as flammable liquids), with some classes divided further into Divisions. Table 1 gives a list of Hazard Classes and their Divisions. Any dangerous good in transport should bear a diamond-shaped label or placard, the appearance of which is dictated by the Hazard Class/ Division of the substance. Each diamond bears a pictogram representing the hazard and a one or two digit 1 UN Model Regulations, 18th edition (2013); 9Chemical Packaging and Transportation

26 number in the bottom corner. UN numbers, Proper Shipping Names, and Hazard Classes/Divisions are discussed in Part 2 (Classification) of the UN Model Regulations. It should be noted that Hazard Divisions 6.1 and 6.2 are applicable to AG-controlled toxins and pathogens; they are discussed in more detail in the Introduction to Pathogens and Toxins in Volume II. Table 1. UN Hazard Classes, Divisions, and Pictograms Class/Division Name UN Pictogram Class 1 Explosives See UN Model Regulations Part 5* Class 2 Gases Division 2.1 Flammable gases or Division 2.2 Non-flammable, non-toxic gases or Division 2.3 Toxic gases Class 3 Flammable Liquids Chemical Packaging and Transportation Class 4 Division 4.1 Division 4.2 Division 4.3 Flammable Solids Flammable solids, self-reactive substances, and solid desensitized explosives Substances liable to spontaneous combustion Substances which in contact with water emit flammable gases or or 10

27 Class/Division Name UN Pictogram Class 5 Oxidizing Substances and Organic Peroxides Division 5.1 Oxidizing substances Division 5.2 Class 6 Organic peroxides Toxic and infectious substances or Division 6.1 Toxic substances Division 6.2 Infectious substances Class 7 Radioactive material See the UN Model Regulations Part 5* Class 8 Corrosive substances Class 9 Miscellaneous dangerous substances and articles, including environmentally hazardous substances *As these Hazard Classes and their Divisions are less relevant to CW precursors, their placards have been omitted. See Part 5 of the UN Model Regulations for pictures of the respective hazard diamonds. 2 UN numbers and hazard diamonds are posted in close proximity to each other on tank trucks, ISO containers, or other types of bulk or outer packaging. Figure 1 displays the two options for this posting; the UN number should either be inside the diamond or next to it. 2 UN Model Regulations, 18th edition (2013); Chemical Packaging and Transportation 11

28 Figure 1. Posting options for the UN number and hazard diamond on a chemical shipping container. Figure 2 shows the labeling of an aluminium tote bin containing the controlled CW precursor phosphorus pentasulphide, as an example of how hazard diamonds and the Proper Shipping Name would be posted on a bulk container. 3 Figure 2. Photograph of a tote bin containing phosphorus pentasulfide with expanded view of the UN label. Chemical Packaging and Transportation UN numbers, Proper Shipping Names, and Hazard Classes/Divisions are required on hazardous goods shipping documents. Figure 3 shows the area of a shipper s declaration (for air transit, in this example) that would display this information. Figure 3. Section of a shipper s declaration for dangerous goods showing fields for the UN number, Proper Shipping Name, and Hazard Class or Division. 3 This tote bin can hold up to 3409 kilograms of the chemical and measures a few metres to a side. 12

29 Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS) The Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals, known as the GHS, is a international system intended to ensure safe use, transportation, and disposal of chemicals by harmonising approaches to classifying and labeling chemicals according to the hazards they pose. 4 Use of the GHS helps to protect human health and the environment in a global trade environment through a system of easily recognisable pictograms. It additionally serves as a basis for harmonising rules and regulations on chemicals at multiple levels: nationally, regionally, and internationally. The first edition of the GHS was published in 2005, with the fifth revised edition issued in The GHS uses a series of pictograms to represent health and environmental hazards on chemical labels. Table 2 reproduces these pictograms and the GHS Hazard Classes associated with each. It should be noted that GHS Hazard Classes can be different than the Hazard Classes and Divisions established by the UN Model Regulations. For example, there are no GHS Hazard Classes covering infectious or radioactive substances. These pictograms would appear on GHS-compliant chemical labels on individual chemical containers as described in Annex 7 (Examples of Arrangements of the GHS Label Elements) of the GHS. 5 They may also appear in Safety Data Sheets. The GHS pictograms do not definitively determine the identity of a chemical, but are included in this Handbook to alert those handling chemicals to hazards that may be present. Table 2. GHS pictograms GHS Pictogram Name GHS Pictogram GHS Hazard Classes Exploding Bomb Explosives; organic peroxides* Flame Flame over Circle Gas Cylinder Flammable gases; flammable liquids; flammable solids; aerosols; pyrophoric liquids; pyrophoric solids; self-heating substances and mixtures; substances and mixtures, which in contact with water emit flammable gases; organic peroxides* Oxidizing gases; oxidizing liquids; oxidizing solids Gases under pressure 4 For more details, see the United Nationals Economic Commission for Europe, About the GHS ; danger/publi/ghs/ghs_welcome_e.html 5 GHS official text and corrigenda, Rev. 5 (2013); Chemical Packaging and Transportation 13

30 GHS Pictogram Name GHS Pictogram GHS Hazard Classes Corrosive Corrosive to metals; skin corrosion; serious eye damage Skull Acute toxicity* Chronic Health Hazard Respiratory sensitization; germ cell mutagenicity; carcinogenicity; reproductive toxicity; specific organ toxicity single exposure*; specific organ toxicity repeated exposure; aspiration hazard Exclamation Mark Skin sensitization; skin irritation; eye irritation; acute toxicity*; specific organ toxicity single exposure*; hazardous to the ozone layer Environmental Hazard Hazardous to the aquatic environment, short term (acute); hazardous to the aquatic environment, long term (chronic); *May bear this or another pictogram, depending on the specific hazard and its extent Chemical Packaging and Transportation Conclusions Internationally-accepted markings can aid in determining the identity of a chemical, as well as alert inspectors to potential hazards. UN numbers and associated Proper Shipping Names are one tool for chemical identification, while UN hazard diamonds and GHS pictograms reflect various hazards that would be encountered in the case of a chemical release. For these reasons, UN numbers with their Proper Shipping Names, UN hazard diamonds, and GHS pictograms are provided for each chemical in the Export Control List: Chemical Weapons Precursors section. 14

31 Export Control List: Chemical Weapons Precursors The following sections provide basic descriptions of and information on the notable features, packaging, and typical applications of items on the Australia Group Export Control List: Chemical Weapons Precursors. 1 Each section also includes an illustrative Global Production listing, which lists countries that are home to production facilities; when plant locations for multinational companies could not be determined, the headquarter country is listed by default. These listings should be considered illustrative and not exhaustive. The blue boxes at the beginning of each entry provide the chemical structure of the precursor, according to a shorthand described in Appendix C. The complete AG control language as of its September 2009 revision is found in Appendix A. Entries in this chapter are numbered to match their order in the control list. See the Glossary for technical terms used in this Handbook. 1 The current AG control language may be found at: Chemical Weapons Precursors 15

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33 1. Thiodiglycol HO S OH 1.1. Basic Description Thiodiglycol is a vesicant precursor with the following identifiers and properties: Identifier/Property Value CAS# Formula C 4 H 10 O 2 S Molecular Weight CA Index Name Ethanol, 2,2 -thiobis- CWC Schedule 2B13 EC# HS# [Organo-sulfur compounds, other] UN# May be assigned UN 3334 (AVIATION REGULATED LIQUID, N.O.S.) UN Hazard Placard Other Names EU CL# 1C350.1 GHS Pictogram Bis(2-hydroxyethyl)sulfide; bis(2-hydroxyethyl) thioether; di(2-hydroxyethyl sulfide); diethanol sulfide; 2,2 -dithiobis-(ethanol); 3-thiapentane-1,5-diol; 2,2 -thiobisethanol; 2,2 -thiodiethanol; thiodiethylene glycol; 2,2 -thiodiglycol; 2,2 -dihydroxydiethyl sulfide; sulfide, bis(2-hydroxyethyl); bis(2-hydroxyethyl) sulphide; dihydroxylethyl mercaptan Note: 2 might be replaced with β or beta in some synonyms 1.2. Notable Features Thiodiglycol is a colourless or pale yellow liquid. Some report it has an odour similar to rotten eggs, while others claim it is odourless Packaging Thiodiglycol often is supplied in plastic or plastic-lined containers, including polyethylene-lined steel drums. Glass bottles are used for small quantities. Global Production Armenia China Germany United Kingdom United States 1.4 Typical Applications The most frequently-mentioned commercial uses of thiodiglycol are in the production of water-based inks, textile dyes, plastics, and coatings. For example, it can be used as a solvent in ball-point pen ink. The OPCW notes use in the textile industry for textile printing and fabric softeners. Thiodiglycol also can be used to prepare additives for plastics, rubber, resins, or lubricants. Chemical Weapons Precursors: Thiodiglycol 17

34 2. Phosphorus Oxychloride O Cl P Cl Cl 2.1. Basic Description Phosphorus oxychloride is a nerve agent precursor with the following identifiers and properties: Chemical Weapons Precursors: Phosphorus Oxychloride Identifier/Property CAS# Formula POCl 3 ; Cl 3 OP Molecular Weight CA Index Name CWC Schedule Phosphoryl chloride 3B05 EC# HS# UN# UN Hazard Placard Other Names EU CL# 1C350.2 GHS Pictogram Value [Halide and halide oxides of nonmetals, chlorides and chloride oxides] UN 1810 [PHOSPHORUS OXYCHLORIDE] OPCl 3 ; phosphonyl trichloride; phosphoric chloride; phosphoric trichloride; phosphoroxychloride; phosphoroxytrichloride; phosphorus chloride oxide; phosphorus(v) trichloride oxide; phosphorus monoxide trichloride; phosphorus oxide trichloride; phosphorus oxytrichloride; phosphorus trichloride oxide; POCl 3 ; phosphoryl trichloride; trichlorophosphine oxide; trichlorophosphorus oxide; fosforoxychlorid; tlenochlorek fosforu; oxychlorid fosforecny 2.2. Notable Features Phosphorus oxychloride is a colourless or slightly yellow liquid. It may have a pungent odour like musty hay Packaging Small volumes of phosphorus oxychloride are supplied in glass containers. Bulk quantities of phosphorus oxychloride are shipped in nickel-clad or stainless steel tank cars or trucks. Many companies supply phosphorus oxychloride in plastic or plastic-lined containers, including plastic-lined metal drums. 18

35 2.4. Typical Applications Phosphorus oxychloride is a basic building block for numerous organophosphorus compounds. It is a primary starting material for the synthesis of phosphate esters (also known as phosphate triesters), which in turn are used in the manufacture of hydraulic fluids, agrochemicals (pesticides/insecticides), flame retardants, oil stabilisers, medicinal intermediates, and plastic and elastomer additives (plasticisers). The OPCW s list of the most traded Scheduled chemicals additionally lists metal extraction solvents among the phosphate ester products derived from phosphorus oxychloride. Some phosphate esters are good solvents for certain chemicals involved in uranium processing. Phosphorus oxychloride can play several roles in organic synthesis, such as introducing chlorine atoms or phosphorus-oxygen groups into other molecules. According to some sources, it can also be used to prepare dyes and fragrances. Extremely high purity phosphorus oxychloride can be used as a dopant for semiconductor manufacure. Global Production China Egypt Germany India Japan Poland Russia Spain United Kingdom United States Chemical Weapons Precursors: Phosphorus Oxychloride 19

36 3. Dimethyl Methylphosphonate O P O O 3.1. Basic Description Dimethyl methylphosphonate (DMMP) is a nerve agent precursor with the following identifiers and properties: Chemical Weapons Precursors: Dimethyl Methylphosphonate Identifier/Property CAS# Formula C 3 H 9 O 3 P Molecular Weight CA Index Name CWC Schedule Phosphonic acid, methyl-, dimethyl ester 2B04 EC# HS# UN# UN Hazard Placard Other Names Value [Other organo-inorganic compounds] Most companies consider non-hazardous for transport Not applicable EU CL# 1C350.3 GHS Pictogram 3.2. Notable Features DMMP is a colourless liquid which may have a pleasant odour. DMMP; dimethoxymethyl phosphine oxide; dimethyl methanephosphonate; methanephosphonic acid dimethyl ester; methylphosphonic acid dimethyl ester; dimethyl ester of methylphosphonic acid 3.3. Packaging DMMP is sold in high density polyethylene- (HDPE-)lined drums, iron drums, and ISO containers, according to the suppliers identified for this Handbook. Small quantities are sold in glass bottles, like the one shown on the left in Figure 3.A. 20

37 Figure 3.A. Glass bottles of phosphonates. The bottle on the left is dimethyl methylphosphonate Typical Applications The major use of DMMP is as a flame retardant for rigid materials like resins and polyurethane foams; the OPCW lists applications for such flame retardants in building materials, furnishings, upholstery, transportation equipment and fittings, and in the electrical industry for cables and housings. It also can be used to manufacture other flame retardants. In addition, DMMP is used as a hydraulic fluid additive, preignition gasoline additive, antifoaming agent, plasticiser, stabiliser, and as a conditioner/softener and antistatic agent for textiles. Additional uses are in heavy metal extraction, solvent separation, and organic synthesis. Global Production China France Germany India United Kingdom United States Chemical Weapons Precursors: Dimethyl Methylphosphonate 21

38 4. Methylphosphonyl Difluoride (DF) O P F F 4.1. Basic Description Methylphosphonyl difluoride (DF) is a nerve agent precursor with the following identifiers and properties: Chemical Weapons Precursors: Methylphosphonyl Difluoride (DF) Identifier/Property CAS# Formula CH 3 F 2 OP Molecular Weight CA Index Name CWC Schedule EC# HS# UN# UN Hazard Placard Other Names EU CL# GHS Pictogram 4.2. Notable Features Phosphonic difluoride, methyl- 1B09 None Value [Other organo-inorganic compounds] Unknown Unknown Difluoromethylphosphine oxide; methyl difluorophosphite; methylphosphonic difluoride; methyl phosphonyl difluoride; phosphonic difluoride, methyl-; phosphonodifluoridic acid, methyl- 1C350.4 (ML) Unknown DF is a liquid with a pungent, acid-like odour Packaging Not applicable due to lack of commercial availability. Global Production None identified 4.4. Typical uses There are no reported commercial uses for DF. Its toxicity, lack of availability, and strict regulation per CWC mandates make civil use of this chemical highly unlikely. 22

39 5. Methylphosphonyl Dichloride (DC) O P Cl Cl 5.1. Basic Description Methylphosphonyl dichloride (DC) is a nerve agent precursor with the following identifiers and properties: Identifier/Property CAS# Formula CH 3 Cl 2 OP Molecular Weight CA Index Name CWC Schedule Phosphonic dichloride, methyl- 2B04 EC# HS# UN# UN Hazard Placard Other Names EU CL# 1C350.5 GHS Pictogram Value [Other organo-inorganic compounds] May be assigned UN 3390 (TOXIC BY INHALATION LIQUID, CORROSIVE, N.O.S) or UN 2928 (TOXIC SOLID, CORROSIVE, ORGANIC, N.O.S.) Methanephosphonic dichloride; methanephosphonic acid dichloride; phosphonodichloridic acid, methyl-; methyl phosphonic dichloride; methylphosphonic dichloride; methyl phosphonyl dichloride 5.2. Notable Features DC is colourless liquid or a white crystalline solid with a pungent or acrid odour Packaging Small quantities of DC are sold in glass bottles. Global Production Germany United Kingdom United States 5.4. Typical Applications DC can be used in organic synthesis. While in theory it could be used for applications similar to those of other organophosphorus compounds (e.g., crop protection chemicals), its limited availability may preclude commercial use of DC for such purposes. Chemical Weapons Precursors: Methylphosphonyl Dichloride (DC) 23

40 6. Dimethyl Phosphite (DMP) O H P O O Note: The structure of DMP shown above exists in equilibrium with a structure containing a P OH group instead of a H P=O group; the other structure is found in some descriptions of DMP Basic Description Dimethyl phosphite (DMP) is a nerve agent precursor with the following identifiers and properties: Chemical Weapons Precursors: Dimethyl Phosphite (DMP) Identifier CAS# Formula C 2 H 7 O 3 P Molecular Weight CA Index Name CWC Schedule Phosphonic acid, dimethyl ester 3B10 EC# HS# UN# UN Hazard Placard Other Names EU CL# 1C350.6 GHS Pictogram 6.2. Notable Features DMP is a colourless liquid. Value [Esters of inorganic acids of nonmetals and their salts other] May be assigned UN 3278 (ORGANOPHOSPHORUS COMPOUND, TOXIC, LIQUID, N.O.S.) DMHP; dimethoxyphosphine oxide; dimethyl acid phosphite; dimethyl ester of phosphonic acid; dimethyl hydrogen phosphite; dimethyl phosphonate; hydrogen dimethyl phosphite; methyl phosphate; methyl phosphonate ((MeO)2HPO); O,Odimethyl phosphonate; (CH3O)2PHO; dimethylester kyseliny fosforite; dimethylfosfit; dimethylfosfonat 6.3. Packaging DMP can be packaged in road tankers, ISO containers, or plastic (e.g., polyethylene) drums. Small quantities are sold in glass bottles. 24

41 6.4. Typical Applications Major uses of DMP are in the preparation of crop protection chemicals like the herbicide Glyphosate, flame retardants for textiles, and phosphonates. DMP can be used to synthesise lubricant additives, pharmaceuticals, and flavors. Global Production Armenia China Germany Japan Russia Chemical Weapons Precursors: Dimethyl Phosphite (DMP) 25

42 7. Phosphorus Trichloride Cl Cl P 7.1. Basic Description Phosphorus trichloride (PCl 3 ) is a nerve agent and vesicant precursor with the following identifiers and properties: Cl Chemical Weapons Precursors: Phosphorus Trichloride Identifier/Property CAS# Formula Cl 3 P Molecular Weight CA Index Name CWC Schedule Phosphorous trichloride 3B06 EC# HS# UN# UN Hazard Placard Other Names EU CL# 1C350.7 GHS Pictogram Value [Halide and halide oxides of nonmetals, chlorides and chloride oxides] UN 1809 (PHOSPHORUS TRICHLORIDE) 7.2. Notable Features PCl 3 is a colourless or slightly yellow liquid with a pungent odour. PCl3; phosphine, trichloro-; phosphorus chloride; phosphorus chloride (cl6p2); phosphorus (III) chloride; phosphorous trichloride; trichlorophosphine; fosforo(tricloruro di); fosfortrichloride; phosphore(trichlorure de); phosphortrichlorid; trojchlorek fosforu 7.3. Packaging Small quantities of PCl 3 are shipped in glass containers. Plastic, iron, or mild or stainless steel drums; railcars; tank trucks; and ISO containers are used for larger shipments. 26

43 7.4. Typical Applications PCl 3 is an important industrial chemical, serving as a starting material for numerous organic and inorganic phosphorus compounds. A major use of PCl 3 is in the production of the herbicide Glyphosate. PCl 3 can serve as a chlorinating agent or a catalyst in chemical reactions. The OPCW notes use of PCl 3 as a starting material for intermediates in the production of pharmaceutical products, synthetic colourants, and organophosphate flame retardants, insecticides, plasticisers, and metal extraction solvents. Note that PCl 3 could claim application for other downstream products such as lubricant additives, stabilisers, surfactants, antioxidants, textile processing chemicals, and water-treatment chemicals. Global Production Chile China Denmark Egypt Germany India Japan Poland Russia United Kingdom United States Chemical Weapons Precursors: Phosphorus Trichloride 27

44 8. Trimethyl Phosphite (TMP) O O P O 8.1. Basic Description Trimethyl phosphite (TMP) is a nerve agent precursor with the following identifiers and properties: Chemical Weapons Precursors: Trimethyl Phosphite (TMP) Identifier/Property CAS# Formula C 3 H 9 O 3 P Molecular Weight CA Index Name CWC Schedule Phosphorous acid, trimethyl ester 3B08 EC# HS# UN# UN Hazard Placard Other Names EU CL# 1C350.8 GHS Pictogram Value [Esters of inorganic acids of nonmetals and their salts other] UN 2329 (TRIMETHYL PHOSPHITE) 8.2. Notable Features TMP is a colourless liquid with a pungent, irritating odour. Methyl phosphite ((MeO)3P); P(OCH3)3; phosphorus acid trimethyl ester; trimethoxyphosphine; trimethoxyfosfin; trimethylfosfit; trimethyl ester of phosphorous acid; trimethylphosphite; fosforyn trojmetylowy 8.3. Packaging High-density polyethylene-lined mild steel drums and ISO containers are used by some sources of TMP. Small quantities are sold in glass bottles. Global Production Armenia China Denmark Germany India Japan United States 28

45 8.4. Typical Applications TMP is used primarily in the production of insecticides/pesticides and is an intermediate in the production of flame retardants. TMP can be used to synthesise phosphonate esters such as DMMP. The OPCW cites use of TMP as a stabiliser for PVC neoprene, a plasticiser in nylon, and a catalyst in polymerisation reactions, as well as in dyestuffs, plasticisers, optical brighteners, and lubricants. Chemical Weapons Precursors: Trimethyl Phosphite (TMP) 29

46 9. Thionyl Chloride O Cl S Cl 9.1. Basic Description Thionyl chloride is a nerve agent and vesicant precursor with the following identifiers and properties: Identifier/Property Value CAS# Formula Cl 2 OS Molecular Weight CA Index Name Thionyl chloride CWC Schedule 3B14 EC# HS# [Halide and halide oxides of nonmetals, chlorides and chloride oxides] UN# UN 1836 (THIONYL CHLORIDE) UN Hazard Placard Chemical Weapons Precursors: Thionyl Chloride Other Names EU CL# 1C350.9 GHS Pictogram SOCl2; Sulfinyl chloride; sulfinyl dichloride; sulfur chloride oxide; sulfur oxychloride; sulfurous acid dichloride; sulfurous dichloride; sulfurous oxychloride; thionyl dichloride 9.2. Notable Features Thionyl chloride is a colourless, pale yellow, or red liquid with a pungent or suffocating odour Packaging Thionyl chloride could be shipped in glass-lined steel tanks, galvanised steel drums, or special plastic drums. It could also be supplied in ISO containers or tank cars. Small quantities are often sold in glass or plasticcoated bottles. Global Production China Germany India Japan Spain Switzerland United States 30

47 9.4. Typical Applications Thionyl chloride is a versatile reagent for organic synthesis. Its primary synthetic role is as a chlorinating agent, from which it finds many of its commercial applications. One major commercial use of thionyl chloride is in synthesising acid chlorides, which in turn are used in the production of herbicides and insecticides, as well as surfactants, pharmaceuticals (drugs and vitamins), dyestuffs, and paper and textile auxiliaries. Another application is in the preparation of engineering thermoplastics. It also is used in production of the synthetic sweetener sucralose. Some high performance, high energy density lithium batteries are made from lithium and thionyl chloride; thionyl chloride is a liquid cathode in such systems. Chemical Weapons Precursors: Thionyl Chloride 31

48 10. 3-Hydroxy-1-Methylpiperidine N OH Basic Description According to U.S. Army Field Manual FM , 3-hydroxy-1-methylpiperidine could be used in the synthesis of psychoactive compounds such as BZ. It has the following identifiers and properties: Chemical Weapons Precursors: 3-Hydroxy-1-Methylpiperidine Identifier/Property CAS# Formula C 6 H 13 NO Molecular Weight CA Index Name CWC Schedule 3-Piperidinol, 1-methyl- Not Listed EC# HS# UN# UN Hazard Placard Other Names Value [Heterocyclic compounds with nitrogen hetero-atom(s) only; compounds containing an unfused pyridine ring (whether or not hydrogenated) in the structure] Not considered hazardous for transport by many suppliers Not applicable EU CL# 1C GHS Pictogram Notable Features 3-Hydroxy-1-methylpiperidine is a colourless to light yellow liquid. 3-Hydroxy-N-methylpiperidine; 1-methyl-3-hydroxypiperidine; N-methyl-3-hydroxypiperidine; 1-methyl-3-piperidinol; 1-methylpiperidin-3-ol; N-methyl-3-piperidinol Packaging Small quantities of 3-hydroxy-1-methylpiperidine are packaged in glass bottles Typical Applications 3-Hydroxy-1-methylpiperidine can be used in organic synthesis. According to one supplier, it has synthetic roles in the preparation of compounds of relevance to pharmaceuticals. Global Production China Germany Japan United Kingdom United States 32

49 11. N,N-Diisopropyl-(beta)-Aminoethyl Chloride N Cl Basic Description N,N-Diisopropyl-(beta)-aminoethyl chloride is a nerve agent precursor with the following identifiers and properties: Identifier/Property CAS# Formula C 8 H 18 ClN Molecular Weight CA Index Name CWC Schedule Value 2-Propanamine, N-(2-chloroethyl)-N-(1-methylethyl)- 2B10 EC# HS# UN# UN Hazard Placard Other Names EU CL# GHS Pictogram [Amine-function compounds, acyclic monoamines, other] Unknown Unknown β-(diisopropylamino)ethyl chloride; 2-chloro-N,N-diisopropylethanamine; 2-chloro- N,N-diisopropylethylamine; N-(2-chloroethyl)-N-(1-methylethyl)-2-propanamine; N-(2-chloroethyl) diisopropylamine; diisopropylamine, N-(2-chloroethyl)-; N,N-diisopropyl-2-chloroethylamine; 1-(diisopropylamino)-2-cholorethane; 2-(diisopropylamino)ethyl chloride; diisopropylaminoethyl chloride 1C350.b.9 Unknown Notable Features No additional information on the properties of N,N-diisopropyl-(beta)- aminoethyl chloride was found Packaging No information on the packaging of this substance was found. Global Production China United States Typical Applications N,N-Diisopropyl-(beta)-aminoethyl chloride could be used in organic synthesis. One source claims application as a pharmaceutical intermediate, citing patents that describe its use in drug formulations, but the extent of such use is unclear. Chemical Weapons Precursors: N,N-Diisopropyl-(beta)-Aminoethyl Choride 33

50 12. N,N-Diisopropyl-(beta)-Aminoethane Thiol N SH Basic Description N,N-Diisopropyl-(beta)-aminoethane thiol is a nerve agent precursor with the following identifiers and properties: Chemical Weapons Precursors: N,N-Diisopropyl-(beta)-Aminoethane Thiol Identifier/Property CAS# Formula C 8 H 19 NS Molecular Weight CA Index Name CWC Schedule EC# HS# UN# UN Hazard Placard Other Names Ethanethiol, 2-[bis(1-methylethyl)amino]- 2B12 None Value [Organo-sulfur compounds, other] Likely considered non-hazardous for transport Not applicable EU CL# 1C GHS Pictogram 2-(Diisopropylamino) ethanethiol; 2-diisopropylaminoethanethiol; diisopropylaminoethanethiol; β-diisopropylaminoethanethiol; betadiisopropylaminoethanethiol; 2-(bis(1-methylethyl)amino) ethanethiol Notable Features N,N-Diisopropyl-(beta)-aminoethane thiol is a colourless liquid with a strong odour Packaging No information on the packaging of this substance was found Typical Applications N,N-Diisopropyl-(beta)-aminoethane thiol could be used in organic synthesis. Global Production China India United Kingdom United States 34

51 13. 3-Quinuclidinol OH N Basic Description 3-Quinuclidinol is a precursor for the incapacitant BZ with the following identifiers and properties: Identifier/Property CAS# Formula C 7 H 13 NO Molecular Weight CA Index Name CWC Schedule 1-Azabicyclo[2.2.2]octan-3-ol 2B09 EC# HS# UN# Value [Heterocyclic compounds with nitrogen hetero-atom(s) only; compounds containing an unfused pyridine ring (whether or not hydrogenated) in the structure May be assigned UN 3263 (CORROSIVE SOLID, BASIC, ORGANIC N.O.S.) UN Hazard Placard Other Names EU CL# 1C GHS Pictogram Notable Features 3-Quinuclidinol is a white to light yellow crystalline solid Packaging Small quantities of 3-quinuclidinol are sold in glass bottles. Quinuclidine-3-ol; quinuclidinol; 3-hydroxyquinuclidine; quinuclidinol-3; 3-hydroxy- 1-azabicyclo[2.2.2]octane; quinuclidin-3-ol Typical Applications According to commercial suppliers, 3-quinuclidinol can be used in the pharmaceutical industry for the preparation of certain drugs. Chemical Weapons Precursors: 3-Quinuclidinol 35

52 14. Potassium Fluoride Basic Description Potassium fluoride (KF) is a nerve agent precursor with the following identifiers and properties: KF Identifier/Property CAS# Formula FK Molecular Weight 58.1 CA Index Name CWC Schedule Potassium fluoride Not Listed EC# HS# UN# [Fluorides, other] Value UN 1812 (POTASSIUM FLUORIDE, SOLID) UN 3422 (POTASSIUM FLUORIDE SOLUTION) UN Hazard Placard Chemical Weapons Precursors: Potassium Fluoride Other Names EU CL# 1C GHS Pictogram KF; potassium monofluoride; fluorure de potassium Notable Features KF is an odourless white solid. Aqueous solutions of KF are colourless Packaging KF is often packaged in plastic (e.g., polyethylene, polypropylene, or poly ) containers such as bottles, pails, drums, or bags. Other packaging options include plastic-lined fibre drums, metal barrels, or woven sacks lined with plastic bags. 36

53 14.4. Typical Applications KF is used extensively as a fluorinating agent for numerous applications. It also can play the role of a catalyst in some organic reactions. KF is used in pesticide/insecticide formulations and in metallurgical applications such as the production of fluxes for soldering. As with other inorganic fluorides, KF can be used as a cleaning agent and for etching glass. Eurofluor 2 notes that KF can be used as a fluorine source in some herbicides and insecticides, as well as some pharmaceutical preparations; it also claims that KF is added to edible table salt in parts of Central America, South America, and some places in Europe as an alternative to water fluorination for the prevention of tooth decay. Global Production Brazil China Germany India Italy Japan Mexico Spain United Kingdom United States 2 Comité Technique Europeen du Fluor, Eurofluor HF: A snapshot of the Fluorine Industry (May 2013); Chemical Weapons Precursors: Potassium Fluoride 37

54 15. 2-Chloroethanol Cl OH Basic Description 2-Chloroethanol is a vesicant precursor with the following identifiers and properties: Identifier/Property CAS# Formula C 2 H 5 ClO Molecular Weight CA Index Name CWC Schedule Ethanol, 2-chloro- Not Listed EC# HS# UN# Value [Halogenated, sulfonated, nitrated or nitrosated derivatives of acyclic alcohols, other] UN 1135 (ETHYLENE CHLOROHYDRIN) UN Hazard Placard Chemical Weapons Precursors: 2-Chloroethanol Other Names EU CL# 1C GHS Pictogram CH2ClCH2OH; 2-Chloro-1-ethanol; 2-chloroethyl alcohol; 2-hydroxyethyl chloride; 2-monochloroethanol; chloroethanol; ethylene chlorohydrin; ethene chlorohydrin; ethylchlorohydrin; ethylene chlorhydrin; glycol chlorohydrin; glycol monochlorohydrin; 2-chlorethanol; aethylenechlorhydrin; ethyleen-chloorhydrine; glicol monocloridrina; glycolmonochloorhydrine; glycomonochlorhydrin; 2-chloorethanol; 2-chloraethanol; 2-chloro-1-hydroxyethane; 2-cloroetanolo; monochlorhydrine du glycol; 2-chloroetanolo; chloroethylowy alcohol; deltachloroethanol; glycolmonochloorhydrine; glycomonochlorhydrin; Note: some synonyms replace 2 with β or add an e to the end of hydrin Notable Features 2-Chloroethanol is a colourless liquid with an ether- or alcohol-like odour Packaging 2-Chloroethanol is frequently packaged in plastic or plastic-lined containers. Other packaging options include galvanised drums, steel-lined drums, rail tanks, and ISO containers. Small quantities are sold in glass bottles. 38

55 15.4. Typical Applications Frequently-cited uses of 2-chloroethanol, commonly known as ethylene chlorohydrin, are in the manufacture of insecticides, plasticisers, pharmaceuticals, dye intermediates, and plant protection agents. It can be used to produce ethylene glycol and ethylene oxide. It also can serve as a solvent, particularly for ethylcellulose, cellulose esters, resins, and waxes. It is used in treating sweet potatoes before planting. In addition, 2-chloroethanol can be used as a cleaning solvent, as suggested by its ability to dissolve waxy substances. Global Production China Germany India Japan Russia Slovak Republic United States Chemical Weapons Precursors: 2-Chloroethanol 39

56 16. Dimethylamine N Basic Description Dimethylamine (DMA) is a nerve agent precursor with the following identifiers and properties: Identifier/Property CAS# Formula C 2 H 7 N Molecular Weight CA Index Name CWC Schedule EC# HS# UN# Methanamine, N-methyl- Not Listed (aqueous solution) Value [Methylamine, di- or trimethylamine and their salts] UN 1032 (DIMETHYLAMINE, ANHYDROUS) UN 1160 (DIMETHYLAMINE AQUEOUS SOLUTION) Chemical Weapons Precursors: Dimethylamine UN Hazard Placard Other Names EU CL# 1C GHS Pictogram* *Solutions of DMA would not bear the gas cylinder pictogram UN 1160: UN 1032: (CH3)2NH; DMA; N,N-dimethylamine; N-methyl methanamine Notable Features In its anhydrous form, DMA is a clear, colourless gas. DMA is sold in both its anhydrous form and in aqueous solutions; the latter are colourless liquids. Either form would have a strong fishy or ammonia-like odour Packaging DMA is commonly sold as a liquefied gas under pressure in cylinders or tanks. DMA is also sold as a liquid solution, which can be supplied in iron drums, mild steel drums, polyvinylchloride containers, or ISO containers; small quantities of the solutions are supplied in glass bottles. 40

57 16.4. Typical Applications DMA has a wealth of commercial uses. Sectors using DMA include the water treatment, crop protection, pharmaceutical, rubber, and polymer/ fibre industries. DMA is used in the manufacture of solvents (particularly dimethylformamide and dimethylacetamide); water treatment chemicals; surfactants, detergents, and ion exchange resins; agrochemicals; pharmaceuticals; dyes; rayon; and rubber chemicals such as accelerators. There are numerous other applications for DMA. 3 Global Production Australia Belgium Brazil China Germany India Italy Japan Mexico The Netherlands Republic of Korea Republic of Turkey Romania Russia Saudi Arabia South Africa Spain United States 3 Listings of end uses can be found at DuPont Methylamines; and Alkyl Amines DMA Application Areas; Chemical Weapons Precursors: Dimethylamine 41

58 17. Diethyl Ethylphosphonate O P O Basic Description O Diethyl ethylphosphonate (DEEP) is a nerve agent precursor with the following identifiers and properties: Chemical Weapons Precursors: Diethyl Ethylphosphonate Identifier/Property CAS# Formula C 6 H 15 O 3 P Molecular Weight CA Index Name CWC Schedule Phosphonic acid, ethyl-, diethyl ester 2B04 EC# HS# UN# UN Hazard Placard Other Names EU CL# 1C GHS Pictogram Notable Features DEEP is a colourless liquid with a mild odour. Value [Other organo-inorganic compounds] UN 3082 (ENVIRONMENTALLY HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCE, LIQUID, N.O.S.) Diethyl ethanephosphonate; diethylethylphosphonate; diethoxyethylphosphine oxide; ethanephosphonic acid, diethyl ester; ethylphosphonic acid diethyl ester Packaging Small quantities of DEEP are supplied in glass bottles. No other information was found, but commercial packaging likely is similar to that of DMMP. 42

59 17.4. Typical Applications DEEP has similar applications as DMMP, particularly as a gasoline additive, anti-foaming agent, plastics additive (stabiliser, antioxidant), textile conditioner, flame retardant, and anti-static agent. The OPCW lists an additional application as a raw material for insecticides. Global Production Armenia Canada Germany United Kingdom United States Chemical Weapons Precursors: Diethyl Ethylphosphonate 43

60 18. Diethyl N,N-Dimethylphosphoramidate O N P O O Basic Description Diethyl N,N-dimethylphosphoramidate is a nerve agent precursor with the following identifiers and properties: Chemical Weapons Precursors: Diethyl N,N-Dimethylphosphoramidate Identifier/Property CAS# Formula C 6 H 16 NO 3 P Molecular Weight CA Index Name CWC Schedule EC# HS# UN# UN Hazard Placard Other Names Value Phosphoramidic acid, dimethyl-, diethyl ester 2B06 None [Compounds with other nitrogen function, other] Unknown Unknown EU CL# 1C GHS Pictogram N,N-Dimethyl-O,O -diethyl phosphoramidate; diethyl dimethylphosphoramidate; dimethylphosphoramidic acid diethyl ester Unknown Notable Features Diethyl N,N-dimethylphosphoramidate is a liquid Packaging No information on the packaging of this substance was found. Global Production China Typical Applications Diethyl N,N-dimethylphosphoramidate could be used in organic synthesis. Its lack of availability suggests it has little or no commercial use. 44

61 19. Diethyl Phosphite H O P O O Note: The structure of diethyl phosphite shown above exists in equilibrium with a structure containing a P OH group instead of a H P=O group; the other structure is found in some descriptions of diethyl phosphite Basic Description Diethyl phosphite (DEP) is a nerve agent precursor with the following identifiers and properties: Identifier/Property CAS# Formula C 4 H 11 O 3 P Molecular Weight CA Index Name CWC Schedule Phosphonic acid, diethyl ester 3B11 EC# HS# UN# UN Hazard Placard Other Names EU CL# 1C GHS Pictogram Notable Features DEP is a colourless liquid with a distinct odour. Value [Esters of inorganic acids of nonmetals and their salts other] May be assigned UN 3334 (AVIATION REGULATED LIQUID, N.O.S.), but some companies consider it to be non-hazardous for transport Diethyl acid phosphite; diethyl hydrogen phosphite; diethyl phosphonate; hydrogen diethyl phosphite; OPH(OC2H5)2; diethoxyphosphine oxide; DEPI; diethylfosfit Packaging DEP can be shipped in ISO containers and polyethylene drums. Other sources provide DEP in plastic or plastic-lined (e.g., high density polyethylene/hdpe) drums, with small quantities available in glass bottles. Chemical Weapons Precursors: Diethyl Phosphite 45

62 19.4. Typical Applications DEP has a number of industrial applications. It is employed to synthesise intermediates for flame retardants, pharmaceuticals, agrochemicals, textile auxiliaries, and plastics additives. According to the OPCW, it can also be used as a paint solvent and an additive for lubricants. Global Production China Germany Japan United Kingdom United States Chemical Weapons Precursors: Diethyl Phosphite 46

63 20. Dimethylamine Hydrochloride N HCl Basic Description Dimethylamine hydrochloride (DMA HCl) is a nerve agent precursor with the following identifiers and properties: Identifier/Property CAS# Formula C 2 H 8 ClN Molecular Weight CA Index Name CWC Schedule Methanamine, N-methyl-, hydrochloride Not Listed EC# HS# UN# UN Hazard Placard Other Names Value [Methylamine, di- or trimethylamine and their salts] Considered non-hazardous for transport Not applicable EU CL# 1C GHS Pictogram Notable Features DMA HCl is a white to off-white odourless solid. Dimethylammonium chloride; hydrochloric acid dimethylamine; N-methyl methanamine hydrochloride Packaging Small quantities of DMA HCl are often packaged in glass or plastic bottles. Plastic or plastic-lined containers such as woven plastic bags, bags inside drums, or plastic-lined drums are used for larger quantities. Aqueous solutions are also sold; such products are provided in coated or polyethylene containers to avoid corrosion Typical Applications The primary use of DMA HCl is in pharmaceutical preparations. Assorted applications in other fields have been cited by some sources; examples include the preparation of solder fluxes and crop protection chemicals. Global Production Belgium Canada China Germany India Mexico Russia Spain United Kingdom United States Chemical Weapons Precursors: Dimethylamine Hydrochloride 47

64 21. Ethylphosphinyl Dichloride Basic Description Ethylphosphinyl dichloride is a nerve agent precursor with the following identifiers and properties: P Cl Cl Chemical Weapons Precursors: Ethylphosphinyl Dichloride Identifier/Property CAS# Formula C 2 H 5 Cl 2 P Molecular Weight CA Index Name CWC Schedule Phosphonous dichloride, ethyl- 2B04 EC# HS# UN# UN Hazard Placard Other Names EU CL# 1C GHS Pictogram Value [Other organo-inorganic compounds] UN 2845 (PYROPHORIC LIQUID, ORGANIC, N.O.S.) Dichloroethylphosphine; ethyldichlorophosphine; dichlor-ethylfosfin; ethyl phosphonous dichloride; phosphine, dichloroethyl Notable Features Ethylphosphinyl dichloride is colourless liquid with a pungent, foul odour Packaging Small quantities of ethylphosphinyl dichloride are sold in ampoules or glass bottles. Global Production China Germany United States Typical Applications Ethylphosphinyl dichloride is a specialty chemical that could be used in organic synthesis. In theory, it may have other applications, but its limited availability makes its use on an industrial scale unlikely. 48

65 22. Ethylphosphonyl Dichloride O P Cl Basic Description Ethylphosphonyl dichloride is a nerve agent precursor with the following identifiers and properties: Cl Identifier/Property CAS# Formula C 2 H 5 Cl 2 OP Molecular Weight CA Index Name CWC Schedule EC# HS# UN# UN Hazard Placard Other Names Phosphonic dichloride, ethyl- 2B04 None EU CL# 1C GHS Pictogram Value [Other organo-inorganic compounds] May be assigned UN 2922 (CORROSIVE LIQUID, TOXIC, N.O.S.) Notable Features Ethylphosphinyl dichloride is a colourless to light yellow liquid Packaging Ethylphosphinyl dichloride is sold in glass bottles. Dichloroethylphosphine oxide; ethanephosphonyl chloride; ethanephosphonic dichloride; ethylphosphonic acid dichloride; ethylphosphonic dichloride; ethylphosphoryl dichloride Typical Applications Ethylphosphonyl dichloride can be used in organic synthesis as a phosphorylating agent. Like its methyl analogue DC, it has limited availability, making industrial scale uses unlikely. Global Production Canada China Germany Japan United Kingdom United States Chemical Weapons Precursors: Ethylphosphonyl Dichloride 49

66 23. Ethylphosphonyl Difluoride O P F Basic Description Ethylphosphonyl difluoride is a nerve agent precursor with the following identifiers and properties: F Chemical Weapons Precursors: Ethylphosphonyl Difluoride Identifier/Property CAS# Formula Molecular Weight 98.0 CA Index Name CWC Schedule EC# HS# UN# UN Hazard Placard Other Names EU CL# GHS Pictogram C 2 H 5 F 2 OP Phosphonic difluoride, ethyl- 1B09 None Value [Other organo-inorganic compounds] Unknown Unknown Ethyl phosphonyl difluoride; Ethanephosphonic difluoride 1C (ML) Unknown Notable Features No additional information on the properties of ethylphosphonyl difluoride was found Packaging Not applicable due to lack of commercial availability. Global Production None found Typical Applications Ethylphosphonyl difluoride could be used in organic synthesis, but no commercial uses were found for this CWC Schedule 1B chemical. 50

67 24. Hydrogen Fluoride Basic Description Hydrogen fluoride (HF) is a nerve agent precursor with the following identifiers and properties: HF Identifier/Property Value CAS# Formula FH Molecular Weight CA Index Name Hydrofluoric acid CWC Schedule Not Listed EC# HS# [Hydrogen fluoride (hydrofluoric acid)] UN 1052 (HYDROGEN FLUORIDE, ANHYDROUS) UN# UN 1790 (HYDROFLUORIC ACID, with [not] more than 60% hydrogen fluoride) UN Hazard Placard Other Names EU CL# 1C GHS Pictogram AHF; anhydrous hydrofluoric acid; fluorhydric acid; fluorine monohydride; fluorwasserstoff; HF; hydrofluoric acid gas Notable Features HF is a liquefied gas or colourless fuming liquid with a sharp, pungent odour. It is commonly sold as an aqueous solution with approximately 49% or 70% HF; solutions are colourless liquids that may fume in air, depending on their concentration Packaging HF may be shipped in tank cars, tank trucks, or ISO containers; carbon steel tanks are often used for anhydrous HF, while tanks for aqueous solutions are likely to be lined. Anhydrous HF is also shipped in cylinders, while aqueous solutions in smaller quantities are available in plastic (e.g., PTFE or polyethylene) bottles, carboys, and IBCs, as well as plastic-lined drums. Chemical Weapons Precursors: Hydrogen Fluoride 51

68 24.4. Typical Applications HF and its aqueous solutions have several industrial applications. HF finds extensive commercial use as a fluorinating agent i.e., it is used to introduce fluorine atoms into other materials. The primary use of anhydrous HF is in the manufacture of fluorocarbons, which in turn are used in several applications such as refrigeration and the foam blowing of plastics. According to Eurofluor, 4 60% of HF manufactured worldwide is used for the production of fluorocarbons. HF is also an intermediate in the preparation of fluoropolymers, which are used in numerous corrosion-resistant and non-stick applications, as well as crop protection products and other chemical derivatives. HF serves as an alkylation catalyst in the petroleum industry for producing high octane fuels and is used in a similar capacity for producing detergents. It is used in the nuclear industry to produce uranium conversion. Applications of aqueous HF, also known as hydrofluoric acid, can differ somewhat from those of anhydrous HF. Hydrofluoric acid is used for cleaning and etching silicon in the semiconductor industry; glass etching and frosting; metallurgical applications like stainless steel and titanium pickling, aluminium anodization, and etching and cleaning non-ferrous metals; quartz purification; rare metal processing; and cleaning of industrial plants and buildings. It can also serve as a feedstock for other chemical derivatives. Global Production Australia Brazil Canada China Germany India Italy Japan Kazakhstan Mexico Republic of Korea Republic of Turkey Russia South Africa Spain Taiwan United Kingdom United States Chemical Weapons Precursors: Hydrogen Fluoride 4 Comité Technique Europeen du Fluor, Eurofluor HF: A snapshot of the Fluorine Industry (May 2013); 52

69 25. Methyl Benzilate OH C O C O Basic Description Methyl benzilate is a precursor for the incapacitant BZ with the following identifiers and properties: Identifier/Property CAS# Formula C15H14O3 Molecular Weight CA Index Name CWC Schedule Value Benzeneacetic acid, α-hydroxy-α-phenyl-, methyl ester Not Listed EC# HS# UN# UN Hazard Placard Other Names [Carboxylic acids with additional oxygen function other] Considered non-hazardous for transport Not applicable EU CL# 1C GHS Pictogram Notable Features Methyl benzilate is a white crystalline solid. Benzilic acid, methyl ester; α-hydroxy-α-phenylbenzeneacetic acid methyl ester; methyl diphenylglycolate; methyl α-phenylmandelate; hydroxydiphenyl-acetic acid methyl ester; methyl hydroxy(diphenyl)acetate Packaging No specific packaging information was found for methyl benzilate. Due to its lack of hazardous properties, it might be sold in standard glass, plastic, or metal containers Typical Applications Methyl benzilate is used in organic synthesis and pharmaceutical manufacture. Global Production China Germany The Netherlands United States Chemical Weapons Precursors: Methyl Benzilate 53

70 26. Methylphosphinyl Dichloride Basic Description Methylphosphinyl dichloride is a nerve agent precursor with the following identifiers and properties: P Cl Cl Chemical Weapons Precursors: Methylphosphinyl Dichloride Identifier/Property CAS# Formula CH 3 Cl 2 P Molecular Weight CA Index Name CWC Schedule Phosphonous dichloride, methyl- 2B04 EC# HS# UN# UN Hazard Placard Other Names EU CL# 1C GHS Pictogram Value [Other organo-inorganic compounds] May be assigned UN 2845 (PYROPHORIC LIQUID, ORGANIC, N.O.S.) or UN 2924 (FLAMMABLE LIQUID, CORROSIVE, N.O.S.) UN 2924: UN 2845: Methyldichlorophosphine; CH3PCl2; phosphonous dichloride, methyl-; methylphosphinic dichloride; methyl phosphinyl dichloride; methylphosphonous dichloridephosphine, dichloromethyl-; dichloromethylphosphine Notable Features Methylphosphinyl dichloride is a colourless to pale yellow liquid with a pungent, acidic odour Packaging Small volumes are supplied in ampoules. Global Production China Germany Slovak Republic United States 54

71 26.4. Typical Applications Methylphosphinyl dichloride can be used in organic synthesis. According to the OPCW, it is used to make methylphosphinic acid. Chemical Weapons Precursors: Methylphosphinyl Dichloride 55

72 27. N,N-Diisopropyl-(beta)-Amino-Ethanol N OH Basic Description N,N-Diisopropyl-(beta)-amino-ethanol is a nerve agent precursor with the following identifiers and properties: Chemical Weapons Precursors: N,N-Diisopropyl-(beta)-Amino-Ethanol Identifier/Property CAS# Formula C 8 H 19 NO Molecular Weight CA Index Name CWC Schedule Ethanol, 2-[bis(1-methylethyl)amino]- 2B11 EC# HS# UN# UN Hazard Placard Other Names EU CL# 1C GHS Pictogram Value [Oxygen-function amino-compounds, amino-alcohols other] UN 2922 (CORROSIVE LIQUID, TOXIC, N.O.S.) 2-(Diisopropylamino) ethanol; 2-diisopropylaminoethanol; 2-(diisopropylamino) ethyl alcohol; (N,N-diisopropylamino)ethanol; N,N-diisopropyl-2-aminoethanol; N,N-diisopropyl-β-amino ethanol; ethanol, 2-(diisopropylamino)-; N,N-diisopropylaminoethanol; N,N-diisopropylethanolamine; N,Ndiisopropylethanolamine; ethanol, diisopropylamino-; DIPAE Notable Features N,N-Diisopropyl-(beta)-amino-ethanol is a colourless to light yellow liquid with an ammonia-like odour Packaging Small quantities of this chemical are sold in glass bottles. Larger amounts might be sold in drums. Global Production Belgium China India Japan United States Typical Applications N,N-Diisopropyl-(beta)-amino-ethanol is a specialty alkyl alkanolamine with potential applications in pharmaceuticals; corrosion control; inks, paints, and coatings; and functional fluids. 56

73 28. Pinacolyl Alcohol OH Basic Description Pinacolyl alcohol is a nerve agent precursor with the following identifiers and properties: Identifier/Property CAS# Formula C 6 H 14 O Molecular Weight CA Index Name 2-Butanol, 3,3-dimethyl- CWC Schedule 2B14 EC# HS# [Acyclic alcohols other] UN# UN 1987 (ALCOHOLS, N.O.S.) Value UN Hazard Placard Other Names EU CL# 1C GHS Pictogram 3,3-Dimethylbutane-2-ol; tert-butyl methyl carbinol; 2,2-dimethyl-3-butanol; 3,3-dimethyl-2-butanol; (CH3)3CCH(CH3)OH; 1-methyl-2,2-dimethylpropanol Notable Features Pinacolyl alcohol is a clear, colourless or very faint yellow liquid with an alcohol-like odour Packaging Small quantities are sold in glass containers Typical Applications Pinacolyl alcohol is a specialty chemical that could be used in organic synthesis. Global Production China Germany Japan United States Chemical Weapons Precursors: Pinacolyl Alcohol 57

74 29. O-Ethyl 2-Diisopropylaminoethyl Methylphosphonite (QL) N O P O Chemical Weapons Precursors: O-Ethyl 2-Diisopropylaminoethyl Methylphosphonite (QL) Basic Description O-Ethyl 2-diisopropylaminoethyl methylphosphonite (QL) is a nerve agent precursor with the following identifiers and properties: Identifier/Property CAS# Formula C 11 H 26 NO 2 P Molecular Weight CA Index Name CWC Schedule EC# HS# UN# UN Hazard Placard Other Names EU CL# GHS Pictogram Value Phosphonous acid, methyl-, 2-[bis(1-methylethyl)amino]ethyl ethyl ester 1B10 None [Other organo-inorganic compounds] Unknown Unknown O-ethyl-O -(2-diisopropylaminoethyl) methylphosphonite 1C (ML) Unknown Notable Features QL is a colourless liquid with a strong, fishy odour Packaging Not applicable due to lack of commercial availability Typical Applications There are no commercial uses for QL. Global Production None found 58

75 30. Triethyl Phosphite O O P O Basic Description Triethyl phosphite (TEP) is a nerve agent precursor with the following identifiers and properties: Identifier/Property Value CAS# Formula C 6 H 15 O 3 P Molecular Weight CA Index Name Phosphorous acid, triethyl ester CWC Schedule 3B09 EC# HS# [Esters of inorganic acids of nonmetals and their salts other] UN# UN 2323 (TRIETHYL PHOSPHITE) UN Hazard Placard Other Names EU CL# 1C GHS Pictogram (C2H5O)3P; triethoxyphosphine; fosforyn trojetylowy; tris(ethoxy)phosphine; TEPI; trietil fosfito Notable Features TEP is a clear, colourless to light yellow liquid with an unpleasant odour Packaging Small quantities of TEP are sold in glass bottles. Larger amounts may be packaged in bulk tankers; IBCs; ISO containers; and metal or plasticlined drums. Global Production China Germany India Japan United Kingdom Typical Applications United States TEP can be used to synthesise phosphonate esters. According to several sources, it is used in the manufacture of insecticides, flame retardants, pharmaceutical active ingredients, additives for lubricants and plastics, and whitening agents. Chemical Weapons Precursors: Triethyl Phosphite 59

76 31. Arsenic Trichloride Cl Cl As Basic Description Arsenic trichloride is a vesicant precursor with the following identifiers and properties: Cl Identifier/Property CAS# Value Formula AsCl 3 Molecular Weight CA Index Name Arsenous trichloride CWC Schedule 2B07 EC# HS# [Halides and halide oxides of nonmetals, chlorides and chloride oxides] UN# UN 1560 (ARSENIC TRICHLORIDE) Chemical Weapons Precursors: Arsenic Trichloride UN Hazard Placard Other Names EU CL# 1C GHS Pictogram Arsenic (III) chloride; arsenic(3+) chloride; AsCl3; arsenous chloride; arsenic butter; butter of arsenic; chlorure arsenieux; chlorure d arsenic; fuming liquid arsenic; trichloroarsine; trichlorure d arsenic Notable Features Arsenic trichloride is a colourless to pale yellow oily liquid with an unpleasant odour Packaging Arsenic trichloride is sold in glass bottles or ampoules. Global Production Canada Germany United States Typical Applications Arsenic trichloride is used in the ceramics industry. It is also employed in the synthesis of organic arsenicals, including chlorine-containing arsenicals. Some resources mention use in the semiconductor industry, but it is not clear if this is current practice. 60

77 32. Benzilic Acid OH C O C OH Basic Description Benzilic acid is a precursor for the incapacitant BZ with the following identifiers and properties: Identifier/Property CAS# Value Formula C 14 H 12 O 3 Molecular Weight CA Index Name CWC Schedule Benzeneacetic acid, α-hydroxy-α-phenyl- 2B08 EC# HS# UN# UN Hazard Placard Other Names [Carboxylic acids with additional oxygen function] Considered non-hazardous for transport Not applicable EU CL# 1C GHS Pictogram Notable Features Benzilic acid is a white or yellowish solid. α-hydroxy-α-phenyl-benzeneacetic acid; 2,2-diphenyl-2-hydroxyacetic acid; α-hydroxy-2,2-diphenylacetic acid; α,α-diphenyl-α-hydroxyacetic acid; α,αdiphenylglycolic acid; diphenylglycolic acid; diphenylhydroxyacetic acid; α,αdiphenylglycolic acid; hydroxyl(diphenyl)acetic acid; 2-hydroxy-2,2-diphenylacetic acid; α-hydroxy-α-phenylbenzeneacetic acid Note: α may be replaced by alpha or a in some synonyms Packaging Benzilic acid may be packaged in plastic bottles or plastic bags inside cardboard drums. Chemical Weapons Precursors: Benzilic Acid 61

78 32.4. Typical Applications Benzilic acid is used primarily as pharmaceutical intermediate. The OPCW also claims use in the dyestuff industry and acaricides and notes that aluminium benzilic acid is a toner ingredient. Global Production Canada China Germany India The Netherlands Spain Chemical Weapons Precursors: Benzilic Acid 62

79 33. Diethyl Methylphosphonite O P O Basic Description Diethyl methylphosphonite is a nerve agent precursor with the following identifiers and properties: Identifier/Property CAS# Formula C 5 H 13 O 2 P Molecular Weigh CA Index Name CWC Schedule Phosphonous acid, methyl-, diethyl ester 2B04 EC# HS# UN# UN Hazard Placard Other Names EU CL# 1C GHS Pictogram Value [Other organo-inorganic compounds] May be assigned UN 3279 (ORGANOPHOSPHORUS COMPOUND, TOXIC, FLAMMABLE, N.O.S.) or UN 1993 (FLAMMABLE LIQUID, N.O.S.) UN 3279: UN 1993: Diethyl methanephosphonite; O,O-diethyl methylphosphonite; diethoxymethylphosphine; methyldiethoxyphosphine; methylphosphonous acid diethyl ester Notable Features Diethyl methylphosphonite is a colourless liquid with an unpleasant, pungent odour Packaging Diethyl methylphosphonite is sold in glass bottles or ampoules. Chemical Weapons Precursors: Diethyl Methylphosphonite 63

80 33.4. Typical Applications Diethyl methylphosphonite could be used in organic synthesis. Global Production Germany United States Chemical Weapons Precursors: Diethyl Methylphosphonite 64

81 34. Dimethyl Ethylphosphonate O P O O Basic Description Dimethyl ethylphosphonate (DMEP) is a nerve agent precursor with the following identifiers and properties: Identifier/Property CAS# Formula C 4 H 11 O 3 P Molecular Weight CA Index Name CWC Schedule EC# HS# UN# UN Hazard Placard Other Names Phosphonic acid, ethyl-, dimethyl ester 2B04 None Value [Other organo-inorganic compounds] Unknown Unknown EU CL# 1C GHS Pictogram Notable Features DMEP is a colourless liquid. Dimethyl ethanephosphonate; ethylphosphonic acid, dimethyl ester Packaging No specific information on the packaging of this substance was found. Its packaging might be similar to that of DMMP. Global Production China United States Typical Applications DMEP can used in organic synthesis. The Handbook of Chemical and Biological Warfare Agents lists the following commercial uses: antifoam agent, gasoline additive, and chelating agent. One source lists additional uses as a flame retardant and in the preparation of antioxidants for lubricants. Given that DMEP has a similar structure to DMMP, these applications are plausible. However, its actual use in industry probably is limited given the lack of commercial sources. Chemical Weapons Precursors: Dimethyl Ethylphosphonate 65

82 35. Ethylphosphinyl Difluoride Basic Description Ethylphosphionyl difluoride is a nerve agent precursor with the following identifiers and properties: P F F Chemical Weapons Precursors: Ethylphosphinyl Difluoride Identifier/Property CAS# Formula C 2 H 5 F 2 P Molecular Weight 98.0 CA Index Name CWC Schedule EC# HS# UN# UN Hazard Placard Other Names Phosphonous difluoride, ethyl- 2B04 None Value [Other organo-inorganic compounds] Unknown Unknown EU CL# 1C GHS Pictogram Ethyldifluorophosphine; difluoroethylphosphine Unknown Notable Features Ethylphosphinyl difluoride is a gas at room temperature Packaging No specific information on the packaging of this substance was found. Global Production None found Typical Applications Ethylphosphinyl difluoride could be used in organic synthesis; no industrial applications of this compound were identified. 66

83 36. Methylphosphinyl Difluoride Basic Description Methylphosphinyl difluoride is a nerve agent precursor with the following identifiers and properties: P F F Identifier/Property CAS# Formula CH 3 F 2 P Molecular Weight 84.0 CA Index Name CWC Schedule EC# HS# UN# UN Hazard Placard Other Names Phosphonous difluoride, methyl- 2B04 None Value [Other organo-inorganic compounds] Unknown Unknown EU CL# 1C GHS Pictogram (Difluoro)methyl-phosphine, CH3PF2; methyl phosphinyl difluoride; methyldifluorophosphine; difluoromethylphosphine Unknown Notable Features Properties of this substance are expected to be somewhat similar to those of ethylphosphinyl difluoride Packaging No specific information on the packaging of this compound was found. Global Production None found Typical Applications Methylphosphinyl difluoride could be used in organic synthesis; no industrial applications were found for this substance. Chemical Weapons Precursors: Methylphosphinyl Difluoride 67

84 37. 3-Quinuclidone O N Basic Description 3-Quinuclidone is a precursor for the incapacitant BZ with the following identifiers and properties: Chemical Weapons Precursors: 3-Quinuclidone Identifier/Property CAS# Formula C 7 H 11 NO Molecular Weight CA Index Name CWC Schedule 1-Azabicyclo[2.2.2]octan-3-one Not Listed EC# HS# UN# UN Hazard Placard Other Names Value [Heterocyclic compounds with nitrogen hetero-atom(s) only; compounds containing an unfused pyridine ring (whether or not hydrogenated) in the structure] Unknown Unknown EU CL# 1C GHS Pictogram Notable Features 3-Quinuclidone is a white solid. Quinuclidone; 3-oxoquinuclidine; 3-oxyquinuclidine; quinuclidin-3-one Packaging No specific information on packaging was found for this chemical. Global Production China United States Typical Applications 3-Quinuclidone can be used in the organic synthesis, potentially as a pharmaceutical intermediate. 68

85 38. Phosphorus Pentachloride Cl Cl P Cl Cl Cl Basic Description Phosphorus pentachloride (PCl 5 ) is a nerve agent and vesicant precursor with the following identifiers and properties: Identifier/Property CAS# Formula Cl 5 P Molecular Weight CA Index Name CWC Schedule Phosphorane, pentachloro- 3B07 EC# HS# UN# UN Hazard Placard Other Names EU CL# 1C GHS Pictogram Value [Halides and halide oxides of metals, chlorides and chloride oxides] UN 1806 (PHOSPHORUS PENTACHLORIDE) Notable Features PCl 5 is a white to yellow solid with a pungent, unpleasant odour. PCl5; pentachlorophosphorane; pentachlorophosphorus; phosphoric chloride; phosphorus(v) chloride; fosforo(pentacloruro di); fosforpentachloride; pieciochlorek fosforu; phosphore(pentachlorure de); phosphorpentachlorid; phosphorus perchloride; phosphorus chloride Packaging PCl 5 is packaged in plastic containers of various sizes, including bulk. Small quantities can be packaged in glass bottles. Global Production China Germany India Japan United States Typical Applications One of the main synthetic roles of PCl 5 is as a chlorinating agent. It is used in the manufacture of pharmaceuticals, flame retardants, crop protection chemicals, dyes, and plastics additives. Additional reported uses are in the manufacture of electrolytes for batteries and in metallurgy. Chemical Weapons Precursors: Phosphorus Pentachloride 69

86 39. Pinacolone O C Basic Description Pinacolone is a nerve agent precursor with the following identifiers and properties: Identifier/Property CAS# Formula C 6 H 12 O Molecular Weight CA Index Name CWC Schedule 2-Butanone, 3,3-dimethyl Not Listed EC# HS# UN# Value [Ketones and quinones, acyclic ketones without other oxygen function, other] UN 1224 (KETONES, LIQUID, N.O.S.); UN 1993 (FLAMMABLE LIQUID, N.O.S.) UN Hazard Placard Chemical Weapons Precursors: Pinacolone Other Names EU CL# 1C GHS Pictogram 1,1,1-Trimethylacetone; 1,1-dimethylethyl methyl ketone; 2,2-dimethyl-3-butanone; 2,2-dimethylbutanone; 3,3-dimethyl-2-butanone; 3,3-dimethylbutanone; tert-butyl methyl ketone; methyl tert-butyl ketone; pinacolin; pinacoline; pinakolin; ketone, tert-butyl methyl; α,α,α-trimethylacetone; t-butyl methyl ketone; ketone, t-butyl methyl; methyl t-butyl ketone; 3,3-dimethyl-butan-2-one Notable Features Pinacolone is a colourless to light yellow liquid with a mint-like odour Packaging Pinacolone is commonly packed in iron drums, potentially lined with plastic. Small quantities are packaged in glass bottles. Global Production China United States Typical Applications Pinacolone is used primarily as an intermediate in the production of crop protection chemicals. 70

87 40. Potassium Cyanide K C N Basic Description Potassium cyanide (KCN) is a nerve and blood agent precursor with the following identifiers and properties: Identifier/Property Value CAS# Formula CKN Molecular Weight 65.1 CA Index Name Potassium cyanide CWC Schedule Not Listed EC# HS# [Cyanides and cyanide oxides, other] UN 1680 (POTASSIUM CYANIDE, SOLID) UN# UN 1935 (CYANIDE SOLUTION, N.O.S.) UN 3413 (POTASSIUM CYANIDE SOLUTION) UN Hazard Placard Other Names EU CL# 1C GHS Pictogram KCN; cyanide of potassium; cyanure de potassium; hydrocyanic acid, potassium salt; kalium-cyanid Notable Features KCN is a white granular hygroscopic powder or crystalline solid which some companies may press into brick- or pillow-shaped blocks (see sodium cyanide). It has a bitter, almond-like odour Packaging Small quantities of KCN are packaged in glass, plastic, or plastic-coated bottles. Larger quantities may be supplied in steel or plastic drums, bags inside wooden boxes, or steel bins. See the Packaging section for sodium cyanide for pictures of the types of packages expected to be used for KCN. Chemical Weapons Precursors: Potassium Cyanide 71

88 40.4. Typical Applications KCN is used primarily for electroplating (e.g., silver and gold plating), but is also used in the extraction of gold and silver from ores; electrolytic separation of gold, silver, and copper from platinum; dye production; steel nitriding; and metal cleaning. KCN is also used in pesticides/fumigants. It has similar uses to sodium cyanide, but tends to be more expensive; it has been replaced by sodium cyanide in many applications for this reason. KCN also might be found in chemicals used in photographic processing, 5 but its current prevalence is unclear because of the availability of safer alternatives. KCN can be used in organic synthesis, with some claiming use in the pharmaceutical industry. Global Production Australia Brazil China Czech Republic Germany India Japan Mexico Poland Russia South Africa Spain United States Chemical Weapons Precursors: Potassium Cyanide 5 University of Florida, Photographic Materials: Safety Issues and Disposal Procedures ; chemrad_waste/photo/ 72

89 41. Potassium Bifluoride KHF Basic Description Potassium bifluoride is a nerve agent precursor with the following identifiers and properties: Identifier/Property Value CAS# Formula F 2 HK Molecular Weight 78.1 CA Index Name Potassium fluoride CWC Schedule Not Listed EC# HS# [Fluorides, other] UN 1811 (POTASSIUM HYDROGEN DIFLUORIDE SOLID) UN# UN 3421 (POTASSIUM HYDROGEN DIFLUORIDE SOLUTION) UN Hazard Placard Other Names EU CL# 1C GHS Pictogram Hydrogen potassium difluoride; hydrogen potassium fluoride; potassium acid fluoride; potassium hydrogen fluoride; potassium hydrogen difluoride; potassium fluoride; potassium fluoride compound with hydrogen fluoride (1:1); K(HF2); bifluorure de potassium; potassium monohydrogen difluoride Notable Features Potassium bifluoride is a white crystalline solid. It may have a pungent odour Packaging Appropriate packaging for potassium bifluoride includes plastic bottles, woven plastic bags, paper bags with internal plastic bags, plastic drums, and fibre drums with plastic liners. Chemical Weapons Precursors: Potassium Bifluoride 73

90 41.4. Typical Applications Potassium bifluoride can be used in the production of elemental fluorine, fluxes, wood preservatives, and glass. Potassium bifluoride can be used for surface treatment of metals and as a catalyst for alkylation reactions. It also serves as a fluorinating agent in the preparation of other fluorine compounds. Global Production Brazil China Germany India Japan Poland Republic of Korea Spain United States Chemical Weapons Precursors: Potassium Bifluoride 74

91 42. Ammonium Bifluoride NH 4HF Basic Description Ammonium bifluoride is a nerve agent precursor with the following identifiers and properties: Identifier/Property Value CAS# Formula F 2 H 5 N Molecular Weight 57.0 CA Index Name Ammonium fluoride CWC Schedule Not Listed EC# HS# [Fluorides, of ammonium or of sodium] UN 1727 (AMMONIUM HYDROGENDIFLUORIDE, SOLID) UN# UN 2817 (AMMONIUM HYDROGENDIFLUORIDE SOLUTION) UN Hazard Placard Other Names EU CL# 1C GHS Pictogram UN2817: UN 1727: Acid ammonium fluoride; ammonium acid fluoride; ammonium difluoride; ammonium hydrogen bifluoride; ammonium hydrogen difluoride; ammonium monohydrogen difluoride; ammonium fluoride compound with hydrogen fluoride (1:1); ammonium hydrofluoride Notable Features Ammonium bifluoride is a white crystalline solid. It can be odourless or have an acidic and pungent odour when excess hydrogen fluoride is present. Solutions of ammonium bifluoride are colourless liquids with a slightly sharp, pungent odour Packaging Multi-kilogram quantities of ammonium bifluoride are frequently packed in bags of various types (e.g., plastic, woven plastic, plastic-lined, paper with inner plastic bag). Fibre cartons might also be used. Small quantities are supplied in plastic bottles. Chemical Weapons Precursors: Ammonium Bifluoride 75

92 42.4. Typical Applications Ammonium bifluoride can be used in acidifying oil wells, industrial cleaning applications (e.g., buildings, brick, and possibly boiler tubes), and glass frosting and polishing. Additional applications for this substance are in metallurgy, where it is used in metal pickling and other surface treatments. Ammonium bifluoride can also be used in industrial laundry and textile cleaning applications for ph adjustment. Manufacture of wood preservatives also is mentioned by some sources as a use for this chemical. Global Production Australia Brazil China Germany India Japan Mexico Republic of Korea South Africa Spain Taiwan United States Chemical Weapons Precursors: Ammonium Bifluoride 76

93 43. Sodium Bifluoride NaHF Basic Description Sodium bifluoride is a nerve agent precursor with the following identifiers and properties: Identifier/Property Value CAS# Formula F 2 HNa Molecular Weight 62.0 CA Index Name Sodium fluoride CWC Schedule Not Listed EC# HS# [Fluorides, of ammonium or of sodium] UN# UN 2439 (SODIUM HYDROGENDIFLUORIDE) UN Hazard Placard Other Names EU CL# 1C GHS Pictogram Sodium hydrogen fluoride; sodium hydrogen difluoride; sodium acid fluoride Notable Features Sodium bifluoride is a white crystalline solid. It may have a pungent odour Packaging Common packaging for sodium bifluoride includes plastic woven bags with or without additional plastic liners. Multi-layered paper bags with inner plastic bags are also used. Other options include plastic-lined drums and fibre drums with inner plastic bags, as well as plastic bottles. Global Production Australia Brazil China Germany India Japan South Africa Typical Applications Spain Sodium bifluoride shares many applications with ammonium bifluoride. Taiwan It is used in industrial laundry and textile cleaning applications, e.g. for ph adjustment and stain removal. It is also used in cleaning products United States for brick, stone, and masonry. Sodium bifluoride has metallurgical applications as well it is used in metal plating and metal surface treatments. Sodium bifluoride finds additional applications in in glass etching and acts as a fluorinating agent in organic synthesis and inorganic preparations. It is also mentioned in connection with leather treatments, pest control, and the cement industry, but such uses do not appear to be common. Chemical Weapons Precursors: Sodium Bifluoride 77

94 44. Sodium Fluoride Basic Description Sodium fluoride (NaF) is a nerve agent precursor with the following identifiers and properties: NaF Identifier/Property Value CAS# Formula FNa Molecular Weight 42.0 CA Index Name Sodium fluoride CWC Schedule Not Listed EC# HS# [Fluorides, of ammonium or of sodium] UN 1690 (SODIUM FLUORIDE, SOLID) UN# UN 3415 (SODIUM FLUORIDE SOLUTION) UN Hazard Placard Chemical Weapons Precursors: Sodium Fluoride Other Names EU CL# 1C GHS Pictogram Notable Features NaF is a white to off-white crystalline solid. NaF; disodium difluoride; fluorid sodny; fluoride, sodium; fluorure de sodium; natrium fluoride; sodium fluorure; sodium monofluoride; trisodium trifluoride; hydrofluoric acid sodium salt; numerous common names such as Chemifluoro, Dentafluoro, and Villiaumite Packaging Like other inorganic fluoride salts, plastic containers are commonly used to package NaF. Plastic-lined bags, woven plastic bags (which may have an inner plastic lining), plastic pails, and plastic bottles are all suitable containers. Lined fibre or polyethylene drums for larger quantities are also used. 78

95 44.4. Typical Applications The major, and most familiar, use of NaF is for the prevention of tooth decay; it is added to drinking water, toothpaste, and other dental products for this purpose. NaF can be used as a pesticide it is often tinted blue or green for this application. There are numerous other applications for NaF, including use in glass and enamel production (e.g., frosting glass), fluxing/welding/soldering agents, aluminium production, metal surface treaments, and for ph adjustment in industrial laundries and textile processing. It also can have use as a wood preservative. Global Production Australia Belgium Brazil China Czech Republic Germany India Japan Mexico Poland Russia South Africa Spain Taiwan United Kingdom United States Chemical Weapons Precursors: Sodium Fluoride 79

96 45. Sodium Cyanide Na C N Basic Description Sodium cyanide (NaCN) is a nerve and blood agent precursor with the following identifiers and properties: Identifier/Property Value CAS# Formula CNNa Molecular Weight 49.0 CA Index Name Sodium cyanide CWC Schedule Not Listed EC# HS# [Cyanides and cyanide oxides, of sodium] UN 1689 (SODIUM CYANIDE, SOLID) UN# UN 1935 (CYANIDE SOLUTION, N.O.S.) UN 3414 (SODIUM CYANIDE SOLUTION) UN Hazard Placard Chemical Weapons Precursors: Sodium Cyanide Other Names EU CL# 1C GHS Pictogram NaCN; cyanide of sodium; cianuro di sodio; cyanure de sodium; Cymag; hydrocyanic acid, sodium salt; kyanid sodny; natrium cyanide; Cyanobrik; Cyanogran; Prussiate of soda Notable Features NaCN is a white granular or powdered solid which some companies may press into brick- or pillow-shaped blocks (Figure 45.A) for dust reduction. It has a slight bitter-almond odour when moist, but is odourless when perfectly dry. It is also available commercially as 30% aqueous solutions Packaging Small quantities of NaCN are packaged in glass, plastic, or plastic-coated bottles. Larger quantities may be supplied in steel or plastic drums, bags inside wooden boxes, or steel bins. Figure 45.B shows barrels and a box (with inner bag) of NaCN. Bulk quantities of NaCN are used by the mining industry, typically in 30% solutions of the compound in water. This liquid sodium cyanide often is shipped in stainless steel double-shelled trailers, railcars, or ISO containers. Solid NaCN in shipping containers that can be filled with Figure 45.A. Sodium cyanide bricks. 80

97 water to prepare the solution at the mining site also are available from some companies. Figure 45.C shows returnable steel bins and an ISO container for NaCN. Figure 45.B. Bulk containers for NaCN. Left: Wooden box with inner bag; Right: Palleted steel drums. Figure 45.C. Larger bulk containers for NaCN. Left: ISO container; Right: Returnable steel bin Typical Applications The primary use of NaCN is in the mining industry, with about 78% of the world s supply being consumed for gold and silver processing. 6 NaCN also has other roles in mining or metallurgy (e.g., electroplating, ore floatation, metal cleaning, and surface hardening), 7 as well as in the production of dyes and pigments, fumigants, pharmaceutical intermediates, and specialty chemicals. 6 B. Suresh and T. Kumamoto, Abstract for Sodium Cyanide, IHS (December 2012); Reports/ Global Production Australia Brazil China Czech Republic Georgia Germany India Japan Mexico The Netherlands Poland Republic of Korea Russia South Africa Spain Taiwan United Kingdom United States 7 For example, see NICNAS, Sodium Cyanide, Priority Existing Chemical Assessment Report No. 31 (February 2010); nicnas.gov.au/ data/assets/pdf_file/0018/4392/pec_31_sodium-cyanide_full_report_pdf.pdf Chemical Weapons Precursors: Sodium Cyanide 81

98 46. Triethanolamine HO N OH Basic Description Triethanolamine (TEA) is a nitrogen vesicant precursor with the following identifiers and properties: OH Identifier/Property CAS# Value Chemical Weapons Precursors: Triethanolamine Formula C 6 H 15 NO 3 Molecular Weight CA Index Name CWC Schedule Ethanol, 2,2,2 -nitrilotris 3B17 EC# HS# UN# UN Hazard Placard Other Names [Triethanolamine and its salts] Considered non-hazardous for transport Not applicable EU CL# 1C GHS Pictogram 2,2,2 -nitrilotriethanol; 2,2,2 -nitrilotris(ethanol); N(CH2CH2OH)3; nitrilotriethanol; TEA; TEA(amino alcohol); triethanolamin; tri(hydroxyethyl)amine; tris(2-hydroxyethyl) amine; tris(β-hydroxyethyl)amine; trolamine; numerous trade names Not applicable Notable Features TEA is a viscous colourless to pale amber liquid with a weak ammonia-like odour. It is typically sold in 85% or 99% solutions Packaging TEA is packaged glass containers, steel or iron drums, or steel tanks. Plastic containers are also used. 82

99 46.4. Typical Applications TEA is a widely-traded, high-volume industrial chemical with a wealth of commercial uses, 8 many stemming from its alkaline character, detergent properties, and ability to complex metals. TEA is used for surfactant production and finds extensive use in personal care products, including soaps, shampoos, hair styling products and dyes, skin cleansers, and cosmetics. It also is used in the textile industry in several capacities (e.g., finishing). The alkaline properties of TEA make it useful as an acid scavenger in natural gas processing and as a buffer or neutraliser in other applications. For metalworking applications, it is found in cutting fluids and lubricating oils. It also appears in anti-corrosion formulations. Global Production Belgium Brazil Canada China France Germany India Iran Italy Japan Mexico Poland Republic of Korea Russia South Africa Spain Taiwan Thailand United Kingdom United States TEA is also used in down-hole oil wells to prevent corrosion of drilling eqipment. TEA has use in cement grinding aids and concrete additives; in the preparation of rubber, adhesive, agricultural, and photographic chemicals; and as a catalyst for the production of urethane foams. 8 For example, see brochures posted at Chemical Weapons Precursors: Triethanolamine 83

100 47. Phosphorus Pentasulphide P S S S S P S P S P S S Basic Description Phosphorus pentasulphide is a nerve agent precursor with the following identifiers and properties: S S Chemical Weapons Precursors: Phosphorus Pentasulphide Identifier/Property CAS# Formula Molecular Weight CA Index Name CWC Schedule P2S5 (exists as P4S10) Value (444.6 for the dimer pictured above) Phosphorus sulfide Not Listed EC# HS# UN# UN Hazard Placard Other Names EU CL# 1C GHS Pictogram Notable Features Phosphorus pentasulphide is a yellow to green crystalline solid and has an odour of rotten eggs. It may be sold as a powder or flakes (Figure 47.A) or in tablets [Sulfides of nonmetals, other] UN 1340 (PHOSPHORUS PENTASULPHIDE, free from yellow and white phosphorus) Diphosphorus pentasulfide; phosphoric sulfide; phosphorus pentasulfide; phosphorus sulfide (P4S10); phosphorus persulfide; tetraphosphorus decasulfide; pentasulfure de phosphore; sirnik fosforecny Figure 47.A. Phosphorus pentasulphide powder and flakes 84

101 47.3. Packaging Small quantities of phosphorus pentasulphide are sold in glass bottles. Common bulk packaging consists of plastic-lined containers (e.g., lined steel drums), as well as simple metal drums or plastic bags in drums. Some major producers use aluminium tote bins for shipments; these bins often hold 2-3 metric tons of the material. These bins are often shipped in multiples, either strapped to truck trailers or encased in cages. Pictures of tote bins are shown in Figure 47.B. Figure 47.B. Aluminium tote bins used for shipping bulk quantities of phosphorus pentasulphide. The single bin on the left measures 218 cm 112 cm 132 cm and holds up to 2636 kilograms of the solid. The top right photograph shows a low-boy trailer hauling six tote bins, and the bottom right photograph shows a cage container for tote bins Typical Applications Phosphorus pentasulphide is used in the production of lubricant additives, primarily zinc dialkyldithiophosphates. Other major applications are in the production of pesticides/insecticides and ore floatation agents. It also can be used to prepare specialty chemicals. Global Production Chile China Germany India Italy United States Chemical Weapons Precursors: Phosphorus Pentasulphide 85

102 48. Diisopropylamine N Basic Description Diisopropylamine (DIPA) is a nerve agent precursor with the following identifiers and properties: Identifier/Property Value CAS# Formula C 6 H 15 N Molecular Weight CA Index Name 2-propanamine, N-(1-methylethyl)- CWC Schedule Not Listed EC# HS# [Amine-function compounds, acyclic monoamines, other] UN# UN 1158 (DIISOPROPYLAMINE) UN Hazard Placard Chemical Weapons Precursors: Diisopropylamine Other Names EU CL# 1C GHS Pictogram N,N-Diisopropylamine; N-(1-methylethyl)-2-propanamine; DIPA; (iso-c3h7)2nh; N-isopropyl-1-amino-2-methylethane; N-isopropyl-isopropylamine Notable Features DIPA is a clear, colourless liquid with a fishy or ammonia-like odour Packaging There are a number of packaging options for DIPA. Containers in use include glass bottles, polyethylene-coated bottles, and metal steel drums. Larger quantities can be shipped in railway tanks, tanker trucks, and ISO containers Typical Applications DIPA is used in the manufacture of crop protection chemicals, pharmaceutical intermediates, polyester fibres, and rubber accelerators. It also is used as an extraction solvent and in the preparation of certain corrosion inhibitors, proton scavengers, and catalysts. Global Production Belgium China France Germany India Israel Spain United States 86

103 49. Diethylaminoethanol N OH Basic Description Diethylaminoethanol is a nerve agent precursor with the following identifiers and properties: Identifier/Property Value CAS# Formula C 6 H 15 NO Molecular Weight CA Index Name Ethanol, 2-(diethylamino)- CWC Schedule Not Listed (Exempted under 2B11) EC# HS# [Oxygen-function amino-compounds, amino-alcohols other] UN# UN 2686 (2-DIETHYLAMINOETHANOL) UN Hazard Placard Other Names EU CL# 1C GHS Pictogram DEAE; DEEA; 2-(diethylamino)ethanol; N,N-diethylaminoethanol; N,N-diethyl- 2-aminoethanol; N-diethylaminoethanol; N-(diethylamino)ethanol; diethyl(2- hydroxyethyl)amine; N,N-diethyl-2-hydroxyethylamine; N,N-diethylethanolamine; N,N-diethylmonoethanolamine; 2-(diethylamino)ethanol; 2-(diethylamino)ethyl alcohol; 2-(N,N-diethylamino)ethanol; 2-hydroxytriethylamine; (2-hydroxyethyl) diethylamine; diaethylaminoaethanol; diethylethanolamine; 2-hydroxytriethylamine; N-(2-hydroxyethyl)diethylamine Note: 2 may be replaced with β in some names Notable Features Diethylaminoethanol is a colourless to faint yellow liquid with an ammonia-like odour Packaging There are a number of packaging materials suitable for diethylaminoethanol, including glass bottles and steel drums. Chemical Weapons Precursors: Diethylaminoethanol 87

104 49.4. Typical Applications The primary use of diethylaminoethanol is in corrosion inhibitors for boilers. It also is used in various coating formulations and to prepare soaps used in water-resistant waxes and polishes. Some sources claim it is an intermediate for making textile-related chemicals, pharmaceuticals, crop protection chemicals, explosives, dyes, and cosmetics, as well as in lubricants and resins. Global Production Belgium China Germany India Japan United States Chemical Weapons Precursors: Diethylaminoethanol 88

105 50. Sodium Sulphide Na S Na Basic Description Sodium sulphide is a vesicant precursor with the following identifiers and properties: Identifier/Property CAS# Formula Na 2 S Molecular Weight 78.0 CA Index Name CWC Schedule Sodium sulfide Not Listed EC# HS# UN# [Sulfides, sodium sulfides] Value UN 1385 (SODIUM SULPHIDE, ANHYDROUS or SODIUM SULPHIDE with less than 30% water of crystallization) UN 1849 (SODIUM SULPHIDE, HYDRATED with not less than 30 per cent water) UN Hazard Placard Other Names EU CL# 1C GHS Pictogram UN 1385: UN 1849: Disodium monosulfide; disodium sulfide; sodium monosulfide; sodium sulfide Notable Features Sodium sulphide is a white to yellow, orange, or red solid with a rotten egg-like odour. It is often sold in flake form (Figure 50.A). Chemical Weapons Precursors: Sodium Sulphide 89

106 Figure 50.A. Glass bulbs containing various grades of sodium sulphide. Chemical Weapons Precursors: Sodium Sulphide Packaging Small quantities of sodium sulphide are typically packaged in glass or plastic bottles. Steel drums, paper bags, and plastic or plastic-lined bags are used for larger quantities Typical Applications Sodium sulphide finds its major application in the leather industry, where it is used to dehair hides before tanning. It also is used in the mining industry for ore floatation. In addition, sodium sulphide is used in the preparation of sulphur dyes, rubber, and plastics, as well as in the pulp & paper industry, among other applications. Some sources mention use in the treatment of waste water and remediation of soils. Global Production Belgium Brazil China Colombia Germany India Iran Italy Japan Kazakhstan Mexico Republic of Korea Russia Spain Taiwan Ukraine United Kingdom United States 90

107 51. Sulphur Monochloride Cl S S Cl Basic Description Sulphur monochloride is a vesicant precursor with the following identifiers and properties: Identifier/Property CAS# Value Formula Cl 2 S 2 Molecular Weight CA Index Name Sulfur chloride CWC Schedule 3B12 EC# HS# [Halides and halide oxides of nonmetals, chlorides and chloride oxides] UN# UN 1828 (SULPHUR CHLORIDES) UN Hazard Placard Other Names EU CL# 1C GHS Pictogram Sulfur monochloride; disulfur dichloride; sulfur chloride (S2Cl2); chlorosulfane; chlorschwefel; sulfur subchloride; thiosulfurous dichloride; S2Cl2; sulfur(i) chloride; chloride of sulfur; siarki chlorek; sulfur chloride(di); ClSSCl; sulfur mono Notable Features Sulphur monochloride is a yellow-orange to red oily liquid with a pungent, nauseating odour Packaging Sulphur monochloride is shipped in tank cars, tank trucks, ISO containers, and metal drums. Small quantities are sold in glass bottles. Global Production China Germany India Japan United States Typical Applications The primary commercial uses of sulphur monochloride are in the production of lubricant additives and vulcanising agents for rubber. Other end uses are in the production of gum erasers, and as an intermediate in the production of some dyes, pharmaceuticals, and agrochemicals. The OPCW notes additional uses in the manufacture of paper and textile auxiliaries, rubber additives and substitutes, and plastics. Chemical Weapons Precursors: Sulphur Monochloride 91

108 52. Sulphur Dichloride Cl S Cl Basic Description Sulphur dichloride is a vesicant precursor with the following identifiers and properties: Identifier/Property Value CAS# Formula Cl 2 S Molecular Weight CA Index Name Sulfur chloride CWC Schedule 3B13 EC# HS# [Halides and halide oxides of nonmetals, chlorides and chloride oxides] UN# UN 1828 (SULFUR CHLORIDES) UN Hazard Placard Chemical Weapons Precursors: Sulphur Dichloride Other Names EU CL# 1C GHS Pictogram Sulfur dichloride; sulfur chloride (SCl2); chlorine sulfide (Cl2S); dichlorosulfane; monosulfur dichloride; SCl2; sulfur(ii) chloride; chloride of sulfur; chlorine sulfide; sulfur chloride(mono); sulfur dichloride (scl2); dichloro sulfide Notable Features Sulphur dichloride is a dark red or brownish-red fuming liquid with a pungent odour Packaging Sulphur dichloride could be shipped in in plastic barrels, tanks, ISO containers, or rail cars. Global Production China Germany India United States Typical Applications Sulphur dichloride has applications similar to those of sulphur monochloride, most of which are related to lubricant additives, rubber and polymers, and crop protection chemicals. Major uses of sulphur dichloride are in the production of intermediates for insecticides and lubricant additives. The OPCW claims use in the production of captafol (Difolatan), a fungicide, as well as in rubber vulcanisation, modification of drying oils for varnishes and inks, and purification of sugar juices. 92

109 53. Triethanolamine Hydrochloride HO N OH HCl Basic Description Triethanolamine hydrochloride (TEA HCl) is a nitrogen vesicant precursor with the following identifiers and properties: OH Identifier/Property CAS# Formula C 6 H 15 NO 3 ClH Molecular Weight CA Index Name CWC Schedule Ethanol, 2,2,2 -nitrilotris-, hydrochloride Not Listed EC# HS# UN# UN Hazard Placard Other Names [Triethanolamine and its salts] Considered non-hazardous for transport Not applicable EU CL# 1C GHS Pictogram Notable Features TEA HCl is a white crystalline powder. Value Triethanolammonium chloride; 2,2,2 -nitrilotriethanol hydrochloride; ethanol, 2,2,2 -nitrilotris-, hydrochloride; 2,2,2 -nitrilotris(ethanol) hydrochloride; ethanol, 2,2,2 -nitrilotri-, hydrochloride; 2,2,2-nitrilotris(ethanol) hydrochloride; TEA- HCl; 2-[bis(hydroxyethyl)amino]ethanol hydrochloride; tris(2-hydroxyethyl)amine hydrochloride; triethanolamine hydrochloric acid salt Not applicable Packaging TEA HCl is packaged in glass or plastic containers Typical Applications TEA HCl may have use as a reagent for biological applications (e.g., buffers, protein purification) and as an additive in fluxes. Its limited availability suggests uses are small-scale. Global Production Germany India Japan Poland United States Chemical Weapons Precursors: Triethanolamine Hydrochloride 93

110 54. N,N-Diisopropyl-2-Aminoethyl Chloride Hydrochloride N Cl HCl Chemical Weapons Precursors: N,N-Diisopropyl-2-Aminoethyl Chloride Hydrochloride Basic Description N,N-Diisopropyl-2-aminoethyl chloride hydrochloride is a nerve agent precursor with the following identifiers and properties: Identifier/Property CAS# Formula C 8 H 18 ClN ClH Molecular Weight CA Index Name CWC Schedule Value 2-Propanamine, N-(2-chloroethyl)-N-(1-methylethyl)-, hydrochloride 2B10 EC# HS# UN# UN Hazard Placard Other Names EU CL# 1C GHS Pictogram [Amine-function compounds, acyclic monoamines, other] UN 2811 (TOXIC SOLID, ORGANIC, N.O.S) 2-chloroethyldiisopropylammonium chloride; 2-diisopropylaminoethyl chloride hydrochloride; 2-(diisopropylamino)ethyl chloride hydrochloride; β-diisopropylaminoethyl chloride HCl; N-(2-chloroethyl)diisopropylamine hydrochloride; (diisopropylamino)ethylchloride hydrochloride Notable Features N,N-Diisopropyl-2-aminoethyl chloride hydrochloride is a white to light beige or tan crystalline powder. Some companies supply it in aqueous solution Packaging Specific packaging information for this chemical was not found. 94

111 54.4. Typical Applications N,N-Diisopropyl-2-aminoethyl chloride hydrochloride can be used in the synthesis of pharmaceuticals. Global Production Armenia China France Germany India Japan United Kingdom United States Chemical Weapons Precursors: N,N-Diisopropyl-2-Aminoethyl Chloride Hydrochloride 95

112 55. Methylphosphonic Acid O P OH OH Basic Description By analogy with other CWC Schedule 2B phosphorus compounds, methylphosphonic acid could be used to prepare nerve agents. It has the following identifiers and properties: Chemical Weapons Precursors: Methylphosphonic Acid Identifier/Property CAS# Formula CH 5 O 3 P Molecular Weight 96.0 CA Index Name CWC Schedule Phosphonic acid, methyl- 2B04 EC# HS# UN# UN Hazard Placard Other Names EU CL# 1C GHS Pictogram Notable Features Methylphosphonic acid is a white solid. Value [Other organo-inorganic compounds] May be assigned UN 3261 (CORROSIVE SOLID, ACIDIC, ORGANIC, N.O.S.) Packaging Small quantities of methylphosphonic acid are sold in glass bottles. Methanephosphonic acid; phosphonic acid, methyl-; phosphonic acid, methyldihydrogen methylphosphonate, methylphsophonsäure; ácido metilfosfónico; acide méthylphosphonique Global Production France Germany United Kingdom United States Typical Applications Little information was found on uses for methylphosphonic acid. The OPCW notes that a compound of methylphosphonic acid with (aminoiminomethyl)urea is used as a flame retardant and has applications in cleaning agents, emulsifiers, textile improvers, anticorrosion agents, and fabrics. 96

113 56. Diethyl Methylphosphonate O P O O Basic Description By analogy with other controlled phosphonates, diethyl methylphosphonate could be used to prepare nerve agents. It has the following identifiers and properties: Identifier/Property CAS# Formula C 5 H 13 O 3 P Molecular Weight CA Index Name CWC Schedule Phosphonic acid, methyl-, diethyl ester 2B04 EC# HS# UN# UN Hazard Placard Other Names Value [Other organo-inorganic compounds] Considered non-hazardous for transport Not applicable EU CL# 1C GHS Pictogram Notable Features Diethyl methylphosphonate is a colourless liquid. DEMP; diethyl methanephosphonate; diethoxymethylphosphine oxide; O,O-diethyl methylphosphonate; methylphosphonic acid, diethyl ester; diethyl methylphosphonic acid; methanephosphonic acid diethyl ester; diethylmethylphosphonat; metilfosfonato de dietilo; méthylphosphonate de diéthyle Packaging Small quantities of diethyl methylphosphonate are sold in glass bottles Typical Applications Diethyl methylphosphonate can be used in the synthesis of other phosphonates. Global Production Armenia China France Germany United Kingdom United States Chemical Weapons Precursors: Diethyl Methylphosphonate 97

114 57. N,N-Dimethylaminophosphoryl Dichloride O N P Cl Cl Basic Description N,N-Dimethylaminophosphoryl dichloride is a nerve agent precursor with the following identifiers and properties: Chemical Weapons Precursors: N,N-Dimethylaminophosphoryl Dichloride Identifier/Property CAS# Formula Molecular Weight CA Index Name CWC Schedule C 2 H 6 Cl 2 NOP Phosphoramidic dichloride, dimethyl- 2B05 EC# HS# UN# UN Hazard Placard Other Names EU CL# 1C GHS Pictogram Value [compounds with other nitrogen function, other] UN 3265 (CORROSIVE LIQUID, ACIDIC, ORGANIC, N.O.S.) Dimethylphosphorodichloride amide; dimethylphosphoramidic dichloride; (dimethylamido)phosphoric dichloride; dimethylamidophosphoric acid dichloride; dichlorophosphoric dimethylamide; dichloro(dimethylamino)phosphine oxide; phosphoramidic dichloride, dimethyl-; dichlorophosphoric dimethylamide; dimethylamidophosphoric acid dichloride; (dimethylamido)phosphoric dichloride; (dimethylamino)phosphonic dichloride; N,N-dimethylphosphoramidic dichloride; N,N-dimethylphosphoramidodichloridate; phosphoramidic dichloride, dimethyl-; dichloro-(dimethylamine)-phosphine oxide; dichlorophosphoric dimethylamide; N,N-dimethylamidophosphoric dichloride; (dimethylamine)-phosphoric dichloride; N,N-dimethylphosphoramidic dichloride; dimethylphosphorodichloridic amide; dimethylphosphoramiddichlorid; dichloruro dimetilfosforamídico; dichlorure diméthylphosphoramidque 98

115 57.2. Notable Features N,N-Dimethylaminophosphoryl dichloride is a colourless to faint yellow liquid Packaging Small quantities are sold in glass bottles. Global Production Armenia Germany United States Typical Applications N,N-Dimethylaminophosphoryl dichloride could be used as a reagent in organic synthesis. Chemical Weapons Precursors: N,N-Dimethylaminophosphoryl Dichloride 99

116 58. Triisopropyl Phosphite O O P O Basic Description By analogy with other controlled phosphites, triisopropyl phosphite (TIPP) could be used to prepare nerve agents. It has the following identifiers and properties: Chemical Weapons Precursors: Triisopropyl Phosphite 100 Identifier/Property CAS# Formula C 9 H 21 O 3 P Molecular Weight CA Index Name CWC Schedule Value Phosphorous acid, tris(1-methylethyl) ester Not Listed EC# HS# UN# UN Hazard Placard Other Names EU CL# 1C GHS Pictogram Notable Features TIPP is a colourless to pale yellow liquid with a pungent odour Packaging TIPP could be sold in glass bottles or plastic drums [Esters of inorganic acids of nonmetals and their salts other] May be assigned UN 3278 (ORGANOPHOSPHORUS COMPOUND, TOXIC, LIQUID, N.O.S.) or UN 2810 (TOXIC LIQUID, ORGANIC, N.O.S.) Isopropyl phosphite, tri-; phosphorous acid, triisopropyl ester; phosphorous acid, tris(1-methylethyl) ester; tri-2-propyl phosphite; tri-isopropyl phosphite; isopropyl phosphite ((C3H7O)3P)); tri-2-propylphosphite; tri-iso-propylphosphite; triisopropoxyphosphine; triisopropylphosphit; fosfito de triisopropilo; phosphite de triisopropyle; TIPP Typical Applications TIPP could be used in organic synthesis to prepare other phosphorus compounds. Global Production China Germany United Kingdom

117 59. Ethyldiethanolamine HO N OH Basic Description Ethyldiethanolamine (EDEA) is a nitrogen vesicant precursor with the following identifiers and properties: Identifier/Property CAS# Formula C6H15NO2 Molecular Weight CA Index Name CWC Schedule Ethanol, 2,2 -(ethylimino)bis- 3B15 EC# HS# UN# [Amino-alcohols...other] Value Considered nonhazardous for transport by most suppliers; some assign 2735 (AMINES, LIQUID, CORROSIVE, N.O.S.) UN Hazard Placard Other Names EU CL# 1C GHS Pictogram Notable Features EDEA is a colourless to light yellow liquid. N-bis(2-Hydroxyethyl)-N-ethylamine; diethanolethylamine; ethanol, 2,2 -(ethylimino) bis-; ethanol, 2,2 -(ethylimino)di-; ethylamine, bis(2-hydroxyethyl)-; ethylbis(2- hydroxyethyl)amine; N-ethyldiethanolamine; N-ethyl-2,2 -iminodiethanol; 2,2 -(ethylimino)diethanol; 2-(N-ethyl-N-2-hydroxyethylamino)ethanol; N,Nbis(2-hydroxyethyl)ethylamine; 2-[ethyl-(2-hydroxy-ethyl)-amino]-ethanol; N-ethyldiethanolamine; ethyl diethanolamine; diethanolethylamine; ethylbis(2- hydroxyethyl)amine; N-ethyldiethanolamine; 2-(N-ethyl-N-2-hydroxyethylamino) ethanol; 2,2 -(ethylimino)bisethanol; N-ethyl-2,2 -iminodiethanol; 2,2 -(ethylimino) diethanol; N-ethyldiethanolamin; N-etildietanolamina; N-éthyldiéthanolamine; EDEA Packaging Small amounts of EDEA are sold in glass bottles. Use of iron or mild steel/high molecular weight and high density polyethylene (HM HDPE) drums is possible. EDEA might be packaged in a way similar to that of other alkyl alkanolamines; see the entry on diethylaminoethanol for information on alkyl alkanolamine packaging. Chemical Weapons Precursors: Ethyldiethanolamine 101

118 59.4. Typical Applications Global Production The OPCW lists several uses of EDEA, including applications in Germany the agricultural, cosmetic, detergent, metallurgical, plastics, and pharmaceutical industries. It is used as an intermediate in the production India of pharmaceuticals, crop protection agents, and flocculants, as well as in Japan the production of compounds for the paper and leather industries. EDEA also is used for removing acidic gases in gas purification methods. One supplier mentions use in coating applications. However, few of these uses were found in multiple sources. Chemical Weapons Precursors: Ethyldiethanolamine 102

119 60. O,O-Diethyl Phosphorothioate O O P O SH Basic Description Based on its chemical composition, O,O-diethyl phosphorothioate could be used to prepare nerve agents. It has the following identifiers and properties: Identifier/Property CAS# Formula C 4 H 11 O 3 PS Molecular Weight CA Index Name CWC Schedule EC# HS# UN# UN Hazard Placard Other Names Phosphorothioic acid, O,O-diethyl ester Not Listed None Value [Thiophosphoric esters (phosphorothioates) and their salts ] Unknown Unknown EU CL# 1C GHS Pictogram O,O-Diethyl phosphorothionate; DETP; DETP (ester); DEPTh; diethyl hydrogen phosphorothionate; diethyl phosphorothionate; diethyl phosphothionate; ethyl phosphorothioate ((EtO)2(HS)PO); O,O-diethyl hydrogen phosphorothioate; O,Odiethyl phosphorothiolate; O,O-diethyl thiophosphate Unknown Notable Features No additional information on the properties of this material was found Packaging No packaging information on this substance was found Typical Applications O,O-Diethyl phosphorothioate could be used in organic synthesis. Global Production None found Chemical Weapons Precursors: O,O-Diethyl Phosphorothioate 103

120 61. O,O-Diethyl Phosphorodithioate S O P O SH Basic Description Based on its chemical composition, O,O-diethyl phosphorodithioate could be used to prepare nerve agents. It has the following identifiers and properties: Identifier/Property CAS# Value Chemical Weapons Precursors: O,O-Diethyl Phosphorodithioate Formula C 4 H 11 O 2 PS 2 Molecular Weight CA Index Name CWC Schedule Phosphorodithioic acid, O,O-diethyl ester Not Listed EC# HS# UN# UN Hazard Placard Other Names EU CL# 1C Hazards GHS Pictogram [Thiophosphoric esters (phosphorothioates) and their salts ] UN 3265 (CORROSIVE LIQUID, ACIDIC, ORGANIC, N.O.S.) Diethyl dithiophosphate; diethyl phosphorodithioate; diethyl phosphorodithioic acid; phosphorodithioic acid, o,o -diethyl ester; dithiophosphoric acid, O,Odiethyl ester; O,O-diethyl dithiophosphate; O,O-diethyl dithiophosphoric acid; O,O-diethyl hydrogen phosphorodithioate; O,O-diethyl phosphorodithioic acid; O,O-diethyl-S-hydrogen phosphorodithioate; O,O -diethyl dithiophosphate; O,O -diethyl hydrogen dithiophosphate; phosphonodithioic acid, O,O-diethyl ester; o,o-diethylphosphorodithioate; Kyselina O,O-diethyldithiofosforecna; phosphorothiothionic acid, o,o-diethyl ester; o,o-diethyl hydrogen dithiophosphate; phosphorodithioic acid O,O-diethyl ester; di-o-ethyl dithiophosphate; O,O-diethyl thiolothionophosphate; O,O-diethylhydrogendithiophosphate; O,O-diethylhydrogendithiophosphat; hidrogenditiofosfato de O,O-dietilo; hydrogénodithiophosphate de O,O-diéthyle TOXIC 104

121 61.2. Notable Features O,O-Diethyl phosphorodithioate is a colourless to nearly colourless liquid with an unpleasant odour like rotten eggs Packaging India Small quantities of O,O-diethyl phosphorodithioate are sold in glass bottles. Larger amounts might be shipped in high molecular weight, high density polyethylene (HMHDPE) drums, stainless steel tankers, or ISO containers Typical Applications O,O-Diethyl phosphorodithioate could be used in the manufacturing of pesticides. Global Production China Germany Chemical Weapons Precursors: O,O-Diethyl Phosphorodithioate 105

122 62. Sodium Hexafluorosilicate Na 2SiF Basic Description By analogy with other controlled fluorides, sodium hexafluorosilicate could be used to prepare nerve agents. It has the following identifiers and properties: Identifier/Property Value CAS# Formula F 6 Na 2 Si Molecular Weight CA Index Name Silicate(2-), hexafluoro-, disodium CWC Schedule Not Listed EC# HS# [Fluorosilicates of sodium or of potassium] UN# UN 2674 (SODIUM FLUOROSILICATE) Chemical Weapons Precursors: Sodium Hexafluorosilicate UN Hazard Placard Other Names EU CL# 1C GHS Pictogram Sodium fluosilicate; sodium silicofluoride; sodium fluorosilicate; disodium hexafluorosilicate; disodium silicofluoride; fluosilicate de sodium; natriumsilicofluorid; silicon sodium fluoride; sodium hexafluosilicate; sodium silicon fluoride; dinatriumhexafluorosilicat; hexafluorosilicato de disodio; hexafluorosilicate de disodium Note: products with earwig or weevil bait in the name may contain sodium hexafluorosilicate Notable Features Sodium hexafluorosilicate is a white crystalline or granular solid. It may be odourless or have a slight pungent odour Packaging Sodium hexafluorosilicate is typically packaged in bags made of or lined with plastic. Small quantities are sold in plastic bottles. 106

123 62.4. Typical Applications Sodium hexafluorosilicate has numerous industrial uses. Like sodium fluoride, it has a major use in drinking water fluoridation. According to suppliers, sodium hexafluorosilicate also has applications in the following areas: enamel and glass (e.g., opalizing, etching); metallurgy; wood and leather preservation; and latex and foam manufacturing. Other uses common to fluoride salts may be possible, such as laundry souring. Global Production Australia Belgium Brazil China Egypt India Japan South Africa Spain United States Vietnam Chemical Weapons Precursors: Sodium Hexafluorosilicate 107

124 63. Methylphosphonothioic Dichloride S P Cl Cl Basic Description By analogy with other CWC Schedule 2B phosphorus compounds, methylphosphonothioic dichloride is a nerve agent precursor with the following identifiers and properties: Chemical Weapons Precursors: Methylphosphonothioic Dichloride Identifier/Property CAS# Formula CH 3 Cl 2 PS Molecular Weight CA Index Name CWC Schedule Phosphonothioic dichloride, methyl- 2B04 EC# HS# UN# UN Hazard Placard Other Names EU CL# 1C GHS Pictogram Value [Organo-sulfur compounds...other] May be assigned UN 2927 (TOXIC LIQUID, CORROSIVE, ORGANIC, N.O.S.) or UN 3265 (CORROSIVE LIQUID, ACIDIC, ORGANIC, N.O.S.) UN 2927: UN 3265: Notable Features Methylphosphonothioic dichloride is colourless to pale yellow liquid. Dichloromethylphosphine sulfide; methanephosphonothioic dichloride; methyldichlorophosphine sulfide; methylphosphonothioyl dichloride; methylthionophosphonic dichloride; methylthiophosphonic acid dichloride; methylphosphonothiodichloride; methyl phosphonothioic dichloride; methylthiophosphonic dichloride; phosphine, dichloro-methyl-thioxo-; phosphonothioic dichloride, methyl-; methylthiophosphonsaeuredichlorid; dicloruro metilfosfonotioico; dichlorure méthylphosphonothioïque 108

125 63.3. Packaging No specific packaging information was found for this substance. Global Production United States Typical Applications Methylphosphonothioic dichloride could be used in organic synthesis. Chemical Weapons Precursors: Methylphosphonothioic Dichloride 109

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127 Dual-Use Chemical Manufacturing Facilities and Equipment and Related Technology and Software Overview of Materials of Construction for Australia Group Chemical Manufacturing Equipment Introduction As discussed in the Introduction to Chemical Weapons and Dual-Use Chemical Technology, many CW agents and their precursors are highly corrosive compounds. Therefore, corrosion-resistant chemical processing equipment is suitable for CW production, and corrosion-resistance is a key characteristic of export-controlled chemical manufacturing equipment. Several corrosion-resistant materials of construction appear in the control specifications of items on the AG Control List of Dual-Use Chemical Manufacturing Facilities and Equipment. With a few exceptions, materials are repeated for numerous entries for example, certain high nickel and nickel-chromium alloys appear in the specifications for every item on Part I of the list. This chapter examines some of the more commercially common AG-listed materials of construction which must comprise the wetted surfaces of chemical equipment for those items to be controlled. This section is meant to give an illustrative overview of these materials and does not include every possible material that may meet control specifications. The Unified Numbering System for Metals and Alloys (UNS) is used in this Handbook as a point of reference for alloys. In general, there are multiple identifiers for alloys, and the UNS seeks to serve as a harmonised means of correlating many internationally used metal and alloy numbering systems currently administered by technical societies, trade associations, and those individual users and producers of metals and alloys. 1 It should be noted that a UNS designation is not a specification. Rather, it is correlated with metal and alloy composition limits. A UNS designation takes the form of a letter followed by five digits: the letter denotes a family of metals/alloys, while the number ranges are associated with the base metal of the alloy. These designations are used throughout this section for metals and alloys appearing in AG control specifications. High Nickel and Nickel-Chromium Alloys Two types of nickel alloys appear in the list of materials of construction for every item on Part I of the Dual- Use Chemical Manufacturing Facilities and Equipment list: (1) Nickel or alloys with more than 40% nickel by weight; and (2) alloys with more than 25% nickel and 20% chromium by weight. There are numerous alloys that meet these criteria. Trade names for such high nickel alloys include Hastelloy, Inconel, Incoloy, Monel, and Nickelvac, among others. However, it should be noted that there are many different alloys associated with each of these trade names, and not all of them necessarily meet the composition guidelines of the AG control specifications. Specific composition information from a manufacturer generally will be necessary to determine whether the material meets AG specifications. UNS numbers starting with N indicate nickel-base alloys. Nickel alloys are useful in numerous corrosive applications. While chemical resistance varies from one alloy to another, resistance to acids, chlorine-containing chemicals, and sea water is exhibited by many nickel alloys meeting AG specifications. Table 1 gives an illustrative (not exhaustive) list of high nickel and nickel-chromium alloys and their compositions, focused on those typically used in the chemical process industries. These materials were selected from material supplier websites that list nickel alloys used in chemical processing equipment. 2,3 1 Metals & Alloys in the Unified Numbering System, 10 th Edition, Society of Automotive Engineers and American Society for Testing and Materials (Warrendale, PA: 2004) 2 Special Metals, Chemical Processing; see also the Product Handbook of High- Performance Alloys at 3 Haynes International, Corrosion Resistant Alloys; Overview of Materials of Construction 111

128 Table 1. Examples of high nickel and nickel-chromium alloys, with weight percentages from Metals & Alloys in the Unified Numbering System, 10th Edition. Overview of Materials of Construction UNS %Ni %Cr Trade Name(s) Notes N min Nickel 200; AL 200 N min Nickel 201; AL 201 Differs from N02200 in carbon content N Monel Alloy 400; Nickelvac 400; AL 400 N Monel Alloy R-405 N Monel Alloy K-500; Nickelvac K-500 N min Hastelloy Alloy C-22; Inconel Alloy 22; AL 22 * N min Hastelloy G-30 * N min Hastelloy C-2000 * N min Hastelloy C-4 * N min Inconel Alloy 600; Nickelvac 600; AL 600 N Inconel Alloy 601; Nickelvac 601, AL 601; Carlson Alloy C 601 N min Inconel Alloy 625; Nickelvac 625; Haynes 625; AL Altemp 625; AL 625 HP N min Inconel Alloy 686 * N min Inconel Alloy 690; Nickelvac 690 N min Inconel Alloy 50; Hastelloy G-50 N Inconel 718; Allvac 718, Haynes 718 alloy; Altemp 718; Alloy 718 N Inconel Alloy 725 N min Inconel Alloy X-750; Nickelvac X-750; Altemp X-750 N Incoloy alloy 020; AL 20; Nickelvac 23; Carpenter 20Cb-3 Stainless Steel N Incoloy alloy 800; Nickelvac 800; Industeel Sirius 800; Stainless Steel Type 332; AL 800 N Incoloy alloy 825; Nickelvac 825; AL 825; Alloy 825 N Incoloy alloy 25-6Mo; Industeel Uranus B26 6 Mo N Incoloy alloy 925; Nickelvac 925 N min Hastelloy N; Nickelvac H-N * N min Hastelloy C-276; Inconel alloy C-276; Nickelvac 276; AL 276 N min 1.0 max Hastelloy B-2; Nickelvac HB-2; Alloy B-2 * N min Hastelloy B-3 * = %Ni calculated from maximum percentage of all other constituents, rounded to one decimal place. Trade names were identified with the assistance of the UNS search engine at * * 112

129 Reactive Metals: Tantalum, Titanium, Zirconium, Niobium, and their Alloys Tantalum, titanium, zirconium, and niobium are known as reactive metals metals that react with oxygen to form protective, corrosion-resistant oxide layers on their surfaces. The term exotic metal is also used for these materials, although this descriptor can refer to high nickel alloys as well. These metals and their alloys appear in the UNS by base element under section Rxxxxx, in the ranges noted in their respective paragraphs below. The AG does not specify composition limits for these alloys as it does for nickel and nickel-chromium alloys. Rather, all tantalum, titanium, zirconium, and niobium base alloys are of relevance for control, per the AG chemical equipment control list s Technical Note: For the listed materials in the above entries, the term alloy when not accompanied by a specific elemental concentration is understood as identifying those alloys where the identified metal is present in a higher percentage by weight than any other element. All four reactive metals and their alloys are listed as a material of construction in the control specifications for reaction vessels; agitators; storage tanks, containers, or receivers; heat exchangers or condensers; distillation or absorption columns; valves; multi-walled piping; and pumps. Titanium Titanium alloys are often indicated by the chemical symbol for titanium, Ti, in alloy names listing elemental composition. There are several grades of commercially pure titanium often designated by Grade numbers (i.e., Ti Grade # or simply Grade #) as well as titanium alloys. Grade 2 is the most widely used form of titanium. Titanium equipment is used in power plants, chemical plants, oil refineries, desalination plants, liquid natural gas (LNG) plants, and offshore platforms due to its resistance to aggressive chemicals such as hydrochloric, phosphoric, nitric, sulphuric, and organic acids; bleach; wet and anhydrous chlorine; alkaline solutions; chlorine dioxide; salt brines; hydrogen sulphide; inorganic salts; and fresh and sea water. Titanium base alloys have UNS designators in the range R50001-R Tantalum The corrosion resistance of tantalum is often described as being comparable to glass. Like other reactive metals, it shows high resistance to acid corrosion. Tantalum is used in applications involving hydrochloric, sulphuric, nitric, phosphoric, and strong organic acids, as well as bromine and pharmaceuticals. It can be used to make heat exchangers, condensers, reaction vessels, columns, and valve linings, among other equipment. Tantalum base alloys have UNS designators in the range R05001-R The chemical symbol for tantalum is Ta, which may appear in names for tantalum alloys. Examples of tantalum base alloys are Tantalum 2.5% Tungsten (97.5Ta-2.5W; Ta2.5W; Tantalum-Tungsten 2.5%; KBI-6 ); Tantalum 10% Tungsten (90Ta-10W; Ta10W; KBI-10 ); and Tantalum 40% Niobium (60Ta-40Nb; Ta40Nb; KBI-40 ). All three can be used as materials of construction for chemical processing equipment of various types. Zirconium Zirconium alloys find substantial use in the chemical process industries due to their resistance to corrosion by most acids (organic and inorganic), alkaline environments, urea, chloride salt solultions (including sea water), and hydrogen peroxide. Zirconium is considered to be one of the materials most resistant to corrosion by acetic acid, and it shows good resistance to nitric, sulphuric, hydrochloric, and formic acids as well. Zirconium base alloys have UNS designators in the range R60001-R Four zirconium alloys often used for chemical processing are ASTM grades Zr702, Zr704, Zr705, and Zr706 as with other reactive metals, the chemical symbol for zirconium, Zr, is incorporated into the alloy name and is an indicator of the element s presence as an alloy base. 4 Zircadyne is a trade name for some zirconium alloys used in chemical processing equipment. 4 Richard Sutherlin, Zirconium, Anyone; Overview of Materials of Construction 113

130 Niobium (Columbium) A number of niobium alloys are available, but many of their predominant uses are in aerospace, nuclear, and superconductivity applications rather than in the chemical process industries. However, niobium can be used to make condensers, heat exchangers, and valve linings and finds use in the production of nitric acid and nitric acid-derived chemicals. 5 Niobium also resists corrosion by several other mineral and organic acids, certain organic solvents, and chlorine. Niobium base alloys have UNS designators in the range R04001-R The chemical symbol for niobium is Nb, which appears in several alloy names. However, some names may reflect an archaic name sometimes used in the United States, columbium (Cb). Niobium alloys include niobium 1% zirconium (also known as one niobium alloy, Nb-1Zr, Nb-Zirc, Niobium-Zirc, Niobium Zirconium, Niobium - 1 Zirconium, NB-1%Zr, or Niobium 1% Zirc, or Nb1Zr), C-103, C-129Y, Cb 752, C-3009, Niobium 7.5% Tantalum (Nb7.5 Ta ), and Niobium 47% Titanium (Nb47Ti ). Ferrosilicon (High Silicon Iron Alloys) Ferrosilicon is a name for alloys of iron containing higher silicon levels than simple cast iron. It is also known as silicon iron, high-silicon iron, or by trade names such as Duriron, Durichlor, Superchlor, and Siguss. It is highly resistant to sulphuric acid, leading to its primary use in sulphuric acid-related applications. It also shows resistance to nitric acid, hydrochloric acid, and many other aggressive media. A brochure on high-silicon iron alloys notes use of these materials in the following applications: petroleum refining; sewage disposal; metal processing, including cleaning and pickling; electroplating; sulphuric and nitric acid production; manufacturing of explosives (acid-handling), textiles, paper, beverages, paint, pigments, dyes, and fertilisers; and in water treatment and fertiliser plants. 6 Ferrosilicon is only found in the control specifications for pumps in the AG chemical equipment control list. Fluoropolymers Fluoropolymers are highly corrosion-resistant, fluorine-containing polymeric or elastomeric materials. Fluoroplastics are relatively high molecular weight, moldable polymers which have some or all hydrogen atoms replaced with fluorine atoms. They look much like other plastics and can come in a variety of colours. Fluoroelastomers are fluorinated synthetic rubbers which often find use in sealing applications. Fluoropolymers are popular for applications requiring high purity as well as corrosion-resistance, such as those in the semiconductor, pharmaceutical, and food industries. Other uses of fluoropolymer equipment include metallurgy (plating, pickling, and other finishing operations) and deionised water handling and processing. Fluoropolymers are often referred to by trade names and/or acronyms as a substitute for their long scientific names. Overview of Materials of Construction Fluoropolymers are listed as a material of construction in the control specifications for reaction vessels; agitators; storage tanks, containers, or receivers; heat exchangers or condensers; distillation or absorption columns; valves; multi-walled piping; and pumps. AG control language covers polymeric and elastomeric materials with more than 35% fluorine by weight. Some of the more common fluoropolymers meeting this specification are listed in Table 2 by their acronyms, with their associated scientific and trade names. The fluoropolymers in the table were selected based on their use in chemical applications. The examples given are fluoroplastics while fluoroelastomers such as those of the Viton family can meet control specifications, they appear to be used in sealing applications more than as wetted parts for equipment. Interchangeable seals for controlled chemical equipment do not influence an item s control status, per Note 3 of the AG chemical equipment control list. 7 5 Grandview Materials, Applications of Niobium in Different Industries ; 6 Flowserve Corporation, Duriron and Durichlor 51M ; 7 Note 3 states: The materials used for gaskets, packing, seals, screws, washers or other materials performing a sealing function do not determine the status of control of the items listed below, provided that such components are designed to be interchangeable. 114

131 Table 2. Examples of fluoroplastics used in chemical applications Acronym Technical Name Associated Trade Name(s) %wt F ECTFE Ethylene chlorotrifluoroethylene Halar 39 ETFE Ethylene tetrafluoroethylene Tefzel, Neoflon, Dyneon, Fluon 59 FEP Fluorinated ethylene propylene Teflon, Dyneon, Neoflon 76 PFA Perfluoroalkoxy (vinyl ether) Teflon, Hyflon, Dyneon, Neoflon, Fluon 76 PCTFE Polychlorotrifluoroethylene Neoflon 49 PTFE Polytetrafluoroethylene Teflon, Algoflon, Fluon, Dyneon TFM 76 PVDF Polyvinylidine fluoride Kynar, Dyneon, Solef, Hylar 59 Fluorine weight percentages were calculated from the molecular weights of the respective monomers. For copolymers, percentages were calculated based on 1:1 monomer ratios for ECTFE and FEP and a 100:1 tetrafluoroethylene:perfluoroalkoxy monomer ratio. Glass (including Vitrified or Enamelled Coating) Glass is a familiar material used in laboratory scale chemical equipment like beakers and reflux condensers, but it is impractical for larger-scale equipment due to its fragility. As a result, glass-lined steel equipment has found use in several industrial sectors because it combines the inertness, cleanability, and non-stick properties of glass with the structural integrity of steel. Glass coatings for steel equipment can come in a number of formulations for different applications, and are often blue or white (see Figure 1.1.E). Glass-lined steel equipment finds use in industries such as pharmaceuticals and fine chemicals. It can show excellent resistance to a variety of chemicals, including many acids. Glass is listed as a material of construction in the control specifications for reaction vessels; agitators; storage tanks, containers, or receivers; heat exchangers or condensers; distillation or absorption columns; valves; multi-walled piping; and pumps. Graphite and Carbon-Graphite 8 Graphite exhibits high corrosion-resistance and excellent thermal conductivity, giving it a wide variety of uses in temperature control applications involving corrosive substances (e.g., heat exchangers). A number of companies manufacture chemical equipment made of impregnated or impervious graphite; fluoropolymers and carbon are examples of impregnants used in this material. Sectors using graphite equipment include fine chemicals, pharmaceuticals, petrochemicals, pesticides, and those processing acids (hydrochloric, sulphuric, hydrofluoric, phosphoric, chlorinated organic, and waste acids). Carbon-graphite also finds use in mechanical seals for pumps. Graphite and carbon graphite are listed as materials of construction in the control specifications for heat exchangers or condensers; distillation or absorption columns; multi-walled piping; and pumps. Ceramics Ceramics of various types are listed as materials of construction in the control specifications of heat exchangers or condensers; valves; pumps; and incinerators. The pump and incinerator entries do not identify specific ceramics, but the other entries name silicon carbide (heat exchangers or condensers and valves), titanium carbide (heat exchangers or condensers), aluminium oxide (alumina; valves), and zirconium oxide (zirconia; valves) as controlled materials of construction. This section discusses characteristics of the carbide and oxide ceramics found in the control specficiations. 8 This material carries the following technical note in the AG specifications: Carbon-graphite is a composition consisting of amorphous carbon and graphite, in which the graphite content is eight percent or more by weight. Overview of Materials of Construction 115

132 Carbides Silicon carbide is a ceramic with high thermal conductivity, strength, hardness, and corrosion resistance, making it well suited for use in equipment such as heat exchanger tubes and blocks. These properties, its resistance to wear and shock, and the low friction it exhibits against other materials also make it a useful material for mechanical seal faces for pumps. It exhibits resistance to corrosion by nitric and hydrofluoric acids, mixed acids, bases, chlorinated organics, bromine, and oxidants. Silicon carbide is also known by its chemical formula SiC, and Hexoloy is one trade name for this material. Titanium carbide (TiC) has similar characteristics as silicon carbide e.g., hardness and resistance to corrosion, high temperature, and wear. However, its use in chemical processing applications appears to be less common than that of SiC. Both carbides can have a range of colours, although manufactured components are likely to be brown, grey, or black. Oxides Aluminium oxide (alumina; Al 2 O 3 ) and zirconium oxide (zirconia; ZrO 2 ) are also durable, highly corrosionresistant ceramics. Aluminium oxide shows broad chemical resistance, with the exception of wet fluorine, hydrofluoric acid, phosphoric acid, and strongly alkaline solutions. Aluminium oxide is usually white, but may also be brown or pink. Zirconium oxide is commonly stabilised with other oxides such as magnesia (MgO), yttria (Y 2 O 3 ), or calcia (CaO) for structural integrity at a range of temperatures. It is chemically resistant to nearly all acids, bases, solvents, and other corrosive chemicals. Zirconium oxide is white to ivory in colour. Overview of Materials of Construction 116

133 Control List of Dual-Use Chemical Manufacturing Facilities and Equipment and Related Technology and Software The following sections provide basic descriptions of and information on the notable features, packaging, and typical applications of items on the Australia Group Control List of Dual-Use Chemical Manufacturing Facilities and Equipment and Related Technology and Software. Each section also includes an illustrative Global Production listing, which lists countries that are home to the headquarters of equipment producers. Those producers may have subsidiaries in other countries, but subsidiary locations are not included in these lists. The text in the blue boxes at the beginning of each equipment section provides the AG control language as of its February 2014 revision. 9 Brief discussions of related technology and software follow the sections on equipment. The complete AG control language as of February 2014 is found in Appendix B. Sections in this chapter are numbered to match the respective AG control list entry numbers. See the Glossary for technical terms used in this Handbook. 9 The current AG control language may be found online at: Dual-Use Chemical Equipment 117

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135 I. Manufacturing Facilities and Equipment 1. Reaction Vessels, Reactors or Agitators Reaction vessels or reactors, with or without agitators, with total internal (geometric) volume greater than 0.1 m 3 (100 l) and less than 20 m 3 (20000 l), where all surfaces that come in direct contact with the chemical(s) being processed or contained are made from the following materials: (a) nickel or alloys with more than 40% nickel by weight; (b) alloys with more than 25% nickel and 20% chromium by weight; (c) fluoropolymers (polymeric or elastomeric materials with more than 35% fluorine by weight); (d) glass or glass-lined (including vitrified or enamelled coating); (e) tantalum or tantalum alloys; (f) titanium or titanium alloys; (g) zirconium or zirconium alloys; or (h) niobium (columbium) or niobium alloys. Agitators designed for use in the above-mentioned reaction vessels or reactors; and impellers, blades or shafts designed for such agitators, where all surfaces of the agitator or component that come in direct contact with the chemical(s) being processed or contained are made from the following materials: (a) nickel or alloys with more than 40% nickel by weight; (b) alloys with more than 25% nickel and 20% chromium by weight; (c) fluoropolymers (polymeric or elastomeric materials with more than 35% fluorine by weight); (d) glass or glass-lined (including vitrified or enamelled coating); (e) tantalum or tantalum alloys; (f) titanium or titanium alloys; (g) zirconium or zirconium alloys; or (h) niobium (columbium) or niobium alloys Chemical Reaction Vessels or Reactors Basic Description Chemical reaction vessels, or reactors, are key pieces of industrial equipment used in chemical synthesis. Reaction vessels provide containment for chemicals undergoing reactions as well as provisions for fluid transfer, mixing, vessel maintenance, and monitoring and controlling reaction conditions. Chemical reaction vessels may be described using a variety of terms, depending on the details of their design and/or application. Examples include: jacketed reactors, Limpet coil reactors, half-pipe reactors, inner coil reactors, dimpled reactors, process reactors, batch reactors, pressure reactors, pressure vessels, and continuous flow or continuous stirred reactors. Global Production Canada China France Germany India Italy Japan The Netherlands Switzerland United States Dual-Use Chemical Equipment: Reaction Vessels, Reactors or Agitators 119

136 Notable Features Reaction vessels are available in a wide variety of sizes and designs with varying levels of sophistication. However, all reaction vessels have some basic features in common. In general, reaction vessels are cylindrical in shape with slightly curved (convex) ends. The main body of the vessel usually is smooth or bears helical ridges. In the latter case, the helices are indicative of coils incorporated into the vessel for circulation of a temperature control fluid. Jacketed vessels without externally-visible coils are also common; these reactors incorporate a space between outer and inner vessel walls for temperature control fluids (Figure 1.1.A). Such vessels have smooth outer surfaces but typically have inlet and outlet ports (connections) on the side of the vessel for the temperature control fluid. Alternatively, the outer surface of the vessel may be dimpled. Figure 1.1.A displays a cutaway view of a typical batch reaction vessel with an agitator and a cooling jacket. Figure 1.1.B shows two reaction vessels with different external surfaces. Both reactors have agitators mounted on them, as indicated by the green arrows. A chemical production facility is likely to use multiple reaction vessels. Vessels will not necessarily have the agitators mounted for sale or shipping (e.g., see Figure 1.1C). However, reaction vessels with or without agitators are controlled if they meet AG specifications on volume and material of construction. Dual-Use Chemical Equipment: Reaction Vessels, Reactors or Agitators Figure 1.1.B. Chemical reaction vessel designs with agitators. The green arrows are pointing to the agitator motors protruding from the tops of the vessels. Left: 500 litre glass-lined reactor with welded top head and smooth sides; Right: Reactors with visible temperature control coils and bolted top heads. Figure 1.1.A. Cut-away view of a chemical reaction vessel with a cooling jacket, showing agitator shaft and blades. The connections on the sides of the vessel allow for cooling fluid to circulate between the inner and outer vessel walls. The top of the vessel, called the top head, may be welded or clamped. In the latter case, a ring of bolts will be visible around its circumference; this feature can be seen clearly in two of the reactors in Figure 1.1.C. The top head will also have a series of ports or nozzles of various sizes. A typical vessel will have a large port called a manway or manhole, which provides access to the interior of the vessel for maintenance. The manway may be hinged or bolted and may also have a sightglass (or space for one) in its centre for viewing the vessel interior. Other smaller ports, often flanged, are found in a ring with the manway on the top head of the vessel. A port in or near the centre of the top head is typically present for mounting an agitator. Conversely, the vessel may have the agitator already mounted, in which case a motor assembly would be seen protruding from the top of the vessel, as seen in Figure 1.1.A. Figure 1.1.D displays multiple views of a 100 gallon (~ 378 litre) Hastelloy C-276 reactor the agitator mount, manway, ports, and bolted top head are clearly visible in these photographs. 120

137 Figure 1.1.C. Left: 6000 litre glass-lined vessel; Centre: Hastelloy C-276 half-pipe reactor; Right: 450 litre fluoropolymerlined reactor. Other common features of reaction vessels are mounting plates around the side of the vessel and a drain valve or port on the bottom. The bottom of the vessel may also have legs attached (Figure 1.1.B) or provisions for mounting legs. The reactor may also have internal structures such as baffles that would not be visible unless one or more of the ports was open. AG control specifications for reaction vessels specify an internal volume between 100 litres and litres. This range suggests that a controlled reactor could vary in size from half of a standard chemical drum to a few metres in diameter and/or length. The remaining control specifications give requirements for the material of construction of reactor surfaces coming into contact with chemicals. The material is likely not apparent upon visual inspection; however, if one or more ports is open, a non-metallic lining like glass or polymer might be visible. For example, the left and right images of Figure 1.1.C show white glass and fluoropolymer linings, respectively. Glass linings for steel vessels would have an enamel-like appearance and are often blue or white in colour (Figure 1.1.E). However, vessels should bear nameplates (e.g., the reactor in Figure 1.1.D) which can at least provide a manufacturer and model number for gaining additional information. Figure 1.1.D. 100 gallon (~378 litre) Hastelloy C-276 reaction vessel. Dual-Use Chemical Equipment: Reaction Vessels, Reactors or Agitators 121

138 Many reaction vessels bear a similarity to storage tanks and receivers, as well as fermenters (Volume II) used in the bioprocess industries. See the respective Handbook sections for more information on those items. Figure 1.1.E. Glass-lined vessel and agitator. Dual-Use Chemical Equipment: Reaction Vessels, Reactors or Agitators Packaging The specific means of packaging depends on the size of the reactor. In any case, the reactor ports should be covered for shipping to avoid contamination of the vessel. Figure 1.1.F shows large vessels strapped to trailers for shipping; note the caps on the ports of all reactors and the wrapped agitator motor in the centre photograph. Smaller vessels may be secured in form-fitting pallets like the one in Figure 1.1.D (left) or possibly inside crates. Figure 1.1.F. Reaction vessels with sealed ports strapped to trailers for shipment. The image on the left is a Zirconium 702-clad reactor. Note: the volume and by extension the control status of these reaction vessels is unknown Typical Applications Many industries have use for reaction vessels meeting AG specifications. Such industries include pharmaceuticals, fine chemicals, chlor-alkali, and those handling acids. The proper choice of material of construction depends on the specific chemicals and process conditions, so not all AG materials of construction are suitable for all corrosive conditions. See the materials of construction section for examples of chemical compatibility with AG-listed materials. 122

139 1.2. Agitators Basic Description Agitators stir chemical mixtures to promote thorough, uniform mixing within reaction vessels. For this reason, they are also called mixers, although this term applies to a wider variety of equipment than just agitators. Many agitators resemble a hand-held blender, but on a scale appropriate for mixing large quantities of chemicals namely, controlled agitators are designed for use in controlled reactors with internal volume between 100 and litres and have corrosion-resistant wetted surfaces. Global Production China France Germany India Italy The Netherlands United States Notable Features As a complete unit, agitators are composed of a drive mechanism (motor with mount, and potentially a gearbox and variable speed drive); a shaft for extending down into the reaction mixture; and one or more impellers (blade sets) for stirring. Figure 1.2.A shows a series of complete agitators with different types of motors and mounting options. A C-clamp might be used on portable agitators (e.g., for attachment to a tank rim), like the left agitator in Figure 1.2.A. It is not clear, however, that such agitators would be suitable for use in a controlled reaction vessel, as opposed to a simple tank, since agitators must be designed for controlled reactors to be controlled. Flanged or plate mountings are more common for reaction vessels or tanks. There may be provisions for mounting the agitator at an angle for improved mixing in vessels without internal baffles; such a wedge-shaped mount is visible in the right agitator in Figure 1.2.A. Figure 1.2.A. Complete agitators with a variety of motor and mounting options. Left: Gear drive motor with C-clamp mount; Centre: Belt drive motor with flanged mount; Right: Gear drive motor with angle riser and plate mount. Agitators also may be sold without motors, i.e. as attached impeller-shaft sets like those shown later in this section (see Packaging). Impellers and shafts may be sold separately from each other as well. The AG specifications control impellers, blades, and shafts for controlled agitators separate from motors, in addition to complete agitator units. However, agitator motors alone do not meet AG control requirements. Impellers come in several designs and are chosen for a given application based on the properties of the chemicals that need to be mixed (e.g., viscosity and phase). The AG does not specify any particular impeller design for control. It should be noted that impellers for agitators are generally different in appearance from impellers for pumps; pump impellers often have a solid disk on one side rather than blades open on both sides. However, agitators for controlled pumps also can be controlled. Basic multi-blade impeller designs induce radial flow or some combination of radial and axial flow for relatively low viscosity fluids. The simplest design is the flat blade impeller, which may have from two to eight blades; a four-blade design is the most common. In this configuration, the blade surfaces are aligned parallel to the shaft and may be open type or disc type (Figure 1.2.B far left and centre left, respectively). The open type has the blades attached to the impeller hub, while the disc type has blades attached to a disc which is in turn fastened to the hub; one example of the latter is the Rushton turbine pictured in Figure 1.2.B. Both of these impeller designs also can be made with curved instead of flat blades. Another variation of the flat blade design is the pitched blade impeller, in which the blades are tilted at an angle to the agitator shaft (Figure 1.2.B centre right). A more sophisticated variation is the hydrofoil impeller, which Dual-Use Chemical Equipment: Reaction Vessels, Reactors or Agitators 123

140 is particularly efficient (i.e., induces more flow for less power). Figure 1.2.B shows examples of these basic designs. Figure 1.2.B. Radial and axial flow impellers. From left to right: vertical flat-blade turbine; Rushton turbine; 45 pitched blade turbine; hydrofoil blades. Dual-Use Chemical Equipment: Reaction Vessels, Reactors or Agitators More unusual, and often complicated, impeller designs are available, typically for use with viscous mixtures such as polymers. The simplest of these is the anchor impeller. Double helix ribbon-type impellers or screw (auger) impellers also are useful for high viscosity applications. Figure 1.2.C displays some impeller designs used in high viscosity applications. Shafts bearing multiple impellers are necessary for effectively mixing chemicals in large, tall vessels. Figure 1.2.D shows a glass-lined double-impeller agitator. Figure 1.2.C. Agitators for high-viscosity applications. Left: Anchor type; Right: Hybrid helix anchor design. Figure 1.2.D. Glass-lined agitator shaft with two sets of impellers. A baffle can be seen to the upper left of the agitator shaft. 124

141 Packaging There are a variety of packaging options for agitators, depending on their size, durability, and the combination of components shipped. Figure 1.2.E shows a pallet-mounting option for complete agitators, which can vary somewhat depending on the motor design and impeller size. Agitator shafts with attached impellers often are crated. For large agitator shaft-impeller combinations, a narrower crate might be used for the shaft with a larger attached crate to fit the impeller blades. Smaller units may be shipped in a one-sized crate. Pictures of such crates are shown in Figure 1.2.F. Separately-supplied components such as shafts or impellers likely would be shipped in boxes or crates, or on pallets with appropriate cushioning. Figure 1.2.G shows some examples of agitator shafts and impellers ready for shipping. Figure 1.2.E. Complete agitator units secured to pallets. Figure 1.2.F. Crated agitator shaft-impeller units. Left: Crate with larger box to accommodate impeller. Centre: Protectively-wrapped glass-lined impeller; Right: View of wrapped and shaft in a one-size crate. Dual-Use Chemical Equipment: Reaction Vessels, Reactors or Agitators 125

142 Typical applications Industries using agitators made of or lined with AG listed corrosion-resistant materials are the same as those using the corresponding corrosionresistant chemical reaction vessels. These industries include but are not limited to chlor-alkali, pulp and paper, pharmaceuticals, fine chemicals, and sectors producing or processing acids. The material used for the agitator wetted surfaces would likely be matched to that of the reactors, or at least have comparable chemical resistance. Dual-Use Chemical Equipment: Reaction Vessels, Reactors or Agitators Figure 1.2.G. Agitator components ready for shipping. Top: Pitched-blade impeller; Bottom: Agitator shafts. 126

143 2. Storage Tanks, Containers or Receivers Storage tanks, containers or receivers with a total internal (geometric) volume greater than 0.1 m 3 (100 l) where all surfaces that come in direct contact with the chemical(s) being processed or contained are made from the following materials: (a) nickel or alloys with more than 40% nickel by weight; (b) alloys with more than 25% nickel and 20% chromium by weight; (c) fluoropolymers (polymeric or elastomeric materials with more than 35% fluorine by weight); (d) glass or glass-lined (including vitrified or enamelled coating); (e) tantalum or tantalum alloys; (f) titanium or titanium alloys; (g) zirconium or zirconium alloys; or (h) niobium (columbium) or niobium alloys Basic Description As their names imply, storage tanks and containers are holding vessels for chemicals. Depending on their design details, such vessels could also serve as mixing tanks or rudimentary reaction vessels, or play other roles in the chemical process industries. Receivers are also holding vessels, but this term usually applies to a container for collecting chemicals after a processing operation for example, collecting a distilled chemical after condensation of the purified vapour. Global Production Canada China France Germany India 2.2. Notable Features Italy Storage tanks are usually cylindrical vessels that may be used in a horizontal or vertical orientation; storage tanks may also be designed for Unitied States above- or below-ground use. The ends of a storage tank may be curved (convex), flat, or conical. Figure 2.A shows photographs of some basic storage tank designs. While most tanks are cylindrical, rectangular designs are also found (Figure 2.A, top right). Vertical tanks and receivers often resemble reaction vessels. Besides having cylindrical vessels, common features to tanks, receivers, and reactors are welded or bolted heads, manways, and drain ports. Tanks might also be jacketed and agitated (or have a mount for an agitator) to prevent settling of the contents. Receivers and tanks may also have legs attached to them. However, in their basic designs, tanks and receivers usually have fewer ports than reaction vessels, and these ports may have a different configuration than those typically seen on reactor heads. In addition, reaction vessels more commonly have dished (convex) heads, whereas the curvature of receiver heads can be less pronounced. Figure 2.B shows some examples of simple receivers. However, it should be noted that more elaborate tanks and receivers may closely resemble reactors. The control list entry also refers to containers, a rather vague descriptor that could encompass a wide variety of barrels/drums, tote bins, and other intermediate bulk containers (IBCs). They would be controlled as long as they have wetted surfaces comprised of the materials in the control specifications and sufficient capacity. One example of such a container is the fluoropolymer-lined IBC shown in Figure 2.A (bottom right). Like reaction vessels, a distinct nonmetallic lining might be visible for glass- or fluoropolymer-lined tanks, provided some access to the interior is possible in physical inspection. Dual-Use Chemical Equipment: Storage Tanks, Containers or Receivers 127

144 Dual-Use Chemical Equipment: Storage Tanks, Containers or Receivers Figure 2.A. Simple storage tanks and containers. Top left: Glass-lined horizontal tank; Top right: Zirconium alloy storage tank; Bottom left: Glass-lined vertical tank; Bottom right: Fluoropolymer-lined IBC. Figure 2.B. Glass-lined receivers 128

145 2.3. Packaging Like reaction vessels, tanks and receivers can be shipped strapped to pallets or trailers, in each case with their ports covered to prevent contamination. A tank prepared for shipping is shown in Figure 2.C. Figure 2.C. Storage tank ready for shipping Typical Applications Numerous sectors of the chemical industry have uses for storage tanks, containers, and receivers made of materials in the AG control specifications. Among them are the pharmaceutical, fine chemical, petrochemical, and food processing industries, as well as sectors that handle strong acids and caustics. See the section on corrosion-resistant materials of construction for information on chemical compatibility with materials found in the control specifications. Dual-Use Chemical Equipment: Storage Tanks, Containers or Receivers 129

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147 3. Heat Exchangers or Condensers Heat exchangers or condensers with a heat transfer surface area of greater than 0.15 m 2, and less than 20 m 2 ; and tubes, plates, coils or blocks (cores) designed for such heat exchangers or condensers, where all surfaces that come in direct contact with the chemical(s) being processed are made from the following materials: (a) nickel or alloys with more than 40% nickel by weight; (b) alloys with more than 25% nickel and 20% chromium by weight; (c) fluoropolymers (polymeric or elastomeric materials with more than 35% fluorine by weight); (d) glass or glass-lined (including vitrified or enamelled coating); (e) graphite or carbon-graphite; (f) tantalum or tantalum alloys; (g) titanium or titanium alloys; (h) zirconium or zirconium alloys; (i) silicon carbide; (j) titanium carbide; or (k) niobium (columbium) or niobium alloys. Technical note: carbon-graphite is a composition consisting of amorphous carbon and graphite, in which the graphite content is eight percent or more by weight Basic Description Heat exchangers and condensers are used to control or change the temperature of various process streams in chemical operations. Both of these devices exchange heat using temperature control fluids, but they perform different functions. Heat exchangers are used to control the temperature of reaction mixtures, chemical feeds, or products, while condensers can be used to collect chemicals from a process such as distillation by condensing them from the gas to the liquid phase. To prevent mixing of the two fluids involved in the temperature control process (and thereby prevent cross-contamination), the fluids are physically separated from one another by thermally-conductive tubes, plates, or blocks. In the case of controlled equipment, these structures will be made of or lined with the corrosion-resistant materials identified in the control language. While functionally different, heat exchangers and condensers often look very similar; they may also be called reboilers, evaporators, liquid-liquid exchangers, gas coolers, or vapour condensers depending on their specific use. This section will refer to these items collectively as heat exchangers, noting visually unique aspects of condensers as applicable. Global Production Canada China France Germany India Italy Japan The Netherlands Sweden Switzerland United Kingdom United States Dual-Use Chemical Equipment: Heat Exchangers or Condensers 131

148 3.2. Notable Features Heat exchangers and condensers come in a wide variety of designs, but all share some common physical features. First, they will have pairs of fluid connections for the chemical stream of interest ( process chemicals ) and the temperature-controlling fluid. Second, they will be composed of a series of thermallyconductive barriers to keep the process chemicals and temperature-controlling fluid physically separated. Four common types of heat exchangers are coil, shell and tube, plate and frame, and block designs. 1 The following subsections address each type. It should be noted that the component coils, tubes, plates, and blocks are also subject to control when designed for use in a controlled heat exchanger or condenser. Coil Designs Figure 3.A shows a series of coil heat exchanger and condenser designs. Due to the heat transfer area requirements of the AG control specifications, small and/or simple coil designs are less likely to be controlled than larger units. There are several variations on this type of design: coil or double-pipe heat exchangers consist of concentric coils (Figure 3.A, left), while coil condensers are composed of a coil within a larger shell (Figure 3.A, centre and right). It should be noted that simple glass-in-glass reflux condensers used in university laboratories (Figure 3.A, centre) are typically too small to meet the heat transfer area specification given by the AG. However, larger reflux condensers over approximately 0.5 m in length with internal glass coils may meet this requirement. These coil designs should be distinguished from simple immersion coils (heaters), which would not be considered heat exchangers. Dual-Use Chemical Equipment: Heat Exchangers or Condensers Figure 3.A. Heat exchanger/condenser designs based on coils. Left: Coil-within-a-coil design; Centre: Glass reflux condenser; Right: Alloy coil condenser. Shell and Tube Designs Shell and tube heat exchangers (also known as tube heat exchangers) are the most common design used in the chemical process industries. As its name implies, the shell and tube heat exchanger is comprised of a bundle of tubes encased in a cylindrical shell, which often contains baffles to encourage flow of the shell-side fluid around the tubes. The tubes are attached at one or both ends to a tube sheet, which stabilises them and seals them against the fluid flowing in the shell. The shell will have inlet-outlet pairs of fluid connections that may appear in a variety of configurations, either on the same or opposite sides of the shell. The heat exchanger may also come with end caps called heads. The Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association (TEMA) maintains standards for shell and tube heat exchanger designs, including head configurations. 2 Shell and tube heat exchangers should also have nameplates, which typically bear 1 Others, such as spiral heat exchangers, are also available. 2 A figure depicting different head and shell configurations can be found at the TEMA website, 132

149 the manufacturer s name, a model number, and operating temperature and pressure ranges. In the case of equipment manufactured to TEMA standards, there should also be a TEMA plate. Figure 3.B shows a variety of shell and tube heat exchangers with some detailed views of tube bundles. Tubes designed for controlled heat exchangers are also controlled according to the AG specifications. Figure 3.B. Shell and tube heat exchangers. Top left: U-shaped tube bundle made from high-nickel Alloy 625; Top centre: End view of a tantalum tube sheet; Top right: Heat exchanger with silicon carbide tube bundle and glass shell; Bottom left: Tantalum heat exchangers with a variety of sizes, tube arrays, and fluid connections; note the heads with fluid connections on the palletted heat exchangers. Bottom right: Heat exchanger with fluoropolymer tube bundle pulled out. Figure 3.C displays a schematic of fluid flow in a shell and tube heat exchanger. Often with corrosive chemicals, the chemical mixture of interest will be sent through the tube bundle because it can be less expensive to make a tube set out of corrosion-resistant materials than it is to construct both the shell and tubes of such materials. In any case, the tube material of construction will be important for control status. Dimensions of controlled shell and tube heat exchangers vary due to variations in the number and dimensions of tubes that can be placed inside shells, which impacts the heat transfer area. Figure 3.C. Schematic of a shell and tube heat exchanger showing fluid flows. Plate and Frame Designs Plate and frame heat exchangers are also known simply as plate heat exchangers. They are composed of a series of thin, corrugated plates pressed together in a frame, forming a series of liquid channels that are sealed by gaskets, welds, or a combination of both. Plate and frame heat exchangers come in four basic types: gasketed, welded, semi-welded, or brazed, which refer to the connections between the plates that provide seals so that the hot and cold fluids do not intermix. However, brazed heat exchangers are typically made of stainless steel plates with copper or nickel brazing and are therefore less likely to be controlled. Like the other heat exchanger designs, plate and frame models have pairs of fluid inlets and outlets that may be on the same or opposite sides of the frame, depending on the specific requirements of the process. The ports typically will be located at the corners of the frame. Ports may be threaded, studded, flanged, or sanitary connections. These heat exchangers are likely to have a nameplate prominently mounted on the Dual-Use Chemical Equipment: Heat Exchangers or Condensers 133

150 frame. Figure 3.D shows some examples of plate and frame heat exchangers. A plate and frame condenser may have a large vapour inlet port that would distinguish it from a plate and frame heat exchanger. Figure 3.D. Examples of plate and frame heat exchangers with flanged (left) and studded (centre and right) connections. Dual-Use Chemical Equipment: Heat Exchangers or Condensers Plates for these heat exchangers are typically very thin; graphite plates may be ~ 1 cm or less in thickness, while some suppliers claim that 0.5 mm thickness is a typical dimension for metal plates. Double-wall plates are also available, which may be thicker because they incorporate a thin airspace between a set of plates and therefore allow for extra protection against plate failures. Plates are corrugated, usually with a herringbone or chevron pattern, to induce turbulent flow over the plates for better heat transfer, increase the surface area of the plates, and increase the strength and rigidity of the unit. 3 Plates designed for controlled heat exchangers are also controlled according to AG specifications. Plate and frame designs are also used for condensation and evaporation applications. Such units may be visually distinguishable from typical plate and frame heat exchangers by unusual fluid/steam connections. The presence of connections allowing gas/liquid as opposed to liquid/liquid operations is a clue to use in condensation or evaporation applications instead of simple temperature control. Plate and frame heat exchangers are typically more compact than shell and tube heat exchangers. Therefore, plate and frame heat exchangers may meet the AG heat transfer area specification in a smaller unit than a shell and tube design. Block Heat Exchangers Block heat exchangers consist of a core of material that has fluid channels drilled through it, surrounded by a housing with fluid connections. Figure 3.E shows examples of block heat exchangers and a component block (core). Housings for block heat exchangers may be rectangular or cylindrical; cylindrical housings will therefore resemble shell and tube heat exchangers, but with a ring of bolts around one of the end plates as seen in Figure 3.E (left). Likewise, blocks can be cylindrical or have square or rectangular cross-sections, and blocks designed for controlled heat exchangers are also controlled as individual components. Of the materials of construction in the control list entry, graphite and silicon carbide are the most likely materials to be used in block heat exchangers. 3 Images of heat exchanger plates can be found in product brochures. For example, see SGL Group, Plate Heat Exchangers ; Graphite_Plate_Heat_Exchangers.pdf 134

151 Figure 3.E. Graphite block heat exchangers. A cylindrical block (core) for a heat exchanger is pictured on the right Packaging Depending on their size and durability, heat exchangers may be strapped to pallets or secured in crates for shipping. Ports should be capped for shipping to prevent contaminants from entering the heat exchanger. Large heat exchangers might be strapped to flatbed trucks, with special cradles for holding the unit. Figure 3.F shows shell and tube heat exchangers and condensers in different types of packaging. Figure 3.F. Packaging for shell and tube heat exchangers, condensers, and tube bundles. For final shipment, the heat exchanger on the left would probably have its ends sealed to prevent debris from entering the tube bundle. The units on the far right are condensers, the left and centre left units are heat exchangers, and the centre right image is of a tube bundle Typical Applications Heat exchangers are ubiquitous. They can be found practically anywhere heating or cooling of fluids is required. Because of the material requirement in the AG specifications, the range of applications of controlled heat exchangers is somewhat narrower than the full set of possible applications. However, there are still a wide variety of legitimate uses of controlled heat exchangers and condensers. See the materials of construction section for information on what sectors that might use controlled heat exchangers or condensers constructed from a given material. Dual-Use Chemical Equipment: Heat Exchangers or Condensers 135

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153 4. Distillation or Absorption Columns Distillation or absorption columns of internal diameter greater than 0.1 m; and liquid distributors, vapour distributors or liquid collectors designed for such distillation or absorption columns, where all surfaces that come in direct contact with the chemical(s) being processed are made from the following materials: (a) nickel or alloys with more than 40% nickel by weight; (b) alloys with more than 25% nickel and 20% chromium by weight; (c) fluoropolymers (polymeric or elastomeric materials with more than 35% fluorine by weight); (d) glass or glass-lined (including vitrified or enamelled coating); (e) graphite or carbon-graphite; (f) tantalum or tantalum alloys; (g) titanium or titanium alloys; (h) zirconium or zirconium alloys; or (i) niobium (columbium) or niobium alloys. Technical note: carbon-graphite is a composition consisting of amorphous carbon and graphite, in which the graphite content is eight percent or more by weight Basic Description Distillation and absorption columns are key pieces of equipment for chemical separations. These are devices in which liquids and gases are contacted to either enrich the vapour phase with a desired product (distillation) or selectively absorb gases into a solvent (absorption). A useful primer on distillation that discusses the anatomy of columns can be found at the Newcastle University Chemical and Process Engineering Web Server. 1 India 4.2. Notable Features Italy Distillation and absorption columns are tall cylindrical vessels containing The Netherlands internal structures that enhance the interaction between the liquid and vapour inside the column. The outer appearance is that of a column with Switzerland multiple ports. They have a somewhat similar appearance to shell and United States tube heat exchangers, but are typically much longer than their diameters 2 and can bear more ports than just the pair of inlets and outlets that would be needed for a standard shell and tube heat exchanger. When in operation, they are installed vertically and are sometimes called stacks. For columns, ports are not only used for material transfer; large columns will also include manways to provide access for installing column internals. Distillation columns also can come in multiple sections to be connected, for example, by bolts, clamps, or tie-rods. The column may also have fins around its circumference for mounting guide rails or platforms. The interior of the column will be filled or packed with various structures that facilitate the distillation process. Figure 4.A displays pictures of typical packed distillation columns with a simplified schematic showing some typical internal components. Absorption columns have the same general appearance as distillation columns. 1 Distillation: An Introduction; 2 However, this is not the case for vacuum distillation units. Global Production Canada China France Germany Dual-Use Chemical Equipment: Distillation or Absorption Columns 137

154 Dual-Use Chemical Equipment: Distillation or Absorption Columns Figure 4.A. Distillation columns. Left: Simplified schematic of a distillation column showing packings, trays, and selected column internals. Components are not to scale. Right: Complete distillation columns lying on their sides (with ports covered). Several internal column structures serve to promote the distillation or absorption process. Structures that enhance contact between liquid and vapour inside a column include trays (plates) and packings (Figure 4.A). While not controlled under AG specifications, it is worthwhile to describe the appearances of these structures as they are common components for these columns. Examples of column trays or plates are shown in Figure 4.B. These structures, like their names imply, are discrete discs perforated for the passage of vapour; liquid either flows across the trays as gases bubble upwards (cross-flow design) or passes through the same orifices as the vapours (counter-flow design). Typical tray designs include sieve plates, valve plates, fixed-valve plates, and bubble cap trays. The sieve plate is the simplest tray, with holes measuring approximately 1-12 millimetres in diameter 3 distributed throughout the plate. In valve trays, the orifices are fitted with disks or slats (often of proprietary design) that raise or lower depending on vapour flow, providing adjustable holes. Fixed valve trays incorporate stationary (always open) valves into the tray. Bubble cap trays are the most elaborate, incorporating solid or slotted caps over risers on the plate. In addition to orifices, trays will typically have a conduit called a downcomer to facilitate the movement of liquid to lower trays in the column. Downcomers often take the form of pipes or of plates tilted from the plane of the tray. 3 James R. Fair, Distillation, in Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology; a01.pub2/abstract 138

155 Figure 4.B. Trays (plates) for columns. Top left: Sieve tray with pipe downcomer; Top centre: Valve tray with plate downcomer; Top right: Bubble cap tray in PVDF; Bottom left: Sieve tray detail; Bottom centre: Bubble cap tray detail; Bottom right: Valve detail. Packings may be random or structured. Structured packing is often in the form of corrugated sheets gathered into a cylindrical shape by outer bands; they can be made from metals/alloys, ceramics, plastics (including fluoropolymers), or even graphite. Structured packing made of metal or plastic mesh or gauze is also used (in woven or knitted form). In contrast, random packings are often in the form of rings or saddles with varying levels of sophistication and can also be constructed from metal, ceramic, or plastic. Some classic shapes include the Raschig ring, Pall ring, Intalox saddle, and Berl saddle; newer designs are variations on these themes. Figure 4.C shows examples of structured and random packings. Figure 4.C. Structured and random packings for columns. Top left: Corrugated metal structured packing; Top centre: Carbon Raschig rings; Top right: Ceramic Torus Saddles; Bottom left: Plastic rings; Bottom right: Plastic low profile rings. Dual-Use Chemical Equipment: Distillation or Absorption Columns 139

156 Figure 4.D. Liquid distributors. Top left: Zirconium orifice riser plate distributor; Top right: Trough distributor; Bottom: Fluoropolymer lateral pipe distributor. The AG control language for distillation and absorption columns includes liquid distributors, vapour distributors, and liquid collectors, separate from the columns themselves. 4 In packed columns, liquid distributors serve to distribute liquid uniformly over the entire cross-section of the packing bed (see Figure 4.A). There are a number of standard designs for liquid distributors, such as the orifice/ riser pan or plate, trough or channel, lateral pipe, and spray nozzle types. Risers in orifice/riser designs may be cylindrical or rectangular in shape. Additional variations on the orifice/riser and trough designs can incorporate weirs, V-shaped notches that serve as liquid downcomers. All provide a series of liquid distribution points covering most of the column cross section; holes in these components are typically less than 20 millimetres in diameter. For small columns, liquid distributors are supplied in one piece, while larger distributors can be provided in multiple sections for easier installation. Figure 4.D shows photographs of some liquid distributor designs. Dual-Use Chemical Equipment: Distillation or Absorption Columns Figure 4.E. Example of a liquid collector. Figure 4.F. Example of a vane-type vapour distributor. Liquid collectors are also used in packed columns. A liquid collector, as its name implies, collects liquid from packed beds, either feeding a liquid distributor below it or collecting liquid for a separated fraction. In the former case, the functions of collection and distribution may be combined into a single-piece liquid redistributor. Liquid collectors resemble liquid distributors, but with some design variations; for example, chimney tray collectors look similar to orifice riser liquid distributors, but without orifices. Other designs include vane and chevron collectors. Collectors may also have a pipe jutting out from their lower side for funneling liquids. Figure 4.E shows an example of a vane-type liquid collector. Like liquid distributors, vapour distributors (or gas distributors) are used to distribute vapour uniformly across the column cross-section in packed columns. They are installed in the lower portion of the column (Figure 4.A, left) and can take a number of forms, ranging from tubes with holes or slits to more sophisticated designs like the vane type, comprised of a series of tilted plates. An example of the vane-type distributor is shown in Figure 4.F. 4 Images and additional discussion of these internals can be found in product brochures. For example, see RVT, Column internals ; 140

157 4.3. Packaging Industrial scale distillation or absorption columns are often large pieces of equipment, and therefore are frequently shipped strapped to flatbed trucks, supported by form-fitting cradles underneath them. Their ports should be sealed to prevent contamination. They may also be shipped as disassembled sections, like the palletted column components in Figure 4.G. Certain column internals are controlled as separate components and are likely to be shipped in boxes or crates. Figure 4.G shows pictures of columns ready for shipment. Figure 4.G. Columns ready for shipment Typical Applications Distillation and absorption columns are used throughout the chemical, petrochemical, and oil and gas industries. Columns and internals made of or lined with materials listed in the AG specifications find their major use in corrosive service, especially processes involving strong acids. For example, graphite columns can be used for separation of acids by distillation, purification of highly aggressive flue gases, and absorption of hydrogen chloride. See the materials of construction section for information on sectors for which a given material of construction is appropriate. Dual-Use Chemical Equipment: Distillation or Absorption Columns 141

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159 5. Filling Equipment Remotely operated filling equipment in which all surfaces that come in direct contact with the chemical(s) being processed are made from the following materials: (a) nickel or alloys with more than 40% nickel by weight; or (b) alloys with more than 25% nickel and 20% chromium by weight Basic Description Filling equipment is used to transfer materials into bulk containers such as drums or shipping tanks, or into individual containers for final use. In the case of chemical weapons, filling equipment could be used to fill delivery systems such as munitions or other devices Notable Features Filling machines come in a wide variety of designs named according to the mechanism by which they deliver materials into containers. Filling equipment generally can be divided into machines for filling gases, liquids or solids, and those that fill according to volume, weight, or product level, or by gravity delivery. Table 5 lists some examples of basic types of filling Global Production United States machines however, it should be noted that the distinctions among the various basic designs are not always clear-cut. Automated versions of these filling machines can be either in-line or rotary indexing, where containers are delivered to and from the filling heads on a linear or rotating conveyor, respectively. Combinations of these basic types are also marketed. The only design features specified in AG control language are remote operation and high-nickel or nickel-chromium alloy wetted parts therefore, any of these designs could be eligible for control if they meet both specifications and are remotely operated. Table 5. Basic types of filling machines Machine Type Gravity Volumetric Net weight or mass Fill-to-level Examples Time/gravity; also volumetric/gravity and pressure/gravity Piston, positive displacement, rotating chamber, auger, flow metre, timed flow, aerosol Combined with other methods (e.g., time/gravity or volumetric); also mass flow metre Overflow (gravity or pressure), vacuum, level-sensing; also known as pressure fillers While there are several varieties of filling machines, the major features of each are largely the same. Figure 5.A shows several types of filling machines for relatively small containers. It should be noted that no photographs of machines that meet the AG control specifications were found. These images therefore are meant to be simply illustrative of the general features of these machines. Dual-Use Chemical Equipment: Filling Equipment 143

160 Dual-Use Chemical Equipment: Filling Equipment Figure 5.A. Filling machine designs. A: Linear gravity overflow; B: Volumetric gravity; C: Rotary auger; D: Rear view of inline positive displacement filler; E: Rear view of rotary lobe pump filler; F: Piston; G: Rear view of pressure overflow filler; H: Net weight filler. None of these units meet Australia Group control specifications but rather display typical design features of filling equipment. As can be observed from Figure 5.A, automated filling machines have four basic features: (1) a set of nozzles (filling heads) for delivering chemicals to containers; (2) a linear (and/or rotary) conveyor for moving containers through the filling process; (3) a controller for operating the system; and (4) one or more tanks or fluid connections to a bulk source of material to be delivered to containers. Gravity-fill or auger fillers have tanks/hoppers above the fill heads; tanks also are needed to capture excess fluid in overflow designs but might be low on the unit (Figure 5.A, photograph G). Fill heads also may be enclosed in a cabinet for protection from exposure and/or environmental control. Filling machines operating by positive displacement or otherwise employing mechanical pressure may employ a number of types of pumps, such as the rotary lobe pump filler in Figure 5.A. Complete aerosol fillers have two filling stations one for product fill and the other for propellant fill but these stages may be supplied separately. 144

161 Remote operation is required for a filling machine to qualify for control. This feature may be offered as a separate option on filling machines, or possibly as a capability integrated into certain designs. Figure 5.B shows an example of a simple remote control unit that can be used with filling equipment Packaging Filling machines typically consist of several parts that could be packaged separately from the main unit. Therefore, units may be shipped in one piece or in sections. Care will likely be taken to prevent damage to fragile and/or precision components. Components such as nozzles, pumps, and control panels might be boxed and shipped separately Typical Applications Filling equipment is used widely in the food, beverage, pharmaceutical, cosmetics/personal care, household product, petroleum, and chemical industries. However, it appears that the majority of these applications involve filling machines with contact parts of stainless steel, plastics, fluoropolymers, or titanium, making filling equipment meeting controls more likely to be custom built than an off-the-shelf item. Filling equipment with contact surfaces made of the high nickel or nickel-chromium alloys outlined in the AG specifications would be expected for corrosive service. One manufacturer of filling equipment notes use of remote control units for filling explosives, though use in handling toxics could also be an expected application. Remote controls might be used for filling applications in the pharmaceutical industry as well. Figure 5.B. Simple remote control unit for use with filling equipment. Dual-Use Chemical Equipment: Filling Equipment 145

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163 6. Valves a. Valves, having both of the following: 1. A nominal size greater than 1.0 cm (3/8 ), and 2. All surfaces that come in direct contact with the chemical(s) being produced, processed, or contained are made from the materials of construction in Technical Note 1 of this entry; b. Valves, not already identified in paragraph 6.a., having all of the following: 1. A nominal size equal to or greater than 2.54 cm (1 ) and equal to or less than cm (4 ) 2. Casings (valve bodies) or preformed casing liners, 3. A closure element designed to be interchangeable, and 4. All surfaces of the casing (valve body) or preformed case liner that come in direct contact with the chemical(s) being produced, processed, or contained are made from the materials of construction in Technical Note 1 of this entry; c. Components, as follows: 1. Casings (valve bodies) designed for valves in paragraphs 6.a.or 6.b., in which all surfaces that come in direct contact with the chemical(s) being produced, processed, or contained are made from the materials of construction in Technical Note 1 of this entry; 2. Preformed casing liners designed for valves in paragraphs 6.a.or 6.b., in which all surfaces that come in direct contact with the chemical(s) being produced, processed, or contained are made from the materials of construction in Technical Note 1 of this entry. Technical Note 1. Materials of construction for valves are any of the following: (a) nickel or alloys with more than 40% nickel by weight; (b) alloys with more than 25% nickel and 20% chromium by weight; (c) fluoropolymers (polymeric or elastomeric materials with more than 35% fluorine by weight); (d) glass or glass-lined (including vitrified or enamelled coating); (e) tantalum or tantalum alloys; (f) titanium or titanium alloys; (g) zirconium or zirconium alloys; (h) niobium (columbium) or niobium alloys; or (i) ceramic materials as follows: 1. silicon carbide with a purity of 80% or more by weight; 2. aluminum oxide (alumina) with a purity of 99.9% or more by weight; 3. zirconium oxide (zirconia). Technical Note 2. The nominal size is defined as the smaller of the inlet and outlet port diameters Basic Description Valves are used to control the flow of fluids. They are available in a wide variety of configurations, which can vary not only by material of construction and basic valve type, but also by the number of fluid ports, types of end connectors, body style, and means of opening and closing (actuation). Accordingly, valves can be named using numerous descriptors related to their design and/ Global Production Worldwide, including: China Italy France United Kingdom Germany United States India Dual-Use Chemical Equipment: Valves 147

164 or function: check, ball, globe, butterfly, swing, gate, plug, needle, flush, relief, diaphragm, bellows seal, and diverter are all adjectives that describe valves. The AG control specifications do not dictate any particular valve type; rather, the nominal size, wetted surface material(s), and interchangeability of the closure element are relevant to a valve s control status, as well as the control status of certain components. Consequently, AG valves are a diverse group of commodities Notable Features Valves are characterised by two or more fluid connections (ports) and some means of opening and closing the device. Fluid connections may have flanges, threads, a thread/nut combination, or other provisions for connecting pipes or tubing. Valves can be actuated (opened or closed) via operator intervention or automatically (self-actuated); electrical, pneumatic, hydraulic, or manual control may be employed to actuate a valve. 1 Figures 6.A, 6.B, and 6.C show a variety of valves of different styles, materials, and methods of actuation. Figure 6.D shows some additional designs with prominent labels and/or stamps. Most valves should have markings indicating the manufacturer and a part or model number, either stamped into the valve or on a label or nameplate. This information can be used to find additional technical information on the valve. Valve casings and preformed casing liners for controlled valves are also controlled as separate items, per paragraph 6.c of the control; examples of casing liners are shown in Figure 6.E. The AG also prescribes controls on valves with nominal sizes between 2.54 cm (1 ) and cm (4 ) [inclusive] that have closure elements designed to be interchangeable, provided that the wetted surfaces of their casings or casing liners are composed of materials of construction from the list in Technical Note 1. Examples of such closure elements would be balls, plugs, diaphragms, and discs for valves. Therefore, a 5 cm ball valve with a fluoropolymer casing liner and a carbon steel ball designed to be interchangeable would be subject to control. Dual-Use Chemical Equipment: Valves Figure 6.A. Fluoropolymer valves in a variety of designs. Left: PFA-lined plug valves with different actuation mechanisms (manual, pneumatic, and electrical); Right: 6 inch (DN150) PFA-lined butterfly valve with pneumatic actuator, indicator, and limit switch enclosure. 1 Useful overviews of valve types and nomenclature can be found on the Plast-O-Matic Valves website, especially in their ebook on plastic valves: 148

165 Figure 6.B. Alloy valves. Left: Hastelloy globe valve; Centre: Titanium gate valve; Top right: Alloy 20 check valve; Bottom right: Inconel check valve. Figure 6.C. Ceramic-lined valves. Left: Zirconia-lined butterfly valves; Right: Three-way ball valve with zirconia, alumina, and silicon carbide components. Figure 6.D. Valves showing nameplates, labels, and stamps. Left: 2 inch (DN50) PFA-lined ball valve with pneumatic actuator; Centre: Teflon solenoid valves; Right: Monel bellows seal valve. Dual-Use Chemical Equipment: Valves 149

166 Figure 6.E. Valve components. Left: Components of a fluoropolymer-lined butterfly valve showing casing liner; Right: PTFE liners for butterfly valves Packaging Small valves are typically packaged in boxes (one valve per box) and are likely to be wrapped in plastic. Cushioning in the box may be provided. Large valves could be crated or strapped to pallets for shipping. In this case, the ports will probably be capped or otherwise sealed to prevent contaminants from entering the valves. Figure 6.F shows large valves ready for shipping. Figure 6.G shows the packaging associated with a small valve note the box label. The box gives not only the manufacturer and part number but also notes that it is a restricted product, in this case because it is a Monel valve with high enough nickel content and sufficient nominal size to meet control specifications. 2 Dual-Use Chemical Equipment: Valves Figure 6.F. Valves ready for shipment. 2 This valve has a 3/8 end connection, which is at the cut-off size for the AG control; however, it is a bellows seal valve, and with its material of construction and size it meets the control specifications of the Nuclear Suppliers Group Dual-Use List (see

167 Figure 6.G. Packaging for a small valve. Left: Box label indicating part number and restricted product designation; Centre: View of packaging upon opening the box; Right: Box contents, including valve sealed in a plastic bag Typical Applications As an integral part of any chemical plant, valves constructed of or lined with AG-listed materials of construction can be expected to have use in the same industries as controlled chemical processing equipment. Examples include chlor-alkali, petrochemicals, fertilisers, pulp & paper, pharmaceuticals, power & desalination, and fine chemicals. Acid service is another area; for example, zirconium valves find use in handling acetic or hydrochloric acids. Fluoropolymer valves are used in the semiconductor, pharmaceutical, biotech and chemical process industries as well as use for ultrapure/deionised water applications; they are particularly suitable for corrosive applications when high purity is important. See the materials of construction section for more information on sectors using equipment with wetted parts of a particular listed material. Dual-Use Chemical Equipment: Valves 151

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169 7. Multi-Walled Piping Multi-walled piping incorporating a leak detection port, in which all surfaces that come in direct contact with the chemical(s) being processed or contained are made from the following materials: (a) nickel or alloys with more than 40% nickel by weight; (b) alloys with more than 25% nickel and 20% chromium by weight; (c) fluoropolymers (polymeric or elastomeric materials with more than 35% fluorine by weight); (d) glass or glass-lined (including vitrified or enamelled coating); (e) graphite or carbon-graphite; (f) tantalum or tantalum alloys; (g) titanium or titanium alloys; (h) zirconium or zirconium alloys; or (i) niobium (columbium) or niobium alloys. Technical note: carbon-graphite is a composition consisting of amorphous carbon and graphite, in which the graphite-content is eight percent or more by weight Basic Description Multi-walled piping systems serve to transport chemicals while protecting against leaks and providing the ability to detect them. Commonly known as double-containment or dual-containment piping, they are most often composed of two pipes separated by an annular space. The inner pipe also known as the carrier, primary, medium, or product pipe carries the fluid to be transported. The outer or containment or secondary pipe provides containment for any leaked chemicals until the location Global Production Austria Canada United States of the leak is detected and repaired. The annular space can be monitored by several techniques to detect failure of the carrier pipe. The use of multi-walled piping therefore provides protection for both people and the environment from exposure to hazardous chemicals, whether they are incorporated into a chemical processing facility or buried underground for the transport of aggressive media Notable Features Multi-walled piping is a pipe-within-a-pipe arrangement with an annular space between the (typically) two pipes for leak monitoring and containment. Figure 7.A shows pictures of multi-walled piping. The two concentric pipes are typically separated by internal structures such as support ribs or disks, giving slightly different end-on appearances of piping from different manufacturers. Some manufacturers produce multiwalled piping from two separate pipes, allowing them to construct the carrier and containment pipes from two different materials. As with single-walled pipe, manufacturers of multi-walled pipe provide a variety of fittings such as tees, elbows, lateral bends, caps, and reducers. The presence of a second pipe within the fittings will similarly be apparent on visual inspection of these components. In order to meet control specifications, however, the piping must incorporate a leak detection port in addition to having corrosionresistant surfaces. Dual-Use Chemical Equipment: Multi-Walled Piping 153

170 Figure 7.A. Examples of multi-walled piping. Left: straight pipe and fittings made of plastic; Right: cutaway view of a multi-walled plastic tee. Dual-Use Chemical Equipment: Multi-Walled Piping Figure 7.B. Some options for leak detection in double-walled piping systems. Leak detection is an important and integral part of multiwalled piping systems, and there are several methods that can be used to monitor the annular space for failures of the carrier pipe. Leak detection equipment is not listed separately by the AG, but the available methods lead to certain features of the piping systems themselves in order to accommodate leak testing this is an important consideration because the presence of a leak detection port is a key part of the AG control specifications. There are a few basic options for leak detection: continuous leak detection cables within the annular space, low point detection stations for either manual or probe/switch monitoring, and in-line detection from pipe fittings. Figure 7.B shows some arrangements for leak detection in double-containment systems. Ports useful for leak detection provide access to the annular space while leaving the carrier pipe unbreached, such as those shown in the bottom portion of Figure 7.B. Several such fittings would be expected for a doublecontainment piping system in order to help locate the leak. Detector cables must have some way to escape the double-containment system, so annular space access ports also will be required for piping systems when cable detection methods are employed. The schematics in Figure 7.C show some additional arrangements for leak detection. Leak detection could be accomplished by visual inspection using a sightglass or other seethrough area attached to the lower part of the containment pipe, but still requires a port for access to the space between the pipes. 154

171 Figure 7.C. Schematics of leak detection arrangements for multi-walled piping systems. Top left: cartoon of a pipe section with a leak detection port protruding from the right; Top centre: attachment for a low point sensor; Bottom left: access tee; Bottom centre: inspection well; Far right: threaded port for single-point detection incorporated into straight piping Packaging One producer of plastic double-containment piping, gives packaging and handling information in the technical information provided on its website. It states that shipment is typically via truck, noting that the pipe is capped or polyethylene wrapped to protect the ends from damage. Unless sizes prohibit, fittings are boxed and palletized according to the order quantities. Prefabricated spools can often be shipped by flatbed for easier loading and unloading. On larger pipe orders, pipe may be palletized and polyethylene wrapped upon request. 1 Similar packaging considerations would be expected for multi-walled piping constructed from other materials Typical Applications In general, multi-walled piping is used in several industries, including the nuclear, gas, petroleum, and chemical processing industries; semiconductor manufacturing; pulp and paper; waste handling; battery manufacturing; and pharmaceuticals. Multi-walled piping made of the materials in the AG specifications also has use in several sectors, especially those working with particularly corrosive, toxic, or otherwise aggressive fluids and some in which high product purity is required. One producer notes that PVDF provides the broadest protection for chemical processing, pulp mill bleaching, processing bromine pharmaceuticals, and manufacturing electronic products (metal etching operations and ultrapure deionised water lines). It also notes the resistance of another fluoropolymer, ECTFE, to strong acids and bases, solvents, and chlorine. Examples of applications for PVDF double-walled piping include use with hydrofluoric and nitric acids and sulphuric acids in pulp/paper mills and power plants. 2 1 Asahi/America, Inc. Catalog DC-98/A 2 Asahi/America, Inc. Duo-Pro Catalog DC-98/A Dual-Use Chemical Equipment: Multi-Walled Piping 155

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173 8. Pumps Multiple-seal and seal-less pumps with manufacturer s specified maximum flow-rate greater than 0.6 m 3 /h, or vacuum pumps with manufacturer s specified maximum flow-rate greater than 5 m 3 /h (under standard temperature (273 K (0 C)) and pressure (101.3 kpa) conditions), and casings (pump bodies), preformed casing liners, impellers, rotors or jet pump nozzles designed for such pumps, in which all surfaces that come into direct contact with the chemical(s) being processed are made from any of the following materials: (a) nickel or alloys with more than 40% nickel by weight; (b) alloys with more than 25% nickel and 20% chromium by weight; (c) fluoropolymers (polymeric or elastomeric materials with more than 35% fluorine by weight); (d) glass or glass-lined (including vitrified or enamelled coating); (e) graphite or carbon-graphite; (f) tantalum or tantalum alloys; (g) titanium or titanium alloys; (h) zirconium or zirconium alloys; (i) ceramics; (j) ferrosilicon (high silicon iron alloys); or (k) niobium (columbium) or niobium alloys. Technical note 1: carbon-graphite is a composition consisting of amorphous carbon and graphite, in which the graphite content is eight percent or more by weight. Technical note 2: The seals referred to in this control come into direct contact with the chemical(s) being processed (or are designed to), and provide a sealing function where a rotary or reciprocating drive shaft passes through a pump body Basic Description Like valves, pumps are ubiquitous pieces of equipment. Pumps facilitate the movement of materials from one place to another and therefore are essential for any processes involving chemical transfer. They also can be used to lower the system pressure in certain chemical processing operations such as vacuum distillation. Three basic types of pumps are identified for export control by the AG: multiple-seal, seal-less, and vacuum pumps. There are a variety of designs within these categories. For example, magnetically-coupled (also known as magnetic drive or mag-drive) and canned motor drive pumps are two of the most common designs for seal-less pumps. However, other pump designs such as diaphragm pumps and bellows pumps are inherently seal-less and fall within this group. 3 This section provides brief discussions of all three of the pump types in the AG control language. It should be noted that in all cases, certain pump components are identified for control separate from complete pumps. Global Production Worldwide, including: France Germany India Italy Japan The Netherlands Switzerland United Kingdom United States 3 Prior to the April 2005 update to the AG control specifications on pumps, canned drive, magnetic drive, bellows and diaphragm pumps were listed explicitly in the AG control language. Dual-Use Chemical Equipment: Pumps 157

174 AG specifications give flow rates in cubic metres per hour (m 3 /h), but manufacturers use a variety of units. Appendix E gives minimum flow rate specifications in other units of measurement Notable Features In standard centrifugal pump designs, the motor is outside of the pump casing where the pumped fluid is contained. The motor shaft is coupled to the pump shaft and translates its rotation to the pump shaft and its attached pumping element. The point at which the rotating pump shaft penetrates the pump casing is vulnerable to leaking and requires a seal to prevent the pumped fluid from escaping. In a standard, single mechanical seal pump, there is a shaft seal composed of a ring that rotates with the pump shaft and a second fixed ring mounted to the casing (i.e., the seal surfaces move with respect to each other). Also known as a dynamic or rotary shaft seal, this seal is prone to failure; this results in leakage of pumped fluids into the environment because the seal directly contacts the chemicals being processed. Technical Note 2 of this entry clarifies the definitions of multiple-seal and seal-less pumps by stating that the seals referred to in the control are these shaft seals. 4 Such multiple-seal and seal-less pumps attempt to improve upon this shortcoming of single-seal pumps for hazardous chemical service. Multiple-seal pumps. Multiple-seal pumps add additional mechanical seals along the pump shaft as added protection against leaks. Double mechanical seals may also be called dual or tandem seals, terms that relate to how the seals are mounted on the shaft. 5 Use of three mechanical seals (i.e., a triple seal pump) also is possible. Dual and tandem seal pumps incorporate a sealing chamber in which a barrier fluid can be injected between the two shaft seals for protection against leaks (Figure 8.A). Therefore, the presence of extra fluid connections between the motor and the chamber containing the pumped process fluid might indicate that a pump has multiple seals. However, examination of the pump s nameplate and documentation will be needed to verify technical and design information. Dual-Use Chemical Equipment: Pumps Figure 8.A. Schematic of a tandem seal pump showing connections for barrier fluids. Two mechanical seals are mounted on each shaft. The diagram shows mechanical seals in dark blue/yellow. Two connections are used for the barrier fluid (light blue), and the pumped fluid is shown in pink. 4 Technical Note 2 also specifies that reciprocating shaft seals are also included in the scope of the control. 5 For a detailed discussion of single and multiple shaft seals, see Grundfos, Mechanical shaft seals for pumps ; grundfos.com/content/dam/global%20site/industries%20%26%20solutions/industry/pdf/shaftseal_samlet.pdf 158

175 Seal-less pumps. The term seal-less pump is somewhat misleading. Rather than being completely without seals, these pumps lack the shaft seals identified in Technical Note 2 i.e., the seal where the rotating or reciprocating pump shaft enters the pump casing. Seal-less pump designs eliminate this shaft seal rather than simply reinforcing it with additional seals as in the case of multiple-seal pumps. Magnetic drive pumps and canned motor pumps (CMPs) are two designs that eliminate the need for shaft seals. 6 Inherently seal-less designs like diaphragm or bellows pumps would also fall into this category. This section will focus on magnetic drive and CMP designs, with brief mention of diaphragm pumps. A magnetic drive pump operates by using an electric motor to drive a set of permanent magnets, which in turn drive another set of magnets attached to the pump shaft and impeller. The rotor is therefore magnet-driven rather than mechanically coupled to the motor shaft, eliminating the need for a spinning shaft to penetrate the containment shell. Magnetic drive pumps come in a variety of configurations; some examples are shown in Figure 8.B, which includes a picture of the components of a magnetic drive pump. Magnetic drive pumps might not be visually distinctive compared to sealed pumps. Pump labeling and documentation will be key to identifying these seal-less pumps and determining their control status. However, the non-metallic lining seen in pumps in Figure 8.B can be a clue that the pump in question may have sufficient corrosion resistance to meet control specifications for materials of construction. Figure 8.C shows some examples of simple CMPs. CMPs contain the motor inside the pump s housing, eliminating the need for a rotating shaft to penetrate the pump casing. The pumped fluid provides lubrication and cooling for the motor. Due to the containment of the motor within the pump housing, CMPs often have a smooth Figure 8.B. Magnetic drive pumps and components. exterior surface, as opposed to the cooling fins often seen protruding from a motor housing on other pump designs. There may also be a terminal box for motor leads and a bearing wear monitor attached to the end of the CMP opposite the fluid attachments; the terminal box can be seen in the left and centre photographs in Figure 8.C as a white cylinder protruding from the top of the pump housing. CMPs, as well as magnetic drive pumps, can also come in vertically-oriented designs. 6 A discussion of the design and operation of magnetic drive and canned motor pumps can be found in the brochure Nikkiso Non- Seal Pump ; Dual-Use Chemical Equipment: Pumps 159

176 Figure 8.C. Examples of canned motor drive pumps (CMPs). Diaphragm pumps completely lack a rotary shaft seal, rendering them inherently seal-less. They are also known as membrane pumps, and the terms air-operated or pneumatic might be used in product names. Diaphragm pumps use a flexible membrane to vary the volume of the pump chamber, thereby pushing and pulling fluids through the pump. The diaphragm may be operated using compressed air (air-operated) or be motor-driven (electrical). Hydraulic or magnetic drives are also possible. An example of a plastic (non-fluoropolymer) construction air-operated diaphragm pump is shown in Figure 8.D. This figure shows the distinctive shape of this pump design. Vacuum pumps. The term vacuum pump applies to a wide range of pumps that allow sub-atmospheric Figure 8.D. Plastic diaphragm pump pressures to be achieved in the chamber being pumped. These pumps remove gases from a sealed volume, leaving a partial vacuum. Chemical processing operations using vacuum pumps include vacuum distillation, evaporation, filtration, and drying. Dual-Use Chemical Equipment: Pumps Vacuum pump designs often are subdivided into three types based on their principles of operation: (1) mechanical or positive displacement pumps; (2) momentum-transfer pumps; 7 and (3) entrainment pumps. Positive displacement pumps rely on internal moving parts to create an expanding cavity on the inlet side, trap incoming gases, compress them by shrinking the cavity, and release them out the discharge side. Product names for positive displacement pumps reflect the shapes of the moving components that cause the pumping action: claw, screw, rotary lobe, rotary piston, and rotary vane are names of some common positive displacement designs. Momentum-transfer pumps move gas molecules from the inlet to the discharge side by imparting momentum to the molecules to push them toward the exhaust. Diffusion pumps use fluid jets to impart momentum, while turbomolecular pumps use fans. Finally, entrainment pumps reduce pressure by trapping molecules on a surface or in a vapour inside the pump. This can be accomplished through various mechanisms, such as condensation or adsorption. Diffusion pumps are sometimes considered entrainment pumps, but the designs more commonly associated with entrainment are cryopumps, sorption pumps, titanium sublimation pumps, and sputter-ion pumps. 8 7 Common momentum transfer pumps include diffusion and turbomolecular pumps, which move pumped vapours with fluid jets or fans, respectively. 8 For detailed discussion of these entrainment pump types, see Chapter 6 Vacuum Pumps, 160

177 Vacuum engineers also distinguish pumps based on the sub-atmospheric pressure levels they can obtain (rough, medium, high, or ultrahigh vacuum) 1 or by the presence or absence of a sealing fluid inside the pumping chamber (wet or dry pumps, respectively). The vacuum pumps of greatest relevance to chemical processing operations are rough or medium vacuum pumps of the positive displacement or momentum-transfer types. Wet and dry pumps are both pertinent to these applications. Therefore, this section will focus on three general pump designs commonly mentioned in the context of chemical or pharmaceutical processing: 2 ejectors, liquid ring pumps, and dry pumps. Of these, all function by positive displacement except for ejectors, which are momentum-transfer pumps with no moving parts. Figure 8.E. Examples of vacuum pumps. Left: Two-stage ejector system; Centre left: Ejector components; Centre right: Liquid ring pump; Right: Combination steam ejector and liquid ring pump system. Ejectors: Also called jet pumps, ejectors use the flow of a motive fluid through a converging-diverging nozzle to generate the pumping action. The motive fluid is most commonly steam, but may also be another fluid like an organic solvent, air, or nitrogen. Nozzles can be fabricated from metals or plastics. Ejectors find use in numerous sectors, including the chemical, plastics, petrochemical, pharmaceutical, and pulp and paper industries. They may be single- or multiple-stage systems, and are visually characterised by their tapered converging-diverging nozzles, which are narrower in the centre than on the ends (Figure 8.E, left and centre left). Liquid ring pumps: Liquid ring pumps are comprised of a multi-blade impeller mounted eccentrically in a cylindrical casing, i.e., offset from the casing axis. The impeller forces a sealing fluid to the casing walls, forming a liquid ring that provides sealing and heat absorption, while the impeller blades create variablesized chambers for the pumping action. Liquid ring pumps are made of metal and are used in the same industry sectors as those mentioned above for ejectors, among others. Liquid ring pumps resemble a classic centrifugal pump, but often have both the inlet and outlet on top of the pumping chamber (Figure 8.E, centre right). Like ejectors, they can come in single or multiple-stage designs, and could be offered in hybrid pump packages with ejectors (Figure 8.E, right). Dry pumps: Like their name implies, dry pumps do not require a working fluid or lubricant for operation. Several vacuum pump designs can run as dry pumps, namely rotary claw, rotary screw, and rotary lobe pumps. 3 Each of these designs has a pair of moving parts in a claw, screw, or three-lobed rotor shape, respectively that provides the changes in volume required for the pumping action. An article from Chemical Engineering cites use of dry pumps in the pharmaceutical, fine/specialty chemical, and semiconductor industries, 4 and the use of dry pumps for aggressive gases has been noted. 5 1 J. L. Ryans and S. Croll, Selecting vacuum systems, Chem. Eng. p. 72 (December 14, 1981) 2 Joe Aliasso, Choose the Right Vacuum Pump, Chemical Engineering 106(3), (1999); 3 Joe Aliasso, How to make sure you select the right dry vacuum pump, World Pumps 2000(402), (2000); graham-mfg.com/usr/pdf/techlibvacuum/228.pdf 4 Joe Aliasso, Choose the Right Vacuum Pump ; Ibid. 5 D. Collins, Vacuum systems for chemical and pharmaceutical processes, Chemical Industry Digest (June 2011); edwardsvacuum.com/uploadedfiles/resource/technical_articles/vacuum%20systems.pdf Dual-Use Chemical Equipment: Pumps 161

178 8.3. Packaging Pumps may be crated for shipment or strapped to pallets. Inlets and outlets should be sealed for shipping, and the units could be cushioned, for example, with foam packing. Components could be boxed or crated, but large parts might be supplied on pallets. Very large pumps may be directly strapped to flat-bed trucks for shipment. Figure 8.F shows examples of pumps ready for shipment. Dual-Use Chemical Equipment: Pumps Figure 8.F. Pumps ready for shipment. Top left: Centrifugal pump head in a box with padding; Top right: Diaphragm pump strapped to a pallet; Bottom left: Multi-stage ejector pump system on a pallet; Bottom right: Ejectors on a flatbed trailer Typical Applications Double-seal pumps can be used for solids-containing media as well as toxic and corrosive service. Sealless pumps like magnetic drive pumps are well-suited for handling corrosive, hard-to-seal, and otherwise hazardous liquids. Applications cited for non-metallic (fluoropolymer) magnetic-drive pumps include use in acid transfer (e.g., sulphuric, hydrochloric, hydrofluoric, and nitric) and service for caustics and chloralkali chemicals (e.g., sodium hydroxide, sodium hypochlorite, and chlorine dioxide). Relevant sectors and activities include chemical processing, metal plating, parts washing, circuit boards, photo processing, pharmaceuticals, food processing, wet scrubbers, and semiconductors. Fluoropolymer diaphragm pumps find use in electronics, CMP slurries, chemical, wastewater, petroleum, food, pharmaceutical, processing, mining, and general industrial applications, while fluoropolymer bellows pumps are used in the pharmaceutical industry. 162

179 Table 8 lists several applications for pumps made of corrosion-resistant materials, based on brochures from pump manufacturers. Table 8. Examples of pump applications associated with corrosion-resistant materials Material Titanium Zirconium Nickel PVDF PFA PTFE Silicon carbide Applications Resistant to heavily oxidising and chloride containing media; preferred for use in chlor-alkali processes (e.g., electrolysis; media include brine, salt water, sodium hypochlorite, or caustic soda), for pumping bleaching solutions containing chlorine, and in the manufacture of acetic acid Suitable for pumping very hot highly concentrated acetic acid, other organic acids (e.g., formic acid), hydrochloric acid, and boiling concentrated aluminium chloride solution Used for pumping molten alkalis, for the evaporation of alkalis, and for pumping highly refined alkalis; caustic soda concentration units Suitable for the pumping of hydrofluoric acid at all concentrations up to the boiling point, liquids containing halogens, nitric/hydrofluoric acid pickling solutions, and for the evaporation of waste hydrochloric acid Universal chemical resistance, with a few exceptions Outstanding resistance against nearly all organic and inorganic media over a wide temperature range Well-suited for highly aggressive and highly abrasive media. Typical applications include acidic coke slurries, filter dust slurries containing acid, titanium dioxide suspensions, nickel production with large proportions of nickel chloride and copper chloride, hydrochloric acid, and solids Dual-Use Chemical Equipment: Pumps 163

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181 9. Incinerators Incinerators designed to destroy CW agents, AG-controlled precursors or chemical munitions, having specially designed waste supply systems, special handling facilities, and an average combustion chamber temperature greater than 1000 C, in which all surfaces in the waste supply system that come into direct contact with the waste products are made from or lined with the following materials: (a) nickel or alloys with more than 40% nickel by weight; (b) alloys with more than 25% nickel and 20% chromium by weight; or (c) ceramics Basic Description High temperature incinerators can be used to destroy CW agents and decontaminate munitions that have housed them. Incineration is a common method utilised in CW disposition, and incinerators for this purpose operate at temperatures significantly higher than those of Global Production United States industrial incinerators. 1 Such facilities also have very stringent requirements for material handling and pollution abatement due to the severe hazards posed by CW agents Notable Features The U.S. Army Chemical Materials Activity (CMA) describes the process of CW incineration in its Fact Files on Incineration Technology 2 and a fact sheet on incineration technology. 3 The CMA s incineration technology fact sheet notes that incinerators used in the process operate at significantly higher temperatures and for longer periods of time than industrial incinerators, to ensure complete destruction of chemical agent and total decontamination of casings and munition pieces. Another fact sheet on CW incineration safety notes that these facilities are engineered with specially designed weapons handling processes, remote-controlled incineration and disposal equipment, complex control systems and detailed procedures and training to protect the workers, environment and the public. 4 The United States used incineration for CW destruction at Johnston Island in the Pacific near Hawaii; Anniston Army Depot in Alabama; Pine Bluff Arsenal in Arkansas; Deseret Chemical Depot in Utah; and Umatilla Chemical Depot in Oregon. 5 Photographs of some CW incineration facilities are shown in Figure 9.A. 1 U.S. Army Chemical Materials Agency, Incineration Technology: So, just what exactly comes out of the stack? Note: this fact sheet was published under the CMA s previous name. 2 U.S. Army Chemical Materials Activity, Fact Files; 3 U.S. Army Chemical Materials Agency, Incineration Technology: So, just what exactly comes out of the stack? Note: this fact sheet was published under the CMA s previous name. 4 U.S. Army Chemical Materials Agency Fact Sheet, Incineration: A Safe, Proven Disposal Process Note: this fact sheet was published under the CMA s previous name. 5 U.S. Army Chemical Materials Activity, About CMA, Dual-Use Chemical Equipment: Incinerators 165

182 Figure 9.A. Chemical weapons incineration facilities. Left: Umatilla, Oregon; Middle: Anniston, Alabama; Right: Johnston Atoll (now decontaminated, decommissioned, and destroyed). The CMA s Fact Files note that it uses three furnaces for destruction operations: a Liquid Incinerator (LIC), Metal Parts Furnace (MPF), and Deactivation Furnace (DFS). The overall facility also includes a Pollution Abatement System (PAS). Each system is described below, and images from their Fact Files are shown in Figure 9.B, as examples of systems designed for CW destruction. Dual-Use Chemical Equipment: Incinerators Liquid Incinerator (LIC): 6 According to the CMA Fact File, the LIC destroys liquid chemical agents drained and removed from munitions during demilitarisation, as well as agent-contaminated liquids from cleanup and decontamination activities. The LIC is composed of a primary and secondary chamber, which operate at 2700 F (~1482 C) and 2000 F (~1093 C), respectively. Metal Parts Furnace (MPF): 7 The MPF decontaminates metal from munitions and metal scrap and waste via high temperature in a furnace and afterburner. The furnace and afterburner operate at about 1500 F (~815 C) and 2000 F (~1093 C), respectively. Deactivation Furnace (DFS): 8 The DFS is a rotary kiln furnace capable of incinerating chopped rockets, explosives, propellants, and remaining chemical agents. Pollution Abatement System (PAS): 9 The PAS is a wet scrubber system composed of a quench tower to lower gas temperatures, a scrubber tower to neutralise acids, and a venturi, mist eliminator, and carbon filter to remove various particulates and trace materials. The detailed specifications (e.g., temperature and materials of construction) of a given incinerator system designed for CW agent, AG-listed precursor, or munition destruction will determine its ultimate control status under the AG. 6 U.S. Army Chemical Materials Activity, Liquid Incinerator, Fact Files; 7 U.S. Army Chemical Materials Activity, Metal Parts Furnace, Fact Files; 8 U.S. Army Chemical Materials Activity, Deactivation Furnace, Fact Files; 9 U.S. Army Chemical Materials Activity, Pollution Abatement System, Fact Files; 166

183 Figure 9.B. Facilities for chemical agent incineration operations. Top left: Liquid incinerator; Top right: Metal parts furnace; Bottom left: Deactivation furnace; Bottom right: Pollution abatement system Packaging Controlled incineration facilities for CW destruction would be designed for this purpose and probably shipped as sections to be constructed onsite Typical Applications As previously noted, this equipment is designed for the destruction of CW agents or munitions. It is possible that such incinerators could also be used for extremely toxic chemical wastes, although the extent to which this occurs in practice was not determined. Dual-Use Chemical Equipment: Incinerators 167

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185 Toxic Gas Monitoring Systems and their Dedicated Detecting Components II. Toxic Gas Monitoring Systems and their Dedicated Detecting Components Toxic gas monitoring systems and their dedicated detecting components as follows: detectors; sensor devices; replaceable sensor cartridges; and dedicated software therefore (a) designed for continuous operation and usable for the detection of chemical warfare agents or AG controlled precursors at concentrations of less than 0.3 mg/m 3 ; or (b) designed for the detection of cholinesterase-inhibiting activity II.1. Basic Description Toxic gas monitoring systems are integral to the safe operation of hazardous chemical production, processing, handling, and disposal facilities, and facilities working with CW agents are certainly no exception. 10 Monitors are a subset of detection systems that have the capability to operate and sample the environment continuously i.e., without constant human control to immediately alert personnel to the presence of a particular agent or precursor. These near real-time, continuous air monitoring systems can alert personnel to releases in minutes, while other systems can be used in laboratory settings for longer sampling periods and to check the readings of continuous air monitors ( historical monitoring ). Toxic gas monitoring systems, certain dedicated detecting components, and related dedicated software are identified by the Australia Group for control when they meet either of two specifications: (a) continuous operation with detection at particular concentration levels of specified CW-relevant chemicals or (b) detection of cholinesterase inhibiting (i.e., nerve agent) activity. II.2. Notable Features Global Production Finland France Germany United Kingdom United States Systems and Detectors Meeting Specification II.a. Toxic gas monitoring (TGM) systems and their dedicated detecting components can have a range of appearances. In the case of those meeting AG specification II.a, they appear much like pieces of electronic equipment or electronic components, but with some notable features specific to toxic gas detection. First, the unit should have some sort of gas sampling port, and likely also electrical connections for transmission of data (although wireless units might be possible). Furthermore, visible and/or audible alarms may be present on the detectors or main control units for alerting workers to hazardous ambient levels of dangerous chemicals. A readout is likely to appear on the unit to show the concentration of the chemical detected. Although units may have a purely digital readout, there may be markings near the readout panel indicating a concentration unit (i.e., ppm) or possibly the chemical detected by the sensor. Figure II.A shows a series of toxic gas monitors for CW agents that exhibit some of these features. In this category of TGM systems, the detection method is not specified in the control language. However, two popular detection methods for CW agents are (1) ion mobility spectroscopy (IMS), and (2) gas chromatography (GC) coupled with different types of detectors. Detectors which may be used in conjunction with GC include flame photometric detectors (FPD, or PFPD for pulsed versions) and halogen specific detectors (XSD ). Other methods of detection include surface acoustic wave (SAW), infrared (e.g., OP-FTIR), electrochemical, or photoionisation detection (PID). However, documentation will be required regardless of detection method to determine whether or not a particular unit would meet AG control specifications given that none of the 10 For example, the U.S. Centres for Disease Control and Prevention provides a fact sheet that summarises main points about monitoring for CW agents in disposal facilities. See CDC, Air Monitoring for Chemical Warfare Agents; Dual-Use Chemical Equipment: Toxic Gas Monitoring Systems and their Dedicated Detecting Components 169

186 Dual-Use Chemical Equipment: Toxic Gas Monitoring Systems and their Dedicated Detecting Components relevant specifications are likely to be visually apparent. 11 This includes not only determining the detection range of the unit, but also the chemicals it can detect and whether or not it can continuously monitor the environment. Figure II.A. Toxic gas monitoring systems for CW agents. Left: Ion mobility spectroscopy-based system; Centre: Gas chromatography-based system (different detector options available); Right: Surface acoustic wave spectroscopy-based system. Some dual-use toxic chemicals that could be used as CW agents (e.g., hydrogen cyanide) and AG-controlled precursors are among the toxic industrial chemicals (TICs) used in non-cw-related industrial settings for legitimate applications. Therefore, commercial systems for TIC detection might also meet AG specifications if they have sufficient sensitivity and operate continuously. Potential CW agents and AG-controlled precursors that can be detected by commercially-available TIC sensors include arsenic trichloride, cyanogen chloride, dimethylamine, hydrogen cyanide, hydrogen fluoride, phosgene, phosphorus oxychloride, phosphorus trichloride, and phosphorus pentachloride. Most suppliers of commercial TGM systems report detection levels in parts per million (ppm) rather than mg/m 3. The conversion between the two units requires knowledge of the molecular weight of the chemical in question. Equations II.1 and II.2 show this conversion, assuming conditions of 25 C and 1 atmosphere. 12 X ppm = (Y mg/m 3 )(24.45)/(molecular weight) Y mg/m 3 = (X ppm)(molecular weight)/24.45 Table II gives the ppm equivalent of the AG detection limit for potential CW agents and AG-listed precursors that could be detected by commercial TGM systems. 11 However, some detectors for nerve and blister agents could bear individual letters like G or H (for G-series nerve agents or mustard gas, respectively), which would indicate a capacity to detect chemical warfare agents. Additional information on detection limits and mode of operation would still be required to determine control status with respect to the AG specifications. 12 The CDC provides a conversion calculator online at (II.1) (II.2) 170

187 Table II. AG detection limit (0.3 mg/m 3 ) in ppm for selected toxic chemicals and precursors Toxic chemical or precursor Parts per million (ppm) equivalent of 0.3 mg/m 3 Arsenic trichloride 0.04* Cyanogen chloride 0.1 Dimethylamine 0.2 Hydrogen cyanide 0.3 Hydrogen fluoride 0.4 Phosgene 0.07 Phosphorus oxychloride 0.05 Phosphorus trichloride 0.05 Phosphorus pentachloride 0.04 * Limits in ppm are rounded to one significant figure. Cyanogen chloride, hydrogen cyanide, and phosgene have legitimate industrial applications, but they are also listed as toxic chemicals in Schedule 3A of the CWC due to their potential for use as CW agents. Systems and Detectors Meeting Specification II.b. As noted in the Introduction to Chemical Weapons and Dual-Use Chemical Technology, nerve agents injure and kill their victims by disrupting nervous system function. They accomplish this by inhibiting (i.e., interfering with) the activity of an enzyme called acetylcholinesterase. TGM units meeting AG specification II.b are those designed to detect this property of nerve agents. Some methods for detecting enzyme inhibition of the enzyme cholinesterase include colourimetric and potentiometric techniques; however, from a commercial standpoint these techniques appear to be used primarily to detect cholinesterase inhibition in blood or other fluids, not for gas monitoring (i.e. for detecting exposure, not monitoring for releases of cholinesterase inhibitors). While commercial kits are available for detecting the presence of cholinesterase enzymes, no commercialised detectors of cholinesterase inhibiters in air samples were found in the course of researching this Handbook, except for basic nerve agent detector tickets or sampling papers. Other Controlled Systems Toxic gas monitoring systems and detectors that measure CW agents might meet the requirements for control as Wassenaar Arrangement items even if they do not meet AG control specifications. The Wassenaar Arrangement Munitions List includes Equipment, specially designed or modified for military use, for the detection or identification of CW agents and specially designed components for them. The Wassenaar Arrangement also lists detection systems in its Dual-Use List under 1.A.4.c, Nuclear, biological and chemical (NBC) detection systems specially designed or modified for detection or identification of chemical warfare (CW) agents and specially designed components therefor. Such systems are generally not intended for facility monitoring like those controlled by the AG. See the Wassenaar Arrangement website for complete control language for these items. 1 II.3. Packaging Toxic gas monitors and dedicated detectors would probably be shipped like other pieces of sensitive electronic equipment. Units could be supplied in cardboard boxes or crates with internal padding like Styrofoam. The units also could be sealed in plastic bags and/or internal boxes. 1 The Wassenaar Arrangement website can be found at Dual-Use Chemical Equipment: Toxic Gas Monitoring Systems and their Dedicated Detecting Components 171

188 Dual-Use Chemical Equipment: Toxic Gas Monitoring Systems and their Dedicated Detecting Components II.4. Typical Applications Toxic gas monitors detecting CW agents could be used in CW destruction or other handling facilities; in the case of dual-use toxic chemicals that could be used as CW agents (such as hydrogen cyanide or phosgene), such detectors may also find use in commercial settings. Likewise, detectors for precursors could be used in their respective industries for example, semiconductors. See the chapter on AG-listed Chemical Weapons Precursors for examples of industrial uses of these chemicals. However, it should be noted that the sensitivity level of toxic gas monitors required in industrial settings may vary from chemical to chemical (e.g., depending on toxicity). Therefore, the high sensitivity afforded by controlled monitoring systems and their dedicated detectors which is applicable to all CW agents and precursors without distinction might not be necessary for use in every relevant industry sector. Additional research will be necessary to determine the suitability of controlled monitoring systems and their dedicated detectors for specific end uses. 172

189 Related Technology III. Related Technology Technology, including licenses, directly associated with - CW agents; AG-controlled precursors; or AG-controlled dual-use equipment items, to the extent permitted by national legislation. This includes: a) transfer of technology (technical data) by any means, including electronic media, fax or telephone b) transfer of technology in the form of technical assistance. Controls on technology do not apply to information in the public domain or to basic scientific research or the minimum necessary information for patent application. The approval for export of any AG-controlled item of dual-use equipment also authorizes the export to the same end-user of the minimum technology required for the installation, operation, maintenance or repair of that item. III.1. Basic Description Control of knowledge that would enable a CW program is a challenging but extremely important task. The AG s chemical equipment control list prescribes controls on technology directly associated with not only AG-controlled dual-use equipment, but also CW agents and AG-controlled precursors. In the context of the list, technology is defined as specific information necessary for the development, production or use of a product. The information takes the form of technical data or technical assistance. All terms within single quotation marks are further defined in the list; see the Glossary for those definitions. This section provides some examples of related technology that would and would not be subject to control. 2 There are notable exemptions from control for certain types of technology. First, such controls do not apply to information in the public domain according to the AG s definition, this means technology that has been made available without restrictions upon its further dissemination. 3 Controls also do not apply to basic scientific research, defined by the AG as experimental or theoretical work undertaken principally to acquire new knowledge of the fundamental principles of phenomena or observable facts, not primarily directed towards a specific practical aim or objective. The minimum information necessary to apply for patents is also exempted. The AG further specifies that approved exports of dual-use equipment bring with them an authorisation to transfer the minimum technology necessary for the installation, operation, maintenance, or repair of the item transferred. 2 Examples are taken from the AG s publication, Intangible Technology Transfers; available from the AG Secretariat. 3 The AG further notes that copyright restrictions do not remove technology from being in the public domain. Dual-Use Chemical Equipment: Related Technology 173

190 III.2. Examples of Related Technology Controlled technologies related to chemicals and equipment of CW concern could take many forms, with some examples noted below. Publicly-available information about synthesis and production pathways for precursors and CW agents is not controlled and is usually not enough to master methods needed for the production of CW agents. Transfer of controlled technologies of types such as those below therefore must be scrutinized carefully, particularly with regard to the end users of the information and their intentions for using it. Training and Technical Assistance: Controlled technology can be transferred via training in the chemical sciences and chemical engineering, such as academic studies, specialist courses, and industry training that could be applied to the production of CW-related chemicals. Transfer of controlled technology could also occur through conferences, workshops, and scientific publications. Precursor Production Technology: Large-scale production schemes for dual-use precursors are often protected for commercial reasons and/or rely on knowledge resident in a particular company. Industrial-scale production often differs substantially from laboratory-scale synthesis, and such technology could pose a proliferation concern if not controlled appropriately. Development Technology for Equipment: Controlled technology of this type could take several forms, such as blueprints, diagrams, models, tables, formulae, engineering designs, photographs, specification manuals, procedures, instructions, books, reports, etc. The information can therefore be transferred orally or physically, including through the use of computer devices and networks. It is important to note that controlled development technology for equipment that is not state-of-the-art may still be relevant to proliferators seeking a CW production capability. Dual-Use Chemical Equipment: Related Technology 174

191 Software IV. Software Controls on software transfer only apply where specifically indicated in sections I and II above, and do not apply to software which is either: 1. Generally available to the public by being: a. Sold from stock at retail selling points without restriction, by means of: i. Over-the-counter transactions; ii. Mail order transactions; iii. Electronic transactions; or iv. Telephone call transactions; and b. Designed for installation by the user without further substantial support by the supplier; or 2. In the public domain. III.1. Basic Description The AG defines software as a collection of one or more programmes or microprogrammes fixed in any tangible medium of expression. The AG definition of a programme is a sequence of instructions to carry out a process in, or convertible into, a form executable by an electronic computer. Likewise, a microprogramme is defined as a sequence of elementary instructions maintained in a special storage, the execution of which is initiated by the introduction of its reference instruction register. Controls on software do not apply to the two instances outlined in the control list, i.e., not in the public domain or generally available to the public as defined by the AG. Dedicated software for controlled toxic gas monitoring systems is an example of controlled software, since such software controls are specifically indicated in that control list entry. The ease of software, program, and code transmission makes software controls particularly challenging, but nonetheless important. As noted by the AG in their booklet on intangible technology transfers (ITT): 4 Consequently it is one area where self-awareness and self-auditing by scientists, engineers, programmers and other relevant staff is critical to maintaining defences against proliferators. Software is a subject which governments need to emphasise in their outreach to universities, research institutes and companies to ensure they remain aware of the potential for ITT to contribute to programs of proliferation concern. 4 Australia Group, Intangible Technology Transfers; available from the AG Secretariat. Dual-Use Chemical Equipment: Software 175

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193 Appendices Australia Group Common Control List Handbook Volume I Appendix A: Export Control List of Chemical Weapons Precursors September 2009 Precursor Chemical CAS No. CWC-Schedule Thiodiglycol ( ) 2B Phosphorus oxychloride ( ) 3B Dimethyl methylphosphonate ( ) 2B Methylphosphonyl difluoride (DF) ( ) 1B Methylphosphonyl dichloride (DC) ( ) 2B Dimethyl phosphite (DMP) ( ) 3B Phosphorus trichloride ( ) 3B Trimethyl phosphite (TMP) ( ) 3B Thionyl chloride ( ) 3B 3-Hydroxy-1-methylpiperidine ( ) Not Listed N,N-Diisopropyl-(beta)-aminoethyl chloride ( ) 2B N,N-Diisopropyl-(beta)-aminoethane thiol ( ) 2B 3-Quinuclidinol ( ) 2B Potassium fluoride ( ) Not Listed 2-Chloroethanol ( ) Not Listed Dimethylamine ( ) Not Listed Diethyl ethylphosphonate ( ) 2B Diethyl N,N-dimethylphosphoramidate ( ) 2B Diethyl phosphite ( ) 3B Dimethylamine hydrochloride ( ) Not Listed Ethylphosphinyl dichloride ( ) 2B Ethylphosphonyl dichloride ( ) 2B Ethylphosphonyl difluoride ( ) 1B Hydrogen fluoride ( ) Not Listed Methyl benzilate ( ) Not Listed Methylphosphinyl dichloride ( ) 2B N,N-Diisopropyl-(beta)-amino-ethanol ( ) 2B Pinacolyl alcohol ( ) 2B Appendix A: Export Control List: Chemical Weapons Precursors 177

194 Precursor Chemical CAS No. CWC-Schedule O-Ethyl 2-diisopropylaminoethyl methylphosphonite (QL) ( ) 1B Triethyl phosphite ( ) 3B Arsenic trichloride ( ) 2B Benzilic acid ( ) 2B Diethyl methylphosphonite ( ) 2B Dimethyl ethylphosphonate ( ) 2B Ethylphosphinyl difluoride ( ) 2B Methylphosphinyl difluoride ( ) 2B 3-Quinuclidone ( ) Not Listed Phosphorus pentachloride ( ) 3B Pinacolone ( ) Not Listed Potassium cyanide ( ) Not Listed Appendix A: Export Control List: Chemical Weapons Precursors Potassium bifluoride ( ) Not Listed Ammonium bifluoride ( ) Not Listed Sodium bifluoride ( ) Not Listed Sodium fluoride ( ) Not Listed Sodium cyanide ( ) Not Listed Triethanolamine ( ) 3B Phosphorus pentasulphide ( ) Not Listed Diisopropylamine ( ) Not Listed Diethylaminoethanol ( ) Not Listed Sodium sulphide ( ) Not Listed Sulphur monochloride ( ) 3B Sulphur dichloride ( ) 3B Triethanolamine hydrochloride ( ) Not Listed N,N-Diisopropyl-2-aminoethyl chloride hydrochloride ( ) 2B Methylphosphonic acid ( ) 2B Diethyl methylphosphonate ( ) 2B N,N-Dimethylaminophosphoryl dichloride ( ) 2B Triisopropyl phosphite ( ) Not Listed Ethyldiethanolamine ( ) 3B O,O-Diethyl phosphorothioate ( ) Not Listed 178

195 Precursor Chemical CAS No. CWC-Schedule O,O-Diethyl phosphorodithioate ( ) Not Listed Sodium hexafluorosilicate ( ) Not Listed Methylphosphonothioic dichloride ( ) 2B Technical note - Chemicals are listed by name, Chemical Abstract Service (CAS) number and CWC Schedule (where applicable). Chemicals of the same structural formula (e.g., hydrates) are controlled regardless of name or CAS number. CAS numbers are shown to assist in identifying whether a particular chemical or mixture is controlled, irrespective of nomenclature. However, CAS numbers cannot be used as unique identifiers in all situations because some forms of the listed chemical have different CAS numbers, and mixtures containing a listed chemical may also have different CAS numbers. Appendix A: Export Control List: Chemical Weapons Precursors 179

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197 Appendix B: Control List of Dual-Use Chemical Manufacturing Facilities and Equipment and Related Technology and Software February 2014 I. Manufacturing Facilities and Equipment Note 1. The objective of these controls should not be defeated by the transfer of any noncontrolled item containing one or more controlled components where the controlled component or components are the principal element of the item and can feasibly be removed or used for other purposes. N.B. In judging whether the controlled component or components are to be considered the principal element, governments should weigh the factors of quantity, value, and technological know-how involved and other special circumstances which might establish the controlled component or components as the principal element of the item being procured. Note 2. The objective of these controls should not be defeated by the transfer of a whole plant, on any scale, which has been designed to produce any CW agent or AG-controlled precursor chemical. Note 3. The materials used for gaskets, packing, seals, screws, washers or other materials performing a sealing function do not determine the status of control of the items listed below, provided that such components are designed to be interchangeable. 1. Reaction Vessels, Reactors or Agitators Reaction vessels or reactors, with or without agitators, with total internal (geometric) volume greater than 0.1 m 3 (100 l) and less than 20 m 3 (20000 l), where all surfaces that come in direct contact with the chemical(s) being processed or contained are made from the following materials: (a) nickel or alloys with more than 40% nickel by weight; (b) alloys with more than 25% nickel and 20% chromium by weight; (c) fluoropolymers (polymeric or elastomeric materials with more than 35% fluorine by weight); (d) glass or glass-lined (including vitrified or enamelled coating); (e) tantalum or tantalum alloys; (f) titanium or titanium alloys; (g) zirconium or zirconium alloys; or (h) niobium (columbium) or niobium alloys. Agitators designed for use in the above-mentioned reaction vessels or reactors; and impellers, blades or shafts designed for such agitators where all surfaces of the agitator that come in direct contact with the chemical(s) being processed or contained are made from any of the following materials: (a) nickel or alloys with more than 40% nickel by weight; (b) alloys with more than 25% nickel and 20% chromium by weight; (c) fluoropolymers (polymeric or elastomeric materials with more than 35% fluorine by weight); (d) glass or glass-lined (including vitrified or enamelled coating); Appendix B: Control List of Dual-Use Chemical Manufacturing Facilities and Equipment and Related Technology and Software 181

198 (e) tantalum or tantalum alloys; (f) titanium or titanium alloys; (g) zirconium or zirconium alloys; or (h) niobium (columbium) or niobium alloys. Appendix B: Control List of Dual-Use Chemical Manufacturing Facilities and Equipment and Related Technology and Software 2. Storage Tanks, Containers or Receivers Storage tanks, containers or receivers with a total internal (geometric) volume greater than 0.1 m 3 (100 l) where all surfaces that come in direct contact with the chemical(s) being processed or contained are made from the following materials: (a) nickel or alloys with more than 40% nickel by weight; (b) alloys with more than 25% nickel and 20% chromium by weight; (c) fluoropolymers (polymeric or elastomeric materials with more than 35% fluorine by weight); (d) glass or glass-lined (including vitrified or enamelled coating); (e) tantalum or tantalum alloys; (f) titanium or titanium alloys; (g) zirconium or zirconium alloys; or (h) niobium (columbium) or niobium alloys. 3. Heat Exchangers or Condensers Heat exchangers or condensers with a heat transfer surface area of greater than 0.15 m 2, and less than 20 m 2 ; and tubes, plates, coils or blocks (cores) designed for such heat exchangers or condensers, where all surfaces that come in direct contact with the chemical(s) being processed are made from the following materials: (a) nickel or alloys with more than 40% nickel by weight; (b) alloys with more than 25% nickel and 20% chromium by weight; (c) fluoropolymers (polymeric or elastomeric materials with more than 35% fluorine by weight); (d) glass or glass-lined (including vitrified or enamelled coating); (e) graphite or carbon-graphite; (f) tantalum or tantalum alloys; (g) titanium or titanium alloys; (h) zirconium or zirconium alloys; (i) silicon carbide; (j) titanium carbide; or (k) niobium (columbium) or niobium alloys Technical note: carbon-graphite is a composition consisting of amorphous carbon and graphite, in which the graphite content is eight percent or more by weight. 4. Distillation or Absorption Columns Distillation or absorption columns of internal diameter greater than 0.1 m; and liquid distributors, vapour distributors or liquid collectors designed for such distillation or absorption columns, where all surfaces that come in direct contact with the chemical(s) being processed are made from the following materials: (a) nickel or alloys with more than 40% nickel by weight; (b) alloys with more than 25% nickel and 20% chromium by weight; 182

199 (c) fluoropolymers (polymeric or elastomeric materials with more than 35% fluorine by weight); (d) glass or glass-lined (including vitrified or enamelled coating); (e) graphite or carbon-graphite; (f) tantalum or tantalum alloys; (g) titanium or titanium alloys; (h) zirconium or zirconium alloys; or (i) niobium (columbium) or niobium alloys. Technical note: carbon-graphite is a composition consisting of amorphous carbon and graphite, in which the graphite content is eight percent or more by weight. 5. Filling Equipment Remotely operated filling equipment in which all surfaces that come in direct contact with the chemical(s) being processed are made from the following materials: (a) nickel or alloys with more than 40% nickel by weight; or (b) alloys with more than 25% nickel and 20% chromium by weight 6. Valves a. Valves, having both of the following: 1. A nominal size greater than 1.0 cm (3/8 ), and 2. All surfaces that come in direct contact with the chemical(s) being produced, processed, or contained are made from the materials of construction in Technical Note 1 of this entry; b. Valves, not already identified in paragraph 6.a., having all of the following: 1. A nominal size equal to or greater than 2.54 cm (1 ) and equal to or less than cm (4 ) 2. Casings (valve bodies) or preformed casing liners, 3. A closure element designed to be interchangeable, and 4. All surfaces of the casing (valve body) or preformed case liner that come in direct contact with the chemical(s) being produced, processed, or contained are made from the materials of construction in Technical Note 1 of this entry; c. Components, as follows: 1. Casings (valve bodies) designed for valves in paragraphs 6.a.or 6.b., in which all surfaces that come in direct contact with the chemical(s) being produced, processed, or contained are made from the materials of construction in Technical Note 1 of this entry; 2. Preformed casing liners designed for valves in paragraphs 6.a.or 6.b., in which all surfaces that come in direct contact with the chemical(s) being produced, processed, or contained are made from the materials of construction in Technical Note 1 of this entry. Technical Note 1. Materials of construction for valves are any of the following: (a) nickel or alloys with more than 40% nickel by weight; (b) alloys with more than 25% nickel and 20% chromium by weight; (c) fluoropolymers (polymeric or elastomeric materials with more than 35% fluorine by weight); Appendix B: Control List of Dual-Use Chemical Manufacturing Facilities and Equipment and Related Technology and Software 183

200 (d) glass or glass-lined (including vitrified or enamelled coating); (e) tantalum or tantalum alloys; (f) titanium or titanium alloys; (g) zirconium or zirconium alloys; (h) niobium (columbium) or niobium alloys; or (i) ceramic materials as follows: 1. silicon carbide with a purity of 80% or more by weight; 2. aluminum oxide (alumina) with a purity of 99.9% or more by weight; 3. zirconium oxide (zirconia). Technical Note 2. The nominal size is defined as the smaller of the inlet and outlet port diameters. Appendix B: Control List of Dual-Use Chemical Manufacturing Facilities and Equipment and Related Technology and Software 7. Multi-Walled Piping Multi-walled piping incorporating a leak detection port, in which all surfaces that come in direct contact with the chemical(s) being processed or contained are made from the following materials: (a) nickel or alloys with more than 40% nickel by weight; (b) alloys with more than 25% nickel and 20% chromium by weight; (c) fluoropolymers (polymeric or elastomeric materials with more than 35% fluorine by weight); (d) glass or glass-lined (including vitrified or enamelled coating); (e) graphite or carbon-graphite; (f) tantalum or tantalum alloys; (g) titanium or titanium alloys; (h) zirconium or zirconium alloys; or (i) niobium (columbium) or niobium alloys. Technical note: carbon-graphite is a composition consisting of amorphous carbon and graphite, in which the graphite content is eight percent or more by weight. 8. Pumps Multiple-seal and seal-less pumps with manufacturer s specified maximum flow-rate greater than 0.6 m 3 /h, or vacuum pumps with manufacturer s specified maximum flow-rate greater than 5 m 3 /h (under standard temperature (273 K (0 C)) and pressure (101.3 kpa) conditions), and casings (pump bodies), preformed casing liners, impellers, rotors or jet pump nozzles designed for such pumps, in which all surfaces that come into direct contact with the chemical(s) being processed are made from any of the following materials: (a) nickel or alloys with more than 40% nickel by weight; (b) alloys with more than 25% nickel and 20% chromium by weight; (c) fluoropolymers (polymeric or elastomeric materials with more than 35% fluorine by weight); (d) glass or glass-lined (including vitrified or enamelled coating); (e) graphite or carbon-graphite; (f) tantalum or tantalum alloys; (g) titanium or titanium alloys; 184

201 (h) zirconium or zirconium alloys; (i) ceramics; (j) ferrosilicon (high silicon iron alloys); or (k) niobium (columbium) or niobium alloys. Technical note 1: carbon-graphite is a composition consisting of amorphous carbon and graphite, in which the graphite content is eight percent or more by weight. Technical note 2: The seals referred to in this control come into direct contact with the chemical(s) being processed (or are designed to), and provide a sealing function where a rotary or reciprocating drive shaft passes through a pump body. 9. Incinerators Incinerators designed to destroy CW agents, AG-controlled precursors or chemical munitions, having specially designed waste supply systems, special handling facilities, and an average combustion chamber temperature greater than 1000 C, in which all surfaces in the waste supply system that come into direct contact with the waste products are made from or lined with the following materials: (a) nickel or alloys with more than 40% nickel by weight; (b) alloys with more than 25% nickel and 20% chromium by weight; or (c) ceramics. Technical Note: For the listed materials in the above entries, the term alloy when not accompanied by a specific elemental concentration is understood as identifying those alloys where the identified metal is present in a higher percentage by weight than any other element. Statement of Understanding These controls do not apply to equipment which is specially designed for use in civil applications (for example food processing, pulp and paper processing, or water purification, etc) and is, by the nature of its design, inappropriate for use in storing, processing, producing or conducting and controlling the flow of chemical warfare agents or any of the AG-controlled precursor chemicals. II. Toxic Gas Monitoring Systems and their Dedicated Detecting Components Toxic gas monitoring systems and their dedicated detecting components as follows: detectors; sensor devices; replaceable sensor cartridges; and dedicated software therefore (a) designed for continuous operation and usable for the detection of chemical warfare agents or AG-controlled precursors at concentrations of less than 0.3 mg/m 3 ; or (b) designed for the detection of cholinesterase-inhibiting activity III Related Technology Technology, including licenses, directly associated with CW agents AG-controlled precursors; or AG-controlled dual-use chemical equipment items, to the extent permitted by national legislation. Appendix B: Control List of Dual-Use Chemical Manufacturing Facilities and Equipment and Related Technology and Software 185

202 This includes a) transfer of technology (technical data) by any means, including electronic media, fax or telephone b) transfer of technology in the form of technical assistance. Controls on technology do not apply to information in the public domain or to basic scientific research or the minimum necessary information for patent application. The approval for export of any AG-controlled item of dual-use equipment also authorises the export to the same end-user of the minimum technology required for the installation, operation, maintenance, or repair of that item. IV. Software Controls on software transfer only apply where specifically indicated in sections I and II above, and do not apply to software which is either: 1. Generally available to the public by being: Appendix B: Control List of Dual-Use Chemical Manufacturing Facilities and Equipment and Related Technology and Software a. Sold from stock at retail selling points without restriction, by means of: i. Over-the-counter transactions; ii. Mail order transactions; iii. Electronic transactions; or iv. Telephone call transactions; and b. Designed for installation by the user without further substantial support by the supplier; or 2. In the public domain. Definition of Terms Basic scientific research Experimental or theoretical work undertaken principally to acquire new knowledge of the fundamental principles of phenomena or observable facts, not primarily directed towards a specific practical aim or objective. Development Development is related to all stages before production such as: design design research design analysis design concepts assembly of prototypes pilot production schemes design data process or transforming design data into a product configuration design integration design layouts 186

203 Export An actual shipment or transmission of AG-controlled items out of the country. This includes transmission of technology by electronic media, fax or telephone. In the public domain In the public domain, as it applies herein, means technology that has been made available without restrictions upon its further dissemination. (Copyright restrictions do not remove technology from being in the public domain.) Microprogramme A sequence of elementary instructions maintained in a special storage, the execution of which is initiated by the introduction of its reference instruction register. Production Production means all production phases such as: construction, production engineering, manufacture, integration, assembly (mounting), inspection, testing, and quality assurance. Programme A sequence of instructions to carry out a process in, or convertible into, a form executable by an electronic computer. Software A collection of one or more programmes or microprogrammes fixed in any tangible medium of expression. Technology Specific information necessary for the development, production or use of a product. The information takes the form of technical data or technical assistance. Technical assistance May take forms, such as: instruction, skills, training, working knowledge, consulting services. Technical assistance includes oral forms of assistance. Technical assistance may involve transfer of technical data. Technical data May take forms such as blueprints, plans, diagrams, models, formulae, tables, engineering designs and specifications, manuals and instructions written or recorded on other media or devices such as disk, tape, read-only memories. Use Operation, installation, (including on-site installation), maintenance, (checking), repair, overhaul or refurbishing. Appendix B: Control List of Dual-Use Chemical Manufacturing Facilities and Equipment and Related Technology and Software 187

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205 Appendix C: Chemical Precursor Descriptions: Definitions and Resources In this Handbook, each precursor on the AG Chemical Weapons Precursors Control List is described in four sub-sections: (1) Basic Description; (2) Notable Features; (3) Packaging; and (4) Typical Applications. In addition, a chemical structure and a list of producing countries is provided for each precursor. This section provides definitions of terms and examples of the resources used to obtain the information included in each of these sub-sections. Additional resources are provided in the Bibliography. Note: The authors do not endorse or in any way attest to the accuracy of the sources referenced herein. x. AG precursor name (where x is the precursor number on the control list for Chemical Weapons Precursors) Each entry begins by showing the chemical structure of the precursor. The structure can provide insight into its potential use in the manufacturing of chemical weapons (CW) agents and, therefore, its proliferation risk (i.e., how chemically similar it is to a CW agent). For example, the precursor thiodiglycol with formula C 4 H 10 O 2 S has the full chemical structure below: H H H H HO C C C S C H H which is similar to the chemical structure for mustard gas shown in the Introduction to Chemical Weapons and Dual-Use Chemical Technology. However, for compactness, organic chemistry shorthand is used in most of the structures shown in this Handbook. In this shorthand, each carbon atom is represented by the end of a line or the intersection of two lines instead of being shown explicitly as a C. Every carbon atom must have four chemical bonds for the molecule to be stable, so any missing bonds are assumed to be carbon-hydrogen bonds. Similarly, any nitrogen atom in an electronically neutral compound must have three bonds, and any missing bond is understood to be N-H. In this shorthand, the structure of thiodiglycol is: HO x.1. Basic Description This section begins by identifying the type of CW agent that can be made from the precursor.1 The remainder of the basic description is devoted to a table of identifiers and properties of the precursor that can be found on chemical labels and documentation; these pieces of information can assist in determining the identity of a material (and, by extension, its potential control status). S Numerous resources were used to compile this information. (Material) Safety Data Sheets (SDSs or MSDSs) 2 were used to find data on many precursors. SDSs are extremely valuable collections of physical properties, identifiers, transportation codes, and safety information for particular substances and are 1 Sources used include Army Field Manual FM , Potential Military Chemical/Biological Agents and Compounds (January 2005); and D. Hank Elison, Handbook of Chemical and Biological Warfare Agents (Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press), See also the Bibliography. 2 Previously known as Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDSs), the correct term for these documents is Safety Data Sheets (SDSs). However, several companies still use the outdated MSDS terminology. H H OH OH Appendix C: Chemical Precursor Descriptions: Definitions and Resources 189

206 often available from supplier websites if not included in a shipment. 3 In addition to manufacturer and supplier SDSs, several websites and books were used to verify information or find additional data. 4 Each precursor has a table of identifiers and properties, with the following format: Appendix C: Chemical Precursor Descriptions: Definitions and Resources Identifier/Property CAS# Formula Molecular Weight CA Index Name CWC Schedule EC# HS# UN# UN Hazard Placard Other Names EU CL# GHS Pictogram The sections below provide an explanation of each field in the table. CAS# The CAS# is a registry number assigned by the Chemical Abstracts Service. It is the most commonlyused, essentially unique identifier for a chemical substance. It takes the form XXXXXXX-XX-X, where each X is an number 0-9. The first number in the code varies in its number of digits (from two to seven), but the second and third parts always have two digits and one digit, respectively. The last digit in the CAS# is determined from the numbers that precede it, so it can be used to check whether or not a CAS# is valid. A formula for determining the validity of a CAS# can be found on the Chemical Abstracts Service website. 5 The CAS# frequently is available as a search term in chemical information databases. This identifier is extremely valuable because chemical formulas are not always unique and multiple names can be used for many substances. However, as recognised in the Technical Note to the Chemical Weapons Precursors control list, CAS numbers cannot be used as unique identifiers in all situations because some forms of the listed chemical have different CAS numbers, and mixtures containing a listed chemical may also have different CAS numbers. 6 Value 3 The MSDS Hyper Glossary is a useful on-line glossary of SDS terms: 4 For example, the NIST Chemistry WebBook at Handbook of Chemical and Biological Warfare Agents, Ibid.; Army Field Manual FM , Ibid.; CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 73rd Edition (Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press) ; and The Merck Index: an Encyclopedia of Chemicals, Drugs, and Biologicals, 13th Edition (Whitehouse Station, NJ: Merck), Check Digit Verification of CAS Registry Numbers; 6 It further advises that chemicals of the same structural formula (e.g., hydrates) are controlled regardless of name or CAS number. 190

207 Formula The chemical formula gives the elemental composition of a substance. It is a list of its constituent elements (denoted by their chemical symbols from the Periodic Table) with the number of atoms of each element given as a subscript. In accordance with one convention, the formulas in this Handbook are written in Hill Order: carbon (C) is listed first, followed by hydrogen (H), then all other elements in alphabetical order. However, this order does not always reflect the structure of the molecule; there are often alternative sequences that better describe the connections between atoms. For example, the formula for dimethylamine in Hill Order is C 2 H 7 N, but the molecular structure is reflected more accurately by the order NH(CH 3 ) 2. The latter sequence is also a correct expression of the formula. It also is important to realise that the chemical formula is not necessarily a unique identifier of a substance; different chemicals can have the same molecular formula. For example, ethylamine, which is not controlled by the AG, also has the formula C 2 H 7 N. Therefore, additional information often will be required to confirm the identity of a substance. Molecular Weight The molecular weight is the sum of the atomic weights of all atoms in the chemical formula; it is also the mass in grams per mole (where one mole is equal to molecules). The term molar mass is a more accurate name for this latter figure, but it is numerically the same as the molecular weight. CA Index Name The CA (Chemical Abstracts) Index name is the name given to a substance by the Chemical Abstracts Service, which is the same organisation that assigns CAS#s. The CA Index Name can be obtained from the Chemical Abstracts Service Registry Handbook, which provides a chemical name and formula associated with each registry number. There are often several synonyms for a chemical, and chemical names following other conventions are provided later in the table. CWC Schedule This entry notes the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) Schedule for the chemical. A helpful overview of the Schedules is provided by Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW), the implementing organisation of the CWC. 7 The CWC contains three Schedules of chemicals subject to verification measures under the treaty; toxic chemicals are listed in part A of each Schedule, with precursors under part B. Schedule 1 chemicals either have been or could easily be used as CW agents and have few, if any, legitimate uses other than protective purposes (e.g., testing protective or detection equipment). They would rarely be encountered in normal trade, and there are severe restrictions on international transfers of these chemicals. Schedule 2 chemicals can be used as CW agents or be used to make them, but they have a fair number of commercial applications. Schedule 3 chemicals are widely used and traded for many peaceful purposes. They also pose a proliferation risk due to their potential for use as CW agents or to prepare them, but it would take more chemical reactions to prepare a CW agent from a Schedule 3 precursor than a Schedule 2 precursor. Therefore, the Schedule assignment of a chemical reflects both the degree of its proliferation risk and the extent of its trade and commercial use. 7 OPCW, Which chemicals are controlled? The Schedules and further information about trade restrictions, inspections, and declarations can be found in the CWC text on the OPCW website: Appendix C: Chemical Precursor Descriptions: Definitions and Resources 191

208 EC# The EC# (European Commission Number) is a reference number for chemicals listed in the EC Inventory. The EC Inventory encompases the European Inventory of Existing Commercial Chemical Substances (EINECS), European List of Notified Chemical Substances (ELINCS), and the No-Longer Polymers (NLP) List, each of which has a different scope. 8 The EC# format is XXX-XXX-X, with all numeric digits. There are fewer entries in this registry than in that of the Chemical Abstracts Service; not all precursors have an EC#. EC#s can be found in the European Chemical Substances Information System (ESIS). 9 HS# The HS number is a code from the World Customs Organisation s Harmonized Commodity Description and Coding System, more commonly referred to as the Harmonized System or HS. These six-digit codes are harmonised internationally, providing a standardised system for classifying traded products. Individual WCO Member States assign additional digits beyond these for more specific classification and tariff rates. Appendix C: Chemical Precursor Descriptions: Definitions and Resources For those precursors that also appear on the CWC Schedules, HS numbers were confirmed using the WCO s Recommendation of the Customs Co-Operation Council on the Insertion in National Statistical Nomenclatures of Subheadings for Substances Controlled under the Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons and on their Destruction. 10 For unscheduled, AG-listed precursors, HS numbers were obtained from the first six digits of national codes from the United States and Australia. 11 UN# UN#s (United Nations Numbers) are four-digit codes used to identify hazardous substances and articles in transport; see the Chemical Packaging and Transportation section for more information. The master list of UN Numbers is the Dangerous Goods List of the UN Model Regulations. 12 For precursors falling into generic not otherwise specified categories, the UN numbers were obtained from manufacturer or supplier SDSs. The Proper Shipping Name is also provided in this field. UN Hazard Placard As described in the Chemical Packaging and Transportation section, each UN# has an associated Hazard Class or Division that dictates what hazard diamond placards would be posted on a shipment. The respective hazard diamonds are pictured in this field. Other Names A chemical substance frequently is known by more than one name. There are officially-recognised nomenclature rules set by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) that attempt to standardise chemical names. 13 However, archaic, trade, transportation, non-english language, and other alternative names are in use in many instances. This section compiles names found to be associated with a given precursor, either in chemical information databases or from commercial sources. 8 For more details, see Guidance for identification and naming of substances under REACH and CLP, European Chemicals Agency; 9 ESIS; 10 Online at Legal%20Instruments/Recommendations/HS/Recommendation%20CWC%202009_HS2012.ashx 11 Obtained, respectively, from and html 12 The most recent version of the UN Model Regulations (officially, the UN Recommendations on the Transport of Dangerous Goods Model Regulations) as of the writing of this Handbook is the Eighteenth revised edition published in 2013; trans/danger/publi/unrec/rev18/18files_e.html. The respective Dangerous Goods List is found in Part 3 of the Model Regulations; 13 IUPAC; 192

209 EU CL# EU CL#s are the control list numbers from the European Union s Dual-Use List. 14 Those substances with EU CL #s followed by (ML) have a reference to military goods controls in the Dual-Use List entry. GHS Pictogram This section provides the hazard pictogram(s) that would appear on labels of the chemical according to the Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS). See the Chemical Packaging and Transportation section for more information on the GHS. x.2. Notable Features This section describes the physical characteristics of the chemical for completeness of information. However, a chemical s appearance is not unique, and other information will be needed to make a positive identification of the chemical. x.3. Packaging Information about packaging of precursors for storage or shipment was gathered primarily from commercial sources of each chemical, as well as from other sources noted in the Bibliography for this Handbook. x.4. Typical Applications Peaceful uses of the precursor are discussed in this section. This section provides only a brief summary of commercial uses reported in various information sources. Other legitimate uses may be possible, and not all specifications (e.g., purity) of a listed precursor may be appropriate for every use listed. Therefore, additional research will be necessary to verify the validity of an end use claimed in a license application or a shipment. In addition to manufacturer and supplier websites, sources of information for this section include those consulted for the x.1. Basic Information section, as well as those listed in the Bibliography. Global Production Suppliers of precursors were identified through a combination of online directories and internet searches. The availability of the precursor was confirmed by searching individual company websites. When a multinational company was found to produce a precursor, the country where production takes place is noted when known; when the country of production is unknown, the headquarters country is listed by default. It is important to recognise that, while these countries produce the respective precursor, that precursor may be available from traders located in other countries not included in the Global Production listing. 14 The most recent version of the EU Dual-Use List, as of the writing of this Handbook, is Regulation (EU) No 388/2012 of the European Parliament and of the Council, available at do?uri=oj:l:2012:129:0012:0280:en:pdf Appendix C: Chemical Precursor Descriptions: Definitions and Resources 193

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211 Appendix D: Glossary Note: This Glossary contains terms found in this Handbook which may not be familiar to the reader and are not defined in the AG s own Definition of Terms. Stated definitions derive from common knowledge and information gathered from both online dictionaries and Wikipedia. Ablation The removal of material from an object by an erosion-type process. Absorption The uptake of one phase into another, such as a gas into a liquid or a liquid into a solid. Acetylcholinesterase An enzyme which breaks down acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter needed for communication between nerve cells and their target organs but that normally is broken down after it transmits a signal. Nerve agents inhibit (i.e., prevent) activity of this enzyme; this in turn prevents the normal breakdown of acetylcholine, resulting in continuous stimulation of the target (e.g., muscles). Active controls A category of laboratory safety practice(s) which require workers to actively do something for the controls to work (e.g., use of personal protective equipment). Active pharmaceutical ingredient The substance in a pharmaceutical drug or pesticide that is biologically active. Also known as active ingredient (AI) and active substance (in pesticide formations). Actuation In the context of this Handbook, actuation refers to the opening and closing of a valve (Volume I). Administrative controls A category of laboratory safety practice(s) that are not physically built into a facility but are based on the policies and procedures enforced within a particular facility (e.g., escort and/or background check requirements for visitors). Adsorption The binding of molecules or particles to a surface. Selective adsorption of one substance in a mixture to a substrate can be used as a means of separation (i.e., in chromatographic methods). Aerobiology A branch of biology that studies organic particles which are passively transported by the air, such as bacteria, fungal spores, very small insects, pollen grains, and viruses. Aerosol A gaseous suspension of fine solid particles or liquid droplets. Appendix D: Glossary 195

212 Aerosolised Existing as a gaseous suspension of fine solid particles or liquid droplets. Affinity An attraction or force between particles that draws them together and/or causes them to combine. Affinity-based methods A variety of separation processes that are based on differences in the affinity (or binding preferences) of chemicals in a mixture for different media. Also referred to as chromatographic methods. Agent In the context of biological weapons, an agent is a living micro-organism that is pathogenic to humans, animals, or plants. Some biological agents cause harm to animals or humans by producing chemical toxins, which are poisonous in very small quantities. For more information, see the Introduction to Biological Weapons and Dual-Use Biotechnology and the Introduction to Pathogens and Toxins. In the context of chemical weapons, an agent is a toxic chemical that could be used as a chemical weapon. Precursors to CW agents are not considered to be CW in the context of this Handbook, but rather chemicals that can be used to produce CW agents. The Introduction to Chemical Weapons and Dual-Use Chemical Technology in Volume I provides a discussion of CW agent terminology and a brief overview of agent classes. Aggregate order An order placed with a manufacturer/supplier that is composed of a collection of individual items. In some cases, a combination of many small items may be functionally equivalent to a single larger item. For example, 10 fermenters with individual capacities of 5 litres each combine to give a total fermentation capacity of 50 litres. See the section on Small Fermenters in Volume II. Alkaline Related to the ability of an aqueous solution to neutralise an acid. Alkaline solutions have a ph greater than 7. Alkyl alkanolamine Chemical compounds that have a hydrocarbon backbone bearing both hydroxyl (-OH) and amine (-NH2, -NHR, and NR2, where R is a carbon group) functional groups. Alkylation The transfer of an alkyl (i.e., hydrocarbon) group from one molecule to another. Appendix D: Glossary Amoeba A unicellular micro-organism that does not have a definite shape. Ampoule A small sealed vial which is used to hold a sample and protect it from environmental exposure. Anhydrous A substance that contains no water. 196

213 Annular Ring-shaped. In a multi-walled piping system (Volume I), this describes the space between the inner pipe carrying the fluid being transported and the outer containment pipe. Anteroom An outer chamber or waiting room situated before the main work room. In Biosafety Level 3 and Biosafety Level 4 facilities, the anteroom is located between the containment work area and the regular laboratory. The anteroom typically contains facilities for changing into protective suits prior to entry into the containment work area and facilities for removing protective suits and showering after exiting the containment work area. Antibody Protein complex found in the blood or other bodily fluids of humans and animals. Antibodies are used by the immune system to identify and neutralise foreign objects, such as bacteria and viruses. API See active pharmaceutical ingredient. Aqueous A solution in which the solvent is water. Arthralgia Non-inflammatory joint pain that is a symptom of infection, disease, injury, or illness. Atomisation The process of converting a stream of liquid into a fine spray or aerosol. Atomiser A device which converts a stream of liquid into a fine spray or aerosol. Autoclavable Manufactured of materials designed to withstand sterilization by an autoclave, i.e. using high pressure and high temperature steam. Axial In a direction parallel to an axis. In the context of agitators (Volume I), axial mixing occurs along the same direction as the agitator shaft s orientation. Bacteria A unicellular micro-organism. With few exceptions, bacteria are independent living micro-organisms that are not dependent on another organism for replication. Baffle A structure inside a chemical reaction vessel (Volume I) used to disrupt the flow of its contents to promote mixing. Base metal The primary metal in an alloy. Appendix D: Glossary 197

214 Basic scientific research The AG defines basic scientific research as experimental or theoretical work undertaken to acquire new knowledge of fundamental principles of phenomena or observable facts, not primarily directed towards a specific practical aim or objective. Batch operation A method of operation which requires distinct start and end points to the process. Data or products are collected at the end of the process as part of individual batches. Following collection, the process may be restarted. Binary fission Reproduction of a bacterium where the micro-organism divides itself into two independent cells. Biodegradation The chemical dissolution of materials by micro-organisms or other biological means, returning the material to the form of components found in nature. Biological weapon A weapon that delivers toxins or micro-organisms, such as viruses and bacteria, with the intent of deliberately inflicting disease and destruction among people, animals, or agriculture. Biopesticide A form of pesticide based on micro-organisms or natural products. Bioreactor An apparatus used to carry out any kind of bioprocess. See fermenter, chemostat, and continuous flow stirred tank reactor. See also the section on Fermenters in Volume II. Bioremediation Any process using micro-organisms, fungi, green plants, or their enzymes to return a natural environment altered by contaminants to its original condition. Biovar A group of strains which are distinguishable from other strains of the same species on the basis of their physiological characteristics. Appendix D: Glossary Biphasic disease A disease which has two distinct phases. For example, patients who are infected with Omsk haemorrhagic fever virus can experience biphasic expression of the disease. Initially, patients experience symptoms typically associated with mild viral haemorrhagic fever. After symptoms subside and the patient seems to have recovered from the virus, a second set of symptoms including fever and encephalitis can develop. Blister agent See Vesicant 198

215 Blood agent A type of chemical weapons agent that acts by interfering with oxygen transport from blood to body tissues (e.g., hydrogen cyanide and cyanogen chloride). See the Volume I Introduction to Chemical Weapons and Dual-Use Chemical Technology. Blood fraction An end product of separating blood (by centrifugation) into its component parts. These blood fractions include blood plasma, white blood cells, and red blood cells. Blood plasma factor Blood plasma factors are proteins that regulate the ability of blood to clot and are very important in the process of minimising blood loss after a wound. Brackish water Water that is higher in salt content than freshwater but lower in salt content than ocean water. This occurs naturally in tidal estuaries where fresh and salt water mix. Bung hole A hole bored in a liquid-tight barrel to remove contents. Carbide A compound of carbon with another element, namely an element that attracts electrons more strongly than carbon does. Silicon carbide and titanium carbide are two examples and are considered ceramics. Carboy A rigid container with a typical capacity of litres (5-15 gallons). Carboys are primarily used for transporting fluids. CAS number A unique registry number assigned to each chemical by the Chemical Abstract Service (CAS). See Appendix C in Volume I for more details. Catalyst A substance that causes a chemical reaction to happen more quickly. Caustic Able to burn or corrode organic tissue by chemical action. CDA See Controlled droplet application Centrifugal force Force generated by rotation and experienced as outward force away from the centre of rotation. Centrifugal separator Also called a centrifuge. A machine used to separate components with varying density using the centrifugal force generated by high-speed rotation. See the Volume II section on Centrifugal Separators. Appendix D: Glossary 199

216 Ceramic An inorganic, nonmetallic solid. Ceramics are generally known for their corrosion resistance, strength, hardness, and high thermal conductivity. Chemical neutralisation A chemical weapons destruction method that involves the mixing of CW agents with hot water or hot water and sodium hydroxide to convert the agents into less harmful chemicals. Chemical reaction A process that transforms one set of chemical molecule(s) to another with distinctly different chemical identities. Chemical synthesis A sequence of chemical reactions conducted to obtain a product, or several products. Often this involves the construction of complex chemical compounds from simpler ones. Chemical weapon In the context of this Handbook, a toxic chemical loaded into a delivery system such as a munition - i.e., a complete device for exposing a population to a substance that can cause death or other injuries through its chemical action. Chemical weapons agent A toxic chemical that could be used as a chemical weapon. See the Introduction to Chemical Weapons and Dual-Use Chemical Technology in Volume I for an extensive discussion of CW agent-related terminology. Chemostat A bioreactor in which constant growth conditions for micro-organisms are maintained over prolonged periods of time by supplying the reactor with a continuous input of nutrients and continuous removal of growth medium and waste products. See the section on Fermenters in Volume II. Chlor-alkali An industrial process involving the electrolysis of brine (salt water) to generate other chemicals; products can include hydrogen gas, chlorine, sodium hydroxide (caustic soda), sodium chlorate, and/or sodium hypochlorite (bleach), depending on the specific methods used. Chloroplast Specialised sub-cellular compartment within plant or algae cells where photosynthesis takes place. Appendix D: Glossary Choking agent A type of chemical weapons agent that acts by damaging lung tissue, leading to pulmonary edema. See the Volume I Introduction to Chemical Weapons and Dual-Use Chemical Technology. Cholinesterase inhibition The inhibition of the breakdown of acetylcholine. See acetylcholinesterase. Chromatographic methods Laboratory techniques used to separate mixtures. See Affinity-based methods. 200

217 Chromosome A mixture of nucleic acid (DNA or RNA) and protein located in the nuclei of cells. Clarify To make a liquid clear or pure, usually by freeing it from suspended matter. Clean room A room with a controlled environment and constant, highly filtered airflow. It has a very low level of pollutants, dust, airborne microbes, aerosol particles, or chemical vapours. Biosafety level 3 and Biosafety level 4 facilities (see Volume II) are examples of clean rooms, but clean rooms are also widely used in the electronics industry or in any application where dust elimination is required. Colourimetric A technique in which the concentration of a chemical element or compound in a mixture is determined by measuring a colour change or the absorption of light in a particular colour range. Commensalism An association between two organisms in which one benefits and the other derives neither benefit nor harm. Condensation The change of a physical state of matter from a gas into a liquid. Condenser A device used to remove heat from a liquid or vapour, causing it to cool and transform to a solid or liquid, respectively. Conjunctivitis Inflammation and/or infection of the eye and inner surface of the eyelids. Controlled droplet application A spraying technology that produces an aerosol of uniform droplet size. This technology allows droplet size to be altered to known droplet diameters so one can achieve the optimum size for an intended application. Copolymer A polymer derived from more than one type of monomer. Corrosive A characteristic of a chemical that will destroy or damage other substances with which it comes into contact. Cross-flow filtration A filtration technique where the material to be filtered passes tangentially across (not perpendicular to) the filter surface, minimising fouling and clogging of the filter. Also called tangential flow filtration. See the Volume II section on Cross (tangential) Flow Filtration. Crystallisation The process of forming solid crystals from a gaseous or liquid solution. Appendix D: Glossary 201

218 Culling The process of removing animals from a group based on specific criteria. For the purposes of the AG Handbook, culling is a containment strategy that refers to the slaughtering of animals affected with or potentially exposed to controlled pathogens to prevent further spread of the disease. Cultivar A race or variety of plant that has been created or intentionally chosen and maintained in a population through cultivation. For example, farmers may preferentially grow a particular cultivar of rice that produces a higher crop yield or is more resistant to environmental stressors (e.g., temperature). Cyanobacteria Bacteria that obtain nutrients through photosynthesis. These bacteria are also known as blue-green algae. Dead-end host Any host from which a pathogen cannot escape to continue its life cycle. Once in a dead-end host, the pathogen is not transmissible from that host to another organism. Decanter centrifuge A type of centrifuge that features a horizontal spinning metal bowl encased in another metal housing. A scroll or screw conveyor within the bowl rotates at a different speed than the bowl and removes separated solids for discharge. See the Volume II section on Centrifugal Separators. Dehydration In the context of freeze- or spray-drying, dehydration refers to the removal of water or other fluids from a solid by evaporation. See the Volume II sections on Freeze-Drying Equipment and Spray-Drying Equipment. Demilitarisation The reduction of a nation s armed forces, weapons, and/or military vehicles to an agreed minimum. In the context of this Handbook, demilitarisation is used to refer to the destruction of CW agents, precursors, and/ or munitions. Density Mass per unit volume. Density is a measure of the heaviness of an object when comparing it to another object of a similar volume. Appendix D: Glossary Development In reference to development technology, the AG defines development as related to all stages before production such as: design, design research, design analysis, design concepts, assembly of prototypes, pilot production schemes, design data, process or transforming design data into a product, configuration design, integration design, and layouts. Dewatering The process of removing water from a solid by centrifugation or filtration. Diaphragm A flexible membrane. In the context of the AG, this refers to a type of seal-less pump that uses the reciprocating action of a diaphragm to cause the pumping action (Volume I). 202

219 Disinfection Destruction of pathogenic and other types of micro-organisms. Disinfection is less lethal than sterilization because it destroys most recognised pathogenic micro-organisms but not necessarily all microbial forms (e.g., bacterial spores). Disk stack centrifuge This centrifuge design features a prominent conical metal bowl with at least three connections one feed inlet and two outlets. The inside of the metal bowl contains not only the spinning part of the centrifuge, but also a stack of disks to assist the separation. See the Volume II section on Centrifugal Separators. Dissolution The process of a solute forming a solution with a solvent. Distillation A separation technique based on differences in boiling points between different components of a chemical mixture. See the Introduction to Chemical Weapons and Dual-Use Chemical Technology in Volume I for more details. DNA An acronym for deoxyribonucleic acid. DNA is a self-replicating material present in nearly all living organisms that carries a species genetic information. Dopant A trace impurity element that is inserted into a material in order to alter the electrical or optical properties of that material. Also known as a doping agent. Downcomer In the context of distillation columns, a pipe used to facilitate the movement of liquid to lower sections of the column. See the Volume I section on Distillation or Absorption Columns. Drift spraying A spraying application where the particles generated are intended to drift for an extended period of time, covering a wide area. Drift spraying typically uses smaller particles. Dual-use Dual use refers to the potential of products and technologies with peaceful civilian purposes to be used in WMD-related applications. Dystonia A neurological movement disorder characterised by sustained muscle contractions, which result in repetitive movements and uncontrollable twisting. EC number The European Commission (EC) Number is a reference number for chemicals listed in the EC Inventory. See Appendix C in Volume I for more details. Appendix D: Glossary 203

220 Eccentrically Describes the motion of a disk or wheel having its axis of revolution displaced from its centre so that it is capable of imparting reciprocating motion. In the context of this Handbook, this refers to the orientation of liquid ring pump impellers which are mounted offset from the casing axis. Effluent Liquid or gas that flows out from a larger body of liquid or gas. Elastomer A polymer with the elastic properties of natural rubber. Electrochemical detection A sensitive and selective detection technique that is based on oxidising or reducing parts of a chemical s structure. Electrolysis A method of using a direct electric current to drive a chemical reaction. Electronegativity A property describing the tendency for an atom or group of atoms to draw electrons toward itself. An atom that is more electronegative than its neighboring atoms in a molecule will attract more electrons toward it. Elution The process of removing an adsorbed component from a substrate by washing with a solvent to which the component has more affinity than the adsorbent. Emulsion A mixture of two or more immiscible liquids, which cannot form a homogeneous solution. Encephalitis Inflammation and swelling of the brain. Encephalomyelitis Inflammation and swelling of the brain and spinal cord. Appendix D: Glossary 204 Endemic Commonly found within a particular population or in a certain geographic area. Engineering thermoplastics A group of plastic materials that have better mechanical and/or thermal properties than other commonly used plastics. Engineering thermoplastics are generally used in applications which require higher performance in the areas of heat resistance, chemical resistance, impact, fire retardancy, or mechanical strength. Entrainment pump A type of pump that functions by moving the process fluid via the movement of another fluid. Enzyme Biological molecules, usually proteins, which can cause specific chemical changes to a separate molecule.

221 Excipient An inactive substance mixed with the active material (e.g., an active pharmaceutical ingredient or a pathogen) to be dried and preserved. Excipients typically improve the preservation of biological material without disrupting its activity. Exotoxin A toxin naturally secreted by certain bacteria. By contrast, an endotoxin is a toxin produced by bacteria that is only released when the bacteria breaks apart and dies. Extraction The process of removing something from a mixture or compound. In the context of purification, this term often refers to extraction of a desired compound from a mixture through the use of immiscible solvents. See the discussion of purification in the Volume I section Introduction to Chemical Weapons and Dual-Use Chemical Technology. Extrusion In the context of this Handbook, a method of encapsulation whereby the material to be coated is drawn through a nozzle to form microcapsules. Several types of extrusion methods are practiced, differing by nozzle configuration and coating method. See the Volume II section on Encapsulation Equipment and Technology. Family The next taxonomic category above genus, usually ending in idea (animals) or aceae (plants). Feedstock A raw material or solution from which a product is made. In spray-drying, feedstock refers to the liquid to be atomised and dried into powder. See the Volume II section on Spray-Drying Equipment. Fermenter A bioreactor which enables optimal fermentation conditions to be maintained, allowing addition of nutrients, removal of products and insertion of measuring and/or control probes as well as other necessary equipment (e.g. for heating, cooling, aeration, agitation, sterilization, etc.) under sterile conditions. See the Volume II section on Fermenters. Filtrate Following a filtration process, the part of a solution that is considered filtered. Flame photometric detector A detector used to detect compounds containing sulphur or phosphorus utilising chemiluminescent reactions. It can also be used to detect certain metals. Flocculant A substance added to a suspension to clarify it by enhancing the aggregation of the suspended particles, causing them to drop out of the solution. Fomite A living or inanimate object that may be contaminated with infectious organisms and facilitate their transmission to a susceptible host. Appendix D: Glossary 205

222 Fouling The accumulation of unwanted solid material on a filter, which decreases performance of the filter. Fungi A group of unicellular and multicellular organisms (e.g., molds, yeast, and mushrooms) that feed on organic matter as their source of nutrients. Fungicide A chemical substance that kills or inhibits the growth of fungi. G-series nerve agent A group of nerve agents so named because German scientists were the first to synthesise them. See the Volume I Introduction to Chemical Weapons and Dual-Use Chemical Technology. Galvanised The process by which a zinc coating is added to iron or steel to prevent rusting. Gas chromatography A chromatographic method used to separate and analyse mixture components by vapourising the mixture and passing it through a column with coated walls or packing. Different mixture components have different affinities for the wall or packing material, which affects the speed at which they travel through the column. Gas tight A measure of airtightness defined as preventing the passage of gas or aerosols, up to a particular pressure rating and over a particular length of time. Gastroenteritis Inflammation of the lining of the intestines that can be caused by a pathogen. Symptoms can include abdominal pain, diarrhea, vomiting, headache, fever, and chills. Genetically modified An organism that has intentional changes introduced into its genetic material (DNA or RNA). Genome The entirety of an organism s hereditary information found in a cell and encoded by DNA or RNA. Appendix D: Glossary Genus A taxonomic category that ranks above species and below family. Germicidal The capability to kill or reduce germs, especially pathogenic micro-organisms. Germination The process by which plants, fungi, and bacteria emerge from seeds and spores and begin to grow. 206

223 Graphite A form of carbon that can exhibits high corrosion-resistance and excellent thermal conductivity. Halogen specific detector A selective detector for halogenated compounds (i.e., compounds containing fluorine, chlorine, and/or bromine). Hazard Class A designation assigned to each entry in the UN Dangerous Goods List of the United Nations Recommendations on the Transport of Dangerous Goods. The Hazard Class assigns material to a general category of chemical or physical hazards (e.g., Hazard Class 3 indicates flammable liquids). See the Volume I section on Chemical Packaging and Transportation. Head An end cap on a chemical reaction vessel or heat exchanger that provides ports for connection of piping or instruments. See the Volume I sections on Chemical Reaction Vessels or Reactors and Heat Exchangers or Condensers. Heat transfer area The total area in a heat exchanger or condenser over which thermal transfer occurs (e.g., the surface area of the tube bundle in a shell and tube heat exchanger design). See the Volume I section on Heat Exchangers or Condensers. HEPA See High Efficiency Particulate Air. High Efficiency Particulate Air A type of air filtration system or filter rated to remove at least 99.7% of airborne particles 0.3 µm in diameter. High vacuum Describes a pressure range lower than medium or low vacuum systems; high vacuum pumps are able to pump more molecules out of a chamber than medium or low vacuum pumps, giving a high degree of vacuum. Definitions for the pressure range can vary, but are often in the to Pascal range. Host An organism that is susceptible to or harbours a pathogen under natural conditions. Host cell Viruses lack the ability to reproduce or replicate on their own. Therefore, viral replication depends on using the replication machinery of another cell. The cells that viruses use to reproduce are called host cells. Host range The geographical and/or species distribution that is susceptible to an infectious agent under natural conditions. Hygroscopic The ability of a substance to draw and retain water molecules from the surrounding environment. Appendix D: Glossary 207

224 IBC See Intermediate bulk container. Immiscible Unable to form a uniform solution or mixture when combined. Impervious Describes a characteristic of a substance that does not allow liquids to pass through it. Impregnated Describes a material in which another substance is embedded throughout to reduce porosity (i.e., block pores so that fluids do not penetrate the material). In situ Latin phrase meaning in the place. In biology, in situ refers to examining an event exactly in the place it occurs. Thus, in situ steam sterilization of a fermenter refers to steam sterilization that takes place inside the fermenter. In the public domain The AG defines in the public domain as technology that has been made available without restrictions upon its further dissemination. (Copyright restrictions do not remove technology from being in the public domain). Incapacitant A chemical (e.g., tear gas) used to temporarily incapacitate individuals. See the Volume I Introduction to Chemical Weapons and Dual-Use Chemical Technology. Incineration The destruction of chemicals or other materials by burning at very high temperatures. Industrial scale Refers to production or manufacturing on a large (often commercial) scale or equipment that is capable of enabling large scale production (e.g., a 1000 litre fermenter would be considered a piece of industrial scale equipment, while a 5 litre fermenter would be considered laboratory scale). This is the opposite of laboratory scale. Appendix D: Glossary Infection control zone An area of infection control, usually a room in a hospital, most frequently used to isolate a patient with an illness easily spread by physical contact or through the air. This is accomplished by HEPA filtering the air and making air flow into the room (negative pressure). An infection control zone can also protect a patient from infection by setting filtered air to flow out of a room (positive pressure). Infectivity The ability of a pathogen or a biological agent to establish an infection. 208

225 Inhibition The process of stopping or retarding a chemical reaction (e.g., inhibition of acetylcholinesterase by a nerve agent). Inoculation The process of introducing a pathogen into a living organism. When referring to production of large quantities of a pathogen (e.g. growing bacteria in a fermenter), it can also refer to the process of introducing a pathogen to suitable media to facilitate growth. Inoculum The biological sample used as starting material for growth of micro-organisms or viruses. Inocula are used for legitimate production of pharmaceutical or bacterial products (such as vaccines, insulin, or ethanol), but also can be used for illegitimate production of a biological weapon agent or toxin. Intangible technology transfers Transfers of technologies which are not physically tangible or tactile (e.g., software, program, and code transmission). A publication is available from the AG Secretariat that further describes these transfers. Interfacial polycondensation A method used to produce microcapsules, in which a chemical reaction occurs at the interface between a droplet and the liquid in which it is suspended, resulting in the formation of a capsule surrounding the remaining compound. See the Volume II section on Encapsulation Equipment and Technology. Interferon A protein made and released by cells in response to the presence of a pathogen, that can include viruses, bacteria, other parasites, or even cancerous cells. Interferons are communication signals between cells that trigger protective actions of the immune system to destroy pathogens or cancerous cells. Intermediate bulk container A reusable industrial container designed for the storage and transport of bulk substances (e.g., food, pharmaceuticals, and chemicals). Inter-modal container See ISO container Ion mobility spectroscopy An analytical method used to separate and identify ionised molecules in the gas phase based on differences in their mobility in a carrier gas. ISO container ISO containers are designed for transport by more than one mode (e.g., truck and rail); hence they are also known as inter-modal containers. There are several standard types of ISO containers. Tank-style ISO containers are used to transport chemicals and are composed of a tank mounted inside a rectangular metal rack. For example, see Figure 45.C in the Volume I Chemical Weapons Precursors entry on sodium cyanide. ITT See Intangible technology transfers Appendix D: Glossary 209

226 Jacketed Describes a vessel design in which there are separated inner and outer walls; fluid can be circulated between the walls for temperature control. See the Volume I section on Chemical Reaction Vessels or Reactors. Laboratory scale Refers to experiments conducted on a small scale or items of a size appropriate for such experiments (e.g., a 5 litre fermenter would be considered laboratory scale, while a 1000 litre fermenter would be considered industrial scale). This is the opposite of industrial scale. Laryngitis Swelling, irritation, and/or inflammation of the larynx (voice box). This is usually associated with hoarseness and/or loss of voice. LC 50 The concentration of a chemical, pathogen, or toxin in air needed to kill 50% of exposed and unprotected animals via inhalation. LD 50 The amount of liquid or solid needed to kill 50% of exposed and unprotected animals. Typically expressed as milligrams (mg) of chemical, pathogen, or toxin per kilogram (kg) of animal body weight. LD50 values can be reported for any route of exposure such as dermal, oral, inhalation, or injection. Lentogenic Describes the virulence of a virus that causes a mild or minor infection in its host. Lighter than air vehicle An aerospace vehicle that derives its primary means of staying aloft from use of an envelope or balloon filled with a gas lighter than air (e.g. helium). Low vacuum Describes a pressure range higher than medium or high vacuum systems; low vacuum pumps pump fewer molecules out of a chamber than high or medium vacuum pumps, giving a low degree of vacuum. Definitions for the pressure range can vary, but are usually just below atmospheric pressure in the to Pascal range. Appendix D: Glossary Lyophilisation A dehydration process used to stabilise nearly any perishable material in order to increase its shelf life and reduce its sensitivity to environmental stresses. Also known as freeze drying. See the Volume II section on Freeze-Drying Equipment. Lyophiliser Another name for a freeze dryer. See the Volume II section on Freeze-Drying Equipment. Manifold A chamber having several outlets through which liquid or gas is distributed or gathered. 210

227 Manway A port or opening through which a human can pass. See the Volume I section on Chemical Reaction Vessels or Reactors. Material Safety Data Sheet See Safety Data Sheet Media Liquid or solid material containing nutrients needed to grow micro-organisms. Medium vacuum Describes a pressure range lower than low vacuum systems, but not as high as high vacuum systems; medium vacuum pumps are able to pump more molecules out of a chamber than low vacuum pumps but not as many as high vacuum pumps, giving a medium degree of vacuum. Definitions for the pressure range can vary, but are often in the to Pascal range. Meningitis An infection and inflammation of the protective tissues surrounding the brain and spinal cord. Meningoencephalitis A medical condition that simultaneously resembles both meningitis (inflammation of the protective tissues surrounding the brain) and encephalitis (inflammation of the brain). Mesogenic Describes the virulence of a virus that causes moderate to severe infection in its host. Micro-organism A micro-organism or microbe is an organism that is too small to be seen with the human eye. Microorganisms are very diverse and include bacteria, fungi, protists, microscopic plants (green algae), and microscopic animals (e.g., plankton). Most micro-organisms are single cell organisms. Viruses meet the size definitions of micro-organisms, but they are considered non-living when separated from the host they require for replication. Although most micro-organisms in the environment are not harmful, some are especially dangerous, causing lethal or severely debilitating diseases to humans, animals, or plants. Many disease causing micro-organisms can pose a biological weapons threat. See the Volume II Introduction to Pathogens and Toxins. Microprogramme The AG defines a microprogramme as A sequence of elementary instructions maintained in a special storage, the execution of which is initiated by the introduction of its reference instruction register. Midge A small flying insect that closely resembles a mosquito. Miscible Capable of being mixed to form a uniform solution or mixture. Appendix D: Glossary 211

228 Mist eliminator A device designed to separate liquid droplets from a gas phase. Mole A unit of measurement in chemistry defined as x electrons, ions, atoms, or molecules. Momentum-transfer pump A pump that moves gas molecules from the inlet to the discharge side by imparting momentum to the molecules to push them toward the exhaust. Monoclonal antibody Globular proteins found in blood or other bodily fluids of humans and animals. They are used by the immune system to identify and neutralise foreign objects, such as bacteria and viruses. Monomer A term applied to a molecule or that can react with itself or other monomers to form a polymer. Morbidity rate A measure of the frequency of occurrence of disease in a defined population during a specific period of time. For a specific disease, the morbidity rate describes the average percentage of diseased individuals given the total number of individuals exposed to a pathogen. Mortality rate A measure of the frequency of occurrence of death in a defined population during a specific period of time. For a specific disease, the mortality rate describes the average percentage of deaths given the total number of individuals infected. MSDS See Safety Data Sheet Multi-fluid nozzle A device used, primarily in pharmaceutical spray dryers, to atomise a liquid feedstock by contacting the liquid feed with pressurised gas. The interaction of high velocity gas and low velocity liquid leads to the atomisation of the liquid. See the Volume II section on Spray-Drying Equipment. Mutation rate A measure of the rate at which changes occur in DNA or RNA over a specific period of time. Appendix D: Glossary Nameplate A label or engraving affixed to the outside of industrial equipment that typically provides important information such as the manufacturer name and model number. Necrotic Describes death of cells or tissues that generally occurs through injury or disease. 212

229 Negative pressure Pressure within a system that is less than that of the environment surrounding it. Consequently, a leak in a negatively pressurised system will not allow air to escape into the surrounding environment. Biological Safety Cabinets designed to protect workers from exposure to biological agents operate under negative pressure relative to their larger environment. See the Volume II section on Protective and Containment Equipment. Nerve agent A group of CW agents that inhibit the action of the enzyme acetylcholinesterase. Inhibition of acetylcholinesterase causes continuous stimulation of target organs, which primarily include muscles. Physical symptoms of nerve agent exposure include pupil constriction, muscle paralysis, and death due to respiratory failure all due to the muscles inability to relax or stop constricting. See the Volume I Introduction to Chemical Weapons and Dual-Use Chemical Technology. Neurotoxin Toxins that target the nervous system and disrupt signaling that allows neurons to communicate effectively with other neurons and their target organs, such as muscle. Neurotransmitter A chemical produced in nerve cells that transmits signals between nerve cells. New World The geographic part of the world referring to North and South America. Nucleic acid A large macromolecule that encodes genetic information in the form of DNA or RNA. See also Oligonucleotide. Old World The geographic part of the world referring to Europe, Asia, Africa, and Australia. Oleochemistry The study of vegetable oils, animal oils, and fats. Oligonucleotide A short polymer of nucleotides (also called DNA bases), typically from 20 to 200 nucleotides. Oligonucleotides are short pieces of DNA. Ore floatation The process by which valuable minerals are separated from invaluable or less valuable materials by grinding the ore into small particles and submerging in water. Materials are separated based on how they float or are suspended in the solution. Organophosphorus Describing organic compounds containing carbon-phosphorus bonds. Appendix D: Glossary 213

230 Overwintering To last through or pass the winter. Although many pathogens are susceptible to temperature extremes, Synchytrium endobioticum that causes potato wart will stay viable in the soil for up to 30 years. Oxidant Also known as an oxidising agent, an oxidant is the compound in an oxidation-reduction reaction that accepts an electron from another compound. Oxide A compound that contains oxygen and one other element. Packing Group A designation assigned to entries in the UN Dangerous Goods List of the United Nations Recommendations on the Transport of Dangerous Goods. The Packing Group designates the risk level of an item intended for shipment. Specific shipping requirements for an item may vary based on Packing Group assignment (e.g., certain items may have an increased risk level and Packing Group assigned for shipments with larger quantities). See the Volume I section on Chemical Packaging and Transportation. Particulate A general term for tiny pieces of solid or liquid matter associated with the atmosphere. Often the tiny pieces are suspended as an aerosol. Passive controls A category of laboratory safety practice(s) that are built into a facility and do not require active participation from employees to work (e.g., air monitoring devices). Pathogen An infectious agent or micro-organism that causes disease in its host. The Australia Group Common Control Lists list pathogens that cause disease in humans, animals, and plants. See the Volume II sections on Human and Animal Pathogens and Toxins and Plant Pathogens. Pathogenic Disease causing. Pathogenicity The potential of a particular micro-organism to cause disease. Often, pathogenicity is characterised by the mechanism of infection, whether the micro-organism produces a toxin, and the ability of medical treatment to reverse the disease. Appendix D: Glossary Peptide A short polymer of amino acids. Thus polypeptide is a small protein. Periodic Table A table that organises elements based on their atomic number, electron configuration, and similar chemical properties. 214

231 Phase The physical state of a substance (e.g., liquid, solid, or gas). Transitions between physical phases do not involve a change in the chemical composition of the material. Phase separation A process used to form microcapsules, which occurs when the compound used to form the coat of the microcapsule is induced to change phases from liquid to solid and coat the core material as a result. See the Volume II section on Encapsulation Equipment and Technology. Phosphorylating Phosphorylation is the chemical addition of a phosphate group (PO 4 ) to a molecule. Photoionisation detection A type of gas detector that measures volatile compounds in very small concentrations by ionising them and detecting the resulting electric current. Photosynthesis A process used by plants and other organisms to convert light energy into chemical energy. Pickling The process of removing impurities (e.g., rust) from the surface of metals using a solution containing strong acids. Pilot scale A scale that facilitates the transition from laboratory scale to industrial scale production. Pilot scale equipment is intermediate in size between laboratory and industrial scale equipment. Plasmid A small circular DNA molecule. Plasticiser Additives that increase the fluidity and plasticity of a material. Polymer A large molecule that contains multiple repeating subunits or monomers. Large polymers are also known as macromolecules. Polysaccharide A polymer of carbohydrates used to store energy or provide structure. Examples include starch or cellulose. Pore A hole in a filter membrane that allows passage of items smaller than the pore size through the filter. See the Volume II section on Cross (tangential) Flow Filtration Equipment. May also refer to a hole found in the surface of a plant (see stomata) or holes in a bulk material s structure (see impregnated). Appendix D: Glossary 215

232 Positive displacement pump A class of pumps that rely on internal moving parts to create an expanding cavity on the inlet side, trap incoming gases, compress them by shrinking the cavity, and release them out the discharge side. Positive pressure Pressure within a system that is greater than that of the environment surrounding the system. Consequently, a leak in a positively pressurised system will allow air into the surrounding environment. Suits designed to protect workers from exposure to biological agents have a tethered air supply operating under positive pressure. See the Volume II section on Protective and Containment Equipment. Potentiometric Describing a type of chemical analysis used to determine the concentration of a particular component of a solution by measuring the voltage of the solution. Precursor A chemical that can be used to produce another chemical via chemical reaction. In the context of the Handbook, this term refers to a chemical that can be used to make a CW agent. Also generally known as a reactant. Pressure nozzle A device used to atomise a liquid feedstock by forcing the liquid to exit a small diameter opening under high pressure. See the Volume II section on Spray-Drying Equipment and Spraying and Fogging Equipment. Probiotic A micro-organism that is believed to provide health benefits when consumed. Product lot A specific batch of material from a single manufacturer, typically identified by a unique identification number. Production The AG defines production as all production phases such as: construction, production engineering, manufacture, integration, assembly (mounting), inspection, testing, and quality assurance. Programme The AG defines a programme as A sequence of instructions to carry out a process in, or convertible into, a form executable by an electronic computer. Appendix D: Glossary Proper Shipping Name A name assigned to each entry in the UN Dangerous Goods List of the United Nations Recommendations on the Transport of Dangerous Goods. See the Volume I section on Chemical Packaging and Transportation. Protist A catch all taxonomic kingdom for unicellular living organisms. Protists are grouped in their own kingdom because member species are too genetically different to be considered plants, animals, fungi, or bacteria. 216

233 Proton scavenger A compound that reacts with free protons in a solution to form a compound that will not undergo further reaction. Pulmonary edema The accumulation of fluid in the lungs that leads to shortness of breath and can lead to respiratory failure. Purification The process of isolating a desired chemical product from a mixture of substances. Race In the context of plant biology, a group of plants having similar characteristics that distinguish them from other plants within the same species. For example, the plant pathogen Ralstonia solanacearum, race 3, biovar 2 is controlled by the AG, but other races and biovars are not. The species is divided into race based on the host range and further subdivided into biovar to distinguish between subtle differences in metabolic pathways that contribute to the pathogenicity of the agent. Radial Radiating from a central point. In the context of agitators (Volume I), radial mixing occurs perpendicular to the agitator shaft s orientation (i.e., outward from the shaft). Reactant Also known as a precursor, reactants are combined and undergo a chemical reaction to generate a desired chemical known as the product. Reboiler A heat exchanger used to provide heat to an industrial scale distillation column. Recombination The process by which pieces of an organism s genome (DNA or RNA) is broken and rejoined. Reflux The portion of condensed vapour returned to the column during distillation. Reservoir The habitat in which a pathogen normally lives (e,g., animals, humans, or the environment). Retentate In a filtration process, the part of a solution that does not cross the membrane. Reverse osmosis A filtration method that removes many types of large molecules and ions from solutions by applying pressure to the solution when it is on one side of a selective membrane. As a result, the solute is retained on the pressurised side of the membrane and the pure solvent is allowed to pass to the other side. To be selective, this membrane should not allow large molecules or ions through the pores (holes), but should allow smaller components of the solution (such as the solvent) to pass freely. Reverse osmosis is Appendix D: Glossary 217

234 most commonly known for its use in purifying drinking water from seawater, removing the salt and other substances. RNA An acronym for ribonucleic acid. RNA is a genetic material present in all living cells. RNA acts as an intermediary carrying instructions from DNA to synthesise proteins in the cell. Some viruses have RNA as the primary carrier of genetic information in place of DNA. Rotary atomiser A device used to atomise a liquid feedstock by contacting the liquid with a spinning wheel containing tiny holes for atomised particles to exit. The design of the wheel and its rotational speed dictate the final properties of the resulting aerosol. See the Volume II sections on Spray-Drying Equipment and Spraying and Fogging Systems. Rough vacuum See low vacuum. Safety Data Sheet A document identifying hazards posed by a chemical and measures to mitigate them. Sanitary connection A type of fitting that is durable and easily cleaned to promote sanitary conditions in biological processing. Scrubbing The process of chemically removing impurities from a gas. Sedge A plant that resembles grass and grows in moist environments. SDS See Safety Data Sheet Shaft seal A seal located where a rotating or reciprocating drive shaft passes through a pump body. Skimming The process of separating a liquid or solid from the top of a liquid, e.g. in the removal of cream from milk. Appendix D: Glossary Software AG defines software as a collection of one or more programmes or microprogrammes fixed in any tangible medium of expression. Solubility The ability of a substance to dissolve in a given solvent (usually a liquid) and form a homogeneous solution. Solvent The liquid or other substance in which a solute is able to be dissolved to form a solution. 218

235 Solvent purification/reclamation The process of purifying and isolating a previously-used solvent in order to recycle it for reuse. Souring In the context of laundry, an acidic solution used to neutralise alkalinity in textiles. Spastic paralysis A condition in which muscles undergo persistent spasms and exaggerated reflexes because nervous system control of the muscles has been disrupted or altered. Species A group of living organisms with similar characteristics that is capable of exchanging genetic material and interbreeding. It is a taxonomic unit that ranks below a genus. Spore An inactive form of a micro-organism, particularly a bacterium or a fungus, that can survive for a long time in harsh environmental conditions. Spores can reactivate upon exposure to an environment that supports growth (e.g., an environment containing water and nutrients). Sporulation The process by which bacteria or fungi form spores. Spray chilling Also known as spray congealing, a method of producing microcapsules by atomising a solution of core and matrix materials into a stream of cold gas, solidifying liquid droplets into particles. Steam distillation A type of distillation used for temperature sensitive materials. Steam distillation introduces water or steam into the system to lower the boiling points of compounds, allowing them to evaporate and separate at lower temperatures. Sterilizable Manufactured of materials capable of withstanding processes used to kill all micro-organisms. Typically, this means construction of materials that withstand high pressure and high temperature steam. Sterilization A validated process used to render a product free of all forms of viable micro-organisms. Sterilization is more powerful than disinfection because it destroys all microbial forms of micro-organisms (e.g., bacterial spores and bacteria). Stomata A pore found on the surface of a plant that is used to control gas exchange. Strain A highly specific taxonomic rank used to describe a group of organisms of the same species with similar characteristics that are distinct from other members of the same species. Appendix D: Glossary 219

236 Sublimate To transition a substance from the solid phase to the gas phase without passing through an intermediate liquid phase. Surface acoustic wave spectroscopy In the context of chemical detection, the detection of gases through selective absorption by measuring acoustic vibrations that change based on the chemical absorbed. Surfactant A compound that decreases the surface tension between a liquid and a solid or between two liquids. Surfactants can be used, for example, as emulsifiers, detergents, wetting agents, or dispersants. Taxonomy The branch of science concerned with classification, especially of organisms. Biological classification is a method used to group organisms with other similar organisms. The groups most typically used to classify organisms are (from largest to smallest): domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species. Technical assistance The AG definition of technical assistance states: may take forms such as: instruction, skills, training, working knowledge, consulting services. Technical assistance may involve transfer of technical data. Technical data The AG definition of technical data states: may take forms such as blueprints, plans, diagrams, models, formulae, tables, engineering designs and specifications, manuals and instructions written or recorded on other media or devices such as disk, tape, read-only memories. Technology The AG defines technology as specific information necessary for the development, production or use of a product. The information takes the form of technical data or technical assistance. Terminal diffuser A type of HEPA filter system that does not integrate the fan and the HEPA filter in the same unit. In a terminal diffuser setup, the fan and HEPA filter are connected by tubing or ducting. TIC See Toxic industrial chemical Appendix D: Glossary Tissue culture The growth of cells or tissues outside of an organism, often in a Petri dish, flask, or bioreactor. Cultured cells may be used to grow viruses. Tote bin Containers used for shipping bulk quantities of chemicals and other materials. Toxic Containing poison or being poisonous in a way that is capable of causing serious harm or death. 220

237 Toxic chemical The CWC defines a toxic chemical as any chemical which through its chemical action on life processes can cause death, temporary incapacitation or permanent harm to humans or animals. This includes all such chemicals, regardless of their origin or their method of production, and regardless of whether they are produced in facilities, in munitions or elsewhere. Toxic industrial chemical Industrial chemicals that are manufactured and used in large quantities but that pose dangerous chemical or physical hazards. Toxicity The potency or degree to which a substance or compound that is toxic can damage an organism. Toxicology A branch of biology and medicine concerned with the study of the adverse effects of chemicals on living organisms. Toxin A poisonous substance produced by living cells or organisms. Toxins can be small molecules, peptides, or proteins that are capable of causing disease on contact with or absorption by body tissues. Toxins vary greatly in the severity of their effects, ranging from minor and short-acting to almost immediately deadly. Transcribe To convert information encoded in DNA into RNA. Transcription is the process of converting the genetic information contained in DNA into RNA. This is a necessary intermediate step required for protein production. Translate To convert information encoded in RNA into protein. Translation is the process by which a cell uses RNA as the blueprint for protein synthesis. Transposon A DNA sequence that has the ability to change position within a genome. Transposons are also known as jumping genes and are common in plants. UAV See Unmanned aerial vehicle UN number Four-digit codes used to identify hazardous substances and articles in transport. The master list of UN Numbers is the Dangerous Goods List of the United Nations Recommendations on the Transport of Dangerous Goods. See the Volume I section on Chemical Packaging and Transportation. Unmanned aerial vehicle An aircraft that flies without a human pilot on board the vehicle. Appendix D: Glossary 221

238 Ultrahigh vacuum Describes a pressure range lower than high vacuum systems; ultrahigh vacuum pumps are able to pump more molecules out of a chamber than high vacuum pumps, giving an ultrahigh degree of vacuum. Definitions for the pressure range can vary, but are often in the to Pascal range. Ultrasonic nozzle A device used, primarily in pharmaceutical spray dryers, to atomise a liquid feedstock by subjecting the liquid feed to high frequency vibrations. See the Volume II section on Spray-Drying Equipment. Use The AG defines use as the operation, installation, (including on-site installation), maintenance (checking), repair, overhaul or refurbishing. V-series nerve agent A type of nerve agent first discovered in the 1950s. See the Volume I Introduction to Chemical Weapons and Dual-Use Chemical Technology. Vaccine A biological preparation that enhances the vaccinated subject s immunity to a particular disease. A vaccine stimulates the subject s immune system with a weakened pathogen so the immune system becomes prepared to recognise and destroy the virulent disease-causing pathogen. Vacuum A vacuum technically is a space devoid of matter. In the context of pumps, vacuum pumps reduce pressure in a chamber by removing air from it, i.e. reducing the amount of matter it contains. There are different levels of vacuum that are associated with different pressure ranges (and, by extension, amounts of matter); see Glossary entries on rough, low, medium, high, and ultrahigh vacuum. Vacuum distillation A method of distillation where the pressure above a liquid mixture intended for distillation is reduced to less than its vapour pressure. This allows separation of compounds at temperatures below their usual boiling points and/or improved separation of compounds that normally have very similar boiling points. Vector A living intermediary (e.g, mosquitos, ticks, and fleas) that carries a pathogen from a reservoir to a susceptible host. In the context of genetic elements, the term vector refers to plasmids used in molecular biology to carry a desired DNA sequence into a target cell. Appendix D: Glossary Velogenic Describes the virulence of a virus that generally causes lethal infection in its host. Venom A toxin or more typically a mixture of toxins produced by certain types of animals that inject it into their victims by means of a bite, sting, or other sharp body structure. Venomous Capable of producing toxin/venom and capable of inflicting a poisoned wound. 222

239 Venturi A type of jet ejector pump that produces a vacuum using the Venturi effect; fluid pressure is reduced by forcing the fluid through a constricted section of a pipe. Vesicant Also known as blister agents, vesicants cause large and often life-threatening blisters on moist tissues. See the Volume I Introduction to Chemical Weapons and Dual-Use Chemical Technology. Viability The ability of a micro-organism to survive, grow, and reproduce. Virulent Describes a disease or toxin that creates extremely severe or harmful symptoms in its host. Virus An infectious agent generally composed of genetic material packaged within a protein coat. Viruses must infect host cells in order to replicate, burst out of the host cell, and spread the infection. Viscosity The property of a liquid that describes its resistance to flow. Liquids with high viscosity tend to be thick, sticky, and do not flow easily. Volatility A measure of the tendency of a substance to vapourise or turn from a liquid phase to a gas phase. Vulcanisation The process of converting rubber and related compounds into more durable materials by adding materials that cross-link (connect) polymer chains together. Weir An internal structure within a distillation column tray that keeps an appropriate level of liquid in the tray for effective separations. Wetted surfaces Surfaces coming into direct contact with processed or contained chemicals. For the purposes of AG control specifications on dual-use chemical equipment, these are the surfaces of chemical processing equipment that must be made of corrosion-resistant materials. Xylem A vascular tissue in plants used to transport water and minerals. Zoonotic Describes a pathogen that is capable of being transmitted from animals to humans or from humans to animals. The latter is sometimes referred to as reverse zoonosis. Appendix D: Glossary 223

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241 Appendix E: Unit Conversions Many AG control specifications for dual-use biological and chemical equipment include units of measurement. Equipment manufacturers use a variety of units that may not be the same as those specified in the control lists. The tables below provide control specifications that appear in the AG chemical equipment control list and the biological equipment control list in a variety of different units. The applicable controlled commodity is noted in each table. All units stated in the AG control language are shown in bold and italics. Non-exact conversion factors are provided above the tables to four decimal places; calculations in the tables that use these non-exact conversion factors are rounded to the nearest 0.1. Numbers are shown in scientific notation (a x 10 b ) when the value is <0.01. It should be noted that any conversions of a control specification into units other than those in the AG control language are not official AG control specifications and in many cases are simply approximations. Conversions are provided here informally for reference purposes only and not for use in official control determinations. Length/Diameter 1 metre (m) = 100 centimetres (cm) = inches (in) = 1 x 10 6 micrometres 1 (µm) Metres (m) Centimetres (cm) Inches (in) Micrometres (µm) 1x10-5 1x x Applicable AG Commodity Spray-drying equipment and Awareness Raising Guidelines: Encapsulation Handbook Volume 5x10-5 5x x Spraying or fogging systems II ⅜ 10,000 Valves I ,400 Valves I ,000 Distillation or absorption columns ,600 Valves I II I 1 The term micrometre is used synonymously with the term micron in AG control language. Appendix E: Unit Conversions 225

242 Surface Area 1 square metre (m 2 ) = square feet (ft 2 ) Square Metres (m 2 ) In addition: 1 m 2 = 10,000 cm 2 1 ft 2 = 144 in 2 Square Feet (ft 2 ) Applicable AG Commodity Handbook Volume Heat exchangers or condensers I Cross flow filtration equipment II Cross flow filtration equipment II Heat exchangers or condensers I Volume 1 cubic metre (m 3 ) = 1000 litres (l) = cubic feet (ft 3 ) = U.S. gallons (US gal) Cubic Metres (m 3 ) Litres (l) Cubic Feet (ft 3 ) U.S. Gallons (US gal) Applicable AG Commodity Fermenters and Awareness Raising Guidelines: Fermenters Reaction vessels and Storage tanks, containers, or receivers Aerosol inhalation chambers Handbook Volume 20 20, Reaction vessels I In addition: 1 m 3 = 1,000,000 cm 3 1 ft 3 = 1728 in 3 II I II Appendix E: Unit Conversions 226

243 Flow Rate 2 1 cubic metre per hour (m 3 /h) = 1,000 litres per hour (l/h) = litres per minute (l/min) = cubic feet per minute (CFM) = U.S. gallons per minute (GPM) Cubic Metres per Hour (m 3 /h) Litres per Hour (l/h) Litres per Minute (l/min) Cubic Feet per Minute (CFM) U.S. Gallons per Minute (GPM) Applicable AG Commodity Centrifugal separators Spraying or fogging systems Handbook Volume Pumps I Pumps I Temperature 273 Kelvin (K) = 0 degrees Celsius ( C) = 32 degrees Fahrenheit ( F) 3 Kelvin (K) Degrees Celsius ( C) Degrees Fahrenheit ( F) Applicable AG Commodity II II Handbook Volume Pumps I Incinerators I Mass 1 kilogram (kg) = pounds (lb) Kilograms (kg) Pounds (lb) Applicable AG Commodity Handbook Volume Freeze-drying equipment II Freeze-drying equipment II 2 For pumps, these flow rates reflect measurements taken under standard temperature (273 K (0 C)) and pressure (101.3kPa) conditions. 3 Conversion between degrees Celsius and degrees Fahrenheit uses the following formula: F = (9/5) C+32 Appendix E: Unit Conversions 227

244 Evaporation & Condensation Capacity 1 kilogram per hour (kg/h) = 24 kilograms per 24 hours (kg/24h) = pounds per hour (lb/h) Kilograms per Hour (kg/h) Kilograms per 24 Hours (kg/24h) Pounds per Hour (lb/h) Applicable AG Commodity AG Volume Spray-drying equipment II Freeze-drying equipment II Freeze-drying equipment II Spray-drying equipment II Pressure 1 kilopascal (kpa) = atmospheres (atm) = mm Hg = torr (Torr) = pounds per square inch (psi) = inches of water gauge (in w.g.) Kilopascals (kpa) Atmospheres (atm) Millimetres of Mercury (mm Hg)/ torr (Torr) Pounds per Square Inch (psi) Inches of Water Guage (in w.g.) Applicable AG Commodity Pumps I AG Volume Detection Level Conversion between mg/m 3 and ppm (parts per million) requires knowledge of the molecular weight of the chemical in question. See the Volume I section on Toxic Gas Monitoring Systems and their Dedicated Detection Components for a table of detection levels by chemical and further details on this calculation. Appendix E: Unit Conversions 228

245 Appendix F: Bibliography The following represents an edited compilation of key references and websites from government agencies, non-governmental organisations, scientific societies, and scientific publications. Further information on specific AG-listed commodities may be found in the text and footnotes of individual commodity entries. Chemical Weapons Precursors American Chemical Society. Chemical Abstract Service. CAS Registry-The gold standard for chemical substance information. Chemical and Biological Defense Information Analysis Center. State-of-the-Art Report on the Australia Group and related Chemicals. SOAR (June 1998). Comité Technique Europeen du Fluor. Eurofluor HF: A snapshot of the Fluorine Industry (May 2013). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 73rd Edition. (Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press) Ellison, D Hank. Handbook of Chemical and Biological Warfare Agents (Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press), European Chemicals Agency. Guidance for identification and naming of substances under REACH and CLP. V.1.3. (February 2014). Government of Australia, Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade. Information for Australian Importers and Exporters of Chemicals. Government of Canada, Transport Canada. Safety marks. International Program on Chemical Safety. Poisons Information Monographs Archive. Joint Research Centre, European Commission Institute for Health and Consumer Protection (IHCP). ESIS: European Chemical Substances Information System. Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. Wiley Interscience. MatWeb. Metal Alloy UNS Number search engine. The Merck Index: an Encyclopedia of Chemicals, Drugs, and Biologicals, 13th Edition. (Whitehouse Station, NJ: Merck), Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons. A selection of the most traded Scheduled chemicals. Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons. Which chemicals are controlled? Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons. Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons and on their Destruction (Chemical Weapons Convention). Safety Emporium. MSDS Hyper Glossary. Appendix F: Bibliography 229

246 Sax s Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials, 10th Edition (New York: John Wiley), Suresh B. and Kumamoto T. Abstract for Sodium Cyanide, IHS (December 2012). Sweet, Doris V, ed Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances (RTECS): A Comprehensive Guide to the RTECS. U.S. Dept. of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. Cincinnati, Ohio. United Nations Economic Commission for Europe. About the GHS. United Nations Economic Commission for Europe. United Nations (UN) Model Regulations. UN Recommendations on the Transport of Dangerous Goods Model Regulations 18th revised edition. United States Army. Field Manual FM , Potential Military Chemical/Biological Agents and Compounds (January 2005). United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Chemical Agents. United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Air Monitoring for Chemical Warfare Agents. United States Defense Threat Reduction Agency. Featured Articles Archive, CW Issues in Depth Toxic Industrial Chemicals and the CWC. United States Defense Threat Reduction Agency. Guide to Scheduled Chemicals (June 2004). United States National Institute of Standards and Technology. NIST Chemistry WebBook. United States National Library of Medicine. Toxicology Data Network. United States Department of State. Australia Group Export Controls on Materials Used in the Manufacture of Chemical and Biological Weapons, Control List of Dual-Use Chemicals: Commercial and Military Application (January 20, 2001). World Customs Organization. Recommendation of the Customs Co-Operation Council on the Insertion in National Statistical Nomenclatures of Subheadings for Substances Controlled under the Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons and on their Destruction. Global/PDF/About%20us/Legal%20Instruments/Recommendations/HS/Recommendation%20 CWC%202009_HS2012.ashx Appendix F: Bibliography Dual-Use Chemical Manufacturing Facilities and Equipment and Related Technology and Software Aliasso, Joe. Choose the Right Vacuum Pump, Chemical Engineering. 106(3), (1999). Collins, D. Vacuum systems for chemical and pharmaceutical processes. Chemical Industry Digest (June 2011). pdf Fair, James R. Distillation in Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, Volume 8 (John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1993). Flowserve Corporation. Duriron and Durichlor 51M

247 Grandview Materials. Niobium Industry: Chemical, Pharmaceutical and Medical. Haynes International. Corrosion Resistant Alloys. Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. Wiley Interscience. Laso, Manual and von Stockar, Urs. Absorption in Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, Volume 1 (John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2003). Metals & Alloys in the Unified Numbering System, 10th Edition, Society of Automotive Engineers and American Society for Testing and Materials (Warrendale, PA: 2004). Newcastle University. Distillation: An Introduction. Pearson, Graham S and Magee, Richard S. Critical Evaluation of Proven Chemical Weapon Destruction Technologies (IUPAC Technical Report). Pure and Applied Chemistry. 74(2), (2002). Rochester Institute of Technology. Vacuum Pumps. Ryans, JL and Croll, S. Selecting vacuum systems, Chemical Engineering p. 72 (December 14, 1981). Special Metals. Chemical Processing. Sutherlin, Richard. Zirconium, Anyone. United States Army Chemical Materials Activity. Human and Animal Pathogens and Toxins American Biological Safety Association. Risk Group Classification for Infectious Agents. American Chemical Society. Chemical Abstract Service. CAS Registry-The gold standard for chemical substance information. ConusServer. A database of conotoxins. Ellison, D. Hank. Handbook of Chemical and Biological Warfare Agents (Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press), European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control. Health topics A-Z. European Commission Health and Consumer Protection Directorate. The Definition of Avian Influenza: The use of Vaccination against Avian Influenza. Scientific Committee on Animal Health and Animal Welfare. (June 2000) Gill, D. Michael Bacterial Toxins: A Table of Lethal Amounts. Microbiological Reviews; 46: Government of Australia, New South Wales Ministry of Health. Factsheets. Government of Canada, Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety. What is LD 50 and LC 50? Heymann, David L. Control of Communicable Diseases Manual. American Public Health Association. 19th Edition International Air Transport Association. About us. International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses. Appendix F: Bibliography 231

248 Appendix F: Bibliography Iowa State University of Science and Technology. Animal Disease Information. The Center for Food Security and Public Health. The Merck Index: an Encyclopedia of Chemicals, Drugs, and Biologicals. 13th Edition (Whitehouse Station, NJ: Merck), Nature Education. Transposons. The Jumping Genes. Paddle, Brian M Therapy and Prophylaxis of Inhaled Biological Toxins. Journal of Applied Toxicology. 23: International Program on Chemical Safety. Poisons Information Monographs Archive. Safety Emporium. MSDS Hyper Glossary. Stirpe, F. et al Ribosome-Inactivating Proteins from Plants: Present Status and Future Prospects. Biotechnology. 10: Sweet, Doris V., ed Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances (RTECS): A Comprehensive Guide to the RTECS. U.S. Dept. of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. Cincinnati, Ohio. United Nations (UN) Model Regulations. UN Recommendations on the Transport of Dangerous Goods Model Regulations Eighteenth revised edition. United Nations Economic Commission for Europe. United States Army. Field Manual FM , Potential Military Chemical/Biological Agents and Compounds (January 2005). United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Biosafety in Microbiological and Biomedical Laboratories (BMBL), 5th Edition. United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Bioterrorism Agents/Diseases. United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Chemical Agents. United States National Human Genome Research Institute. Talking Glossary of Generic Terms. United States National Institutes of Health. Health Topics: MedlinePlus. U.S National Library of Medicine. United States National Library of Medicine. Toxicology Data Network. World Health Organization. Fact Sheets. World Health Organization. Laboratory Biosafety Manual, 3rd Edition. World Organisation for Animal Health. Animal Disease Information Summaries. Plant Pathogens American Biological Safety Association. Risk Group Classification for Infectious Agents. National Human Genome Research Institute. Talking Glossary of Generic Terms

249 Nature Education. Transposons. The Jumping Genes. Safety Emporium. MSDS Hyper Glossary. Dual-Use Biological Equipment and Related Technology and Software Chui, P et al. Mobile Biosafety Level-4 Autopsy Facility An Innovative Solution. Clayton, JS and Sander, TPY. Aerial application for control of public health pests. Aspects of Applied Biology 66 (2002). Compendium of Chemical Technology. IUPAC. Franjione, J and Vasishtha, N. The Art and Science of Microencapsulation. Freeze Drying / Lyophilisation Info Online. Greb, E. (2009) Is Spray Drying a Viable Alternative to Lyophilisation? Hewett, AJ. The Importance of Nozzle Selection and Droplet Size Control in Spray Applications. Proceedings of the North American Conference on Pesticide Spray Drift Management (1998). Menyhart, Lisa. Lyophilisation: Freeze-Drying, A Downstream Process. United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Biosafety in Microbiological and Biomedical Laboratories (BMBL), 5th Edition. United States Department of Energy. Nuclear Air Cleaning Handbook. United States Edgewood Chemical Biological Center. CBRNE Mobile Laboratories Team. United States National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases. Online BSL-4 Lab Tour. World Health Organization. Laboratory Biosafety Manual, 3rd Edition. General References The Australia Group. EU Regulation No 388/2012 of the European Parliament and of the Council. Missile Technology Control Regime. Nuclear Suppliers Group. United States International Trade Commission. By Chapter, Harmonised Tariff Schedule of the United States. Wassenaar Arrangement. Appendix F: Bibliography 233

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251 Appendix G: Figure Attributions Introduction to Chemical Weapons and Dual-Use Chemical Technology Figure Credit 6 Argonne National Laboratory 7 Argonne National Laboratory 8 (left) Argonne National Laboratory 8 (right) Argonne National Laboratory Chemical Packaging and Transportation Figure 1 Credit Source: Transport Canada; these placards do not represent an official version of Transport Canada s images. Their inclusion in this book is not made in affiliation with or with the endorsement of Transport Canada. 2 Astaris LLC 3 Blank form from Table 1 2 Credit United Nations Economic Commission for Europe United Nations Economic Commission for Europe Chemical Weapons Precursors Figure Credit 45.A Picture courtesy of CyPlus GmbH 45.B Pictures courtesy of CyPlus GmbH 45.C Pictures courtesy of CyPlus GmbH 47.A (left) Astaris LLC 47.A (right) Fosfoquim S.A. 47.B Astaris LLC 50.A Photo taken by Mr. Zijing Qin Appendix G: Figure Attributions 235

252 Dual-Use Chemical Manufacturing Facilities and Equipment and Related Technology and Software Appendix G: Figure Attributions Figure 1.1.A 1.1.B (left) 1.1.B (right) 1.1.C (left) 1.1.C (centre) 1.1.C (right) 1.1.D 1.1.E Credit Echis / English Wikipedia CC BY Image courtesy of DeDietrich Process Systems, Inc. Chemical Materials Activity, U.S. Army Image courtesy of Perry Videx used equipment company, Hainesport, NJ USA Ward Tank & Heat Exchanger Corp. Image courtesy of Perry Videx used equipment company, Hainesport, NJ USA Equipment shown designed and manufactured by PATTERSON INDUSTRIES (CANADA) LIMITED, Toronto, Ontario, Canada Photo courtesy of Aaron Equipment Company 1.1.F (left) Reactor designed to ASMEUIII fabricated using carbon steel clad with zirconium F (centre) 1.1.F (right) Image courtesy of DeDietrich Process Systems, Inc. Permission granted/no attribution requested 1.2.A Promix Mixing Equipment & Engg. Ltd B 1.2.C (left) 1.2.C (right) 1.2.D 1.2.E (left) 1.2.E (right) 1.2.F (left) 1.2.F (centre) 1.2.F (right) 1.2.G Photos courtesy of Sharpe Mixers Photo courtesy of Sharpe Mixers Auger manufactured by PDC Machines ( Image courtesy of DeDietrich Process Systems, Inc. Photo courtesy of Sharpe Mixers Equipment shown designed and manufactured by PATTERSON INDUSTRIES (CANADA) LIMITED, Toronto, Ontario, Canada Photo courtesy of Aaron Equipment Company Image provided courtesy of Federal Equipment Company Image provided courtesy of Federal Equipment Company Equipment shown designed and manufactured by PATTERSON INDUSTRIES (CANADA) LIMITED, Toronto, Ontario, Canada 2.A (top left) Nisshin Gulf Coast; Houston, Texas 2.A (top right) TITAN Metal Fabricators - Camarillo, CA 2.A (bottom left) Photo courtesy of Aaron Equipment Company 2.A (bottom right) Nisshin Gulf Coast; Houston, Texas 2.B (left) Image courtesy of DeDietrich Process Systems, Inc. 2.B (right) Image courtesy of Perry Videx used equipment company, Hainesport, NJ USA 2.C Nisshin Gulf Coast; Houston, Texas 3.A (left) Exergy, LLC; Garden City, NJ 236

253 Figure 3.A (centre) Credit Fleximus / Wikimedia Commons CC A (right) Alloy coil condenser by Chem Flowtronics, Inc., Little Falls, NJ USA 3.B (top left) TITAN Metal Fabricators - Camarillo, CA 3.B (top centre) TITAN Metal Fabricators - Camarillo, CA 3.B (top right) Buchiglasuster, Shell & Tube Heat Exchanger 3.B (bottom left) TITAN Metal Fabricators - Camarillo, CA 3.B (bottom right) Used with the permission of Ametek Inc. 3.C Argonne National Laboratory 3.D (left) Image courtesy of Perry Videx used equipment company, Hainesport, NJ USA 3.D (centre) Courtesy of Bell & Gossett, a Xylem brand 3.D (right) Photo courtesy of Aaron Equipment Company 3.E Images courtesy of Perry Videx used equipment company, Hainesport, NJ USA 3.F (left) Courtesy of Special Metals, Inc. ( 3.F (centre left) Image courtesy of Perry Videx used equipment company, Hainesport, NJ USA 3.F (centre right) Photo courtesy of Aaron Equipment Company 3.F (right) TITAN Metal Fabricators - Camarillo, CA 4.A (left) Argonne National Laboratory 4.A (top right) Nisshin Gulf Coast; Houston, Texas 4.A (bottom right) TITAN Metal Fabricators - Camarillo, CA 4.B (top left) Vendome Copper & Brass Works Inc. 4.B (top centre) Picture courtesy of RVT Process Equipment, Inc. 4.B (top right) Picture courtesy of RVT Process Equipment, Inc. 4.B (bottom row) Picture courtesy of RVT Process Equipment, Inc. 4.C (all) Photos courtesy of Raschig GmbH 4.D (top left) Picture courtesy of RVT Process Equipment, Inc. 4.D (top right) Photo courtesy of Raschig GmbH 4.D (bottom) Pipe ladder manufactured by SG&P, Inc. 4.E Picture courtesy of RVT Process Equipment, Inc. 4.F Picture courtesy of RVT Process Equipment, Inc. 4.G (left) Nisshin Gulf Coast; Houston, Texas 4.G (right) Image courtesy of Perry Videx used equipment company, Hainesport, NJ USA 5.A, F 5.A, G 5.A, H Permission granted/no attribution requested Permission granted/no attribution requested Inline Filling Systems, LLC 5.B Inline Filling Systems, LLC Appendix G: Figure Attributions 237

254 Appendix G: Figure Attributions Figure Credit 6.A (left) Permission granted/no attribution requested 6.A (right) Permission granted/no attribution requested 6.B (left) The Alloy Valve Stockist, 6.B (centre) Grupo Compás 6.B (top right) The Alloy Valve Stockist, 6.B (bottom right) Grupo Compás 6.C (left) Ceresist, Inc. 6.C (right) Courtesy Ceresist Inc 6.D (left) Permission granted/no attribution requested 6.D (centre) Photo courtesy of International Polymer Solutions Inc. 6.D (right) Argonne National Laboratory 6.E (left) Permission granted/no attribution requested 6.E (right) High performance plastics 6.F (top left) Image courtesy of American Energy Services 6.F (top right) Permission granted/no attribution requested 6.F (bottom left) Image courtesy of American Energy Services 6.F (bottom right) Image courtesy of American Energy Services 6.G Argonne National Laboratory 7.A (left) Images courtesy of Asahi/America, Inc. 7.A (right) IPS Polypropylene Double Containment Piping 7.B Images courtesy of Asahi/America, Inc. 7.C (top left) Permission granted/no attribution requested 7.C (all others) Images courtesy of Asahi/America, Inc. 8.A Reproduced with permission from AESSEAL 8.B (top) Photo of a Magnetic Drive Centrifugal Pump courtesy of Iwaki America, Inc. 8.B (middle) Finish Thompson, UC Series 8.B (bottom) Courtesy of Magnatex Pumps, Inc. 8.C (left) Photo courtesy of Aaron Equipment Company 8.C (centre) Photo courtesy of Aaron Equipment Company 8.C (right) Permission granted/no attribution requested 8.D Image courtesy of Perry Videx used equipment company, Hainesport, NJ USA 8.E (left) Graham Corporation, Batavia, NY USA 8.E (centre left) By permission of Croll Reynolds Company, Inc. 8.E (centre right) Image provided courtesy of Gardner Denver Nash. All rights reserved. 8.E (right) Graham Corporation, Batavia, NY USA 8.F (top row) Images provided courtesy of Federal Equipment Company 8.F (bottom row) Graham Corporation, Batavia, NY USA 238

255 Figure Credit 9.A (left) Chemical Materials Activity, U.S. Army 9.A (centre) U.S. Department of Defense 9.A (right) Chemical Materials Activity, U.S. Army 9.B Chemical Materials Activity, U.S. Army II.A (left) Reproduced with kind permission of Bruker Daltronik GmbH, Leipzig, Germany II.A (centre) Permission granted/no attribution requested II.A (right) Mine Safety Appliance Company Appendix G: Figure Attributions 239

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258 Control List Handbook DRAFT