Vocational Training in the Informal Sector

Transcription

1 Agence Française de Développement Working Paper July Vocational Training in the Informal Sector Report on the SENEGAL Field Survey Richard Walther, ITG consultant With inputs from Ewa Filipiak and Christine Uhder Translation: Adam Ffoulkes Roberts DEPARTEMENT DE LA RECHERCHE Agence Française de Développement Direction de la Stratégie Département de la Recherche 5 rue Roland Barthes Paris - France

2 Foreword This report is part of a study carried out by the AFD Research Department on vocational training in the informal sector in seven African countries, which are, in alphabetical order, South Africa, Angola, Benin, Cameroon, Ethiopia, Morocco and Senegal. The Research Department has defined the methodological and organisational framework of the study and entrusted the scientific and technical responsibility as well as the writing up of all the country reports to Richard Walther. The study has also benefited from the input of the German cooperation (GTZ) in the financing and carrying out of the Ethiopian field survey and that of the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs (DGCID) in the financing and carrying out of the Angola field survey. The AFD expresses sincere thanks to these two partners for allowing to broaden the field of investigation to a sample of countries representative of the economic, social, cultural and linguistic diversity of Africa. The field surveys have been written up in country reports published in English and French, as well as in Portuguese for the Angola report. These reports are downloadable on the AFD website ( sections «Our Publications» and «Working Papers») in the following order. Working Paper N 15 : Vocational Training in the Informal Sector - Issue Paper. Working Paper N 16 : Vocational Training in the Informal Sector Report on the Morocco Field Survey. Working Paper N 17 : Vocational Training in the Informal Sector Report on the Cameroon Field Survey. Working Paper N 19 : Vocational Training in the Informal Sector Report on the Benin Field Survey. Working Paper N 21 : Vocational Training in the Informal Sector Report on the Senegal Field Survey. Working Paper N 30 : Vocational Training in the Informal Sector Report on the South Africa Field Survey. Working Paper N 34 : Vocational Training in the Informal Sector Report on the Ethiopia Field Survey. Working Paper N 35 : Vocational Training in the Informal Sector Report on the Angola Field Survey. The final report, a comparative analysis of all the country reports, is available in English and French in the Notes and Documents series (website sections «Our Publications» and «Notes and Documents»). It identifies propositions likely to help providers of vocational training in the informal sector but also national authorities and international donors to better orient their actions and investments in the skill development field toward an economic sector that is largely predominant in developing countries. Disclaimer The analysis and conclusions of this document are those of the authors. They do not necessarily reflect the official position of the AFD or its partner institutions. Directeur de la publication : Jean-Michel SEVERINO Directeur de la rédaction : Robert PECCOUD ISSN : Mise en page : Anne-Elizabeth COLOMBIER AFD Working paper No 21 Vocational Training in the Informal Sector - Report on the Senegal Field Survey 2

3 Table of contents 1. Introduction 5 2. Economic and social issues Uneven economic performance An economy emerging from recession The search for high-growth sectors An economy caught between accelerated and instable growth An economy slowly emerging from poverty Uncertain progress in the education system An average literacy rate Unconfirmed educational progress A primarily informal labour market The overall formal and informal employment situation The characteristics of informal employment in Dakar Strategic and operational thrusts of the reform A national policy in tune with the informal sector s training needs 3.2 A training system in need of far-reaching reform A complex and fragmented training system A system facing economic and social challenges A system in need of overall control and management Pilot projects and schemes organised as part of the reform The partnership for apprenticeship and opening up the vocational training system Pilot adult and youth education schemes leading to a qualification Initiatives to structure and transform the sector Ongoing reorganisation of apprenticeship schemes Training for apprentices and the dual system SThe PAFPNA project The PROMECABILE project Other projects in progress The lack of resources for continuing training Training in support of IGA growth and development Improved skills training in the informal sector 30 AFD Working paper No 21 Vocational Training in the Informal Sector - Report on the Senegal Field Survey 3

4 Table of contents 4.3 The forms and limitations of organisational and financial support mechanisms The real but limited role of chambers of trades Absence of any concerted initiative among existing sector bodies Strategic rather than operational support from government ministries The opportunities and limitations of available financial support mechanisms The need for change and action Training and skills development in growth sectors Strengthening coordination and consultation structures Fostering a shared vision of reform among all stakeholders concerned Aligning the action of the various donor agencies Ensuring better control over the development of traditional apprenticeship The need to ensure effective overall management control Linking management control with the future system s methodological development Training people and ensuring they find jobs Organising pre-vocational skills training for young people prior to apprenticeship Giving equal emphasis to craftworkers and apprentices The fundamental link between training for apprentices and training for master craftsmen The need for validation of skills acquired in the informal sector Creating a favourable environment for boosting the informal sector Improving the coordination of financial strategies and resources Helping the sector to become part of the country s economic and social fabric Concluding observations 43 List of acronyms and abbreviations 44 References 46 AFD Working paper No 21 Vocational Training in the Informal Sector - Report on the Senegal Field Survey 4

5 1. Introduction Along with Benin and Cameroon, Senegal has one of the largest informal sectors in sub-saharan Africa. Like these two other countries, it is also undertaking vocational training reforms to promote recognition of traditional apprenticeship as an effective means of training for the very large majority of young people and adults who work in this sector and as a means of progressively introducing an initial qualification and certification level for the whole training system. In Senegal, unlike Cameroon and Morocco, there is no statistical information on informal production units (IPUs) in either the primary or other sectors of the economy. Only the city of Dakar has been analysed as part of an overall study of the seven West African capitals 1. This makes it difficult to determine the country s real social and economic situation, and the aggregate figures on the informal economy used in this study are taken estimates published in official documents. However, the field survey made it possible to grasp the qualitative and quantitative dimensions of the actual situation in the sector. It also revealed to what extent the stakeholders interviewed were aware of the true situation and their willingness to take an active role in transforming it. This report aims to shed as much light as possible on training and skills development initiatives in the informal economy. Within the limits of the information available, the report will attempt to provide as detailed an account as possible in order to help grasp the ins and outs of these processes. Particular attention will be paid to the role of occupational organisations and both national and international stakeholders, and their ability to work in a coordinated and interactive way. Finally, the report will analyse the tools and resources used to set the reforms in motion and will evaluate their strengths and weaknesses in relation to the objectives and expected results of the reforms. The aim of the study is not to make a value judgement concerning the overall strategies and specific operational measures undertaken to harness the informal sector to boost an economy in need of growth and dynamic sectors. Rather, its aim is to take stock of the situation at a time when this topic is giving rise to considerable controversy and debate, and ultimately to help make the current reforms successful and effective. 1 STATECO (2005), Méthodes statistiques et économiques pour le développement et la transition, No. 99. AFD Working paper No 21 Vocational Training in the Informal Sector - Report on the Senegal Field Survey 5

6 2. Economic and social issues The situation in Senegal is characterised by the country s strong desire to join the ranks of the emerging countries, although the human development indicators reflecting its social conditions are not commensurate with its economic ambitions. 2.1 Uneven economic performance Senegal, like Côte d Ivoire, was long considered a showcase for capital-intensive development in Africa. It has gone through various phases of expansion and recession over the last few decades, but has now shown a strong desire for faster growth in the future An economy emerging from recession The Senegalese economy, burdened by its colonial past, for many years suffered from the imbalances resulting from the mercantilist économie de traite (primarily based on groundnut farming) set up under French colonisation, making it vulnerable to fluctuating world prices and the vagaries of the weather. The devaluation of the CFA franc (CFAF) in 1994 revived the country s economy by making Senegalese products more competitive on international markets. The growth rate, which was negative in 1993 (-2.2%), gradually picked up, levelling off at an average of 5.3% between 1995 and The search for high-growth sectors The Senegalese economy is largely driven by service industries, and more specifically by the construction, trade, transport and telecommunications sectors. In 2004, the services sector was responsible for 63.3% of national wealth creation, as against 19.7% for industry and 17% for agriculture. GDP at the time was $7.2 billion. Senegal therefore entered a phase of structural change in the 1980s. Four structural adjustment programmes were implemented between 1986 and 1991, which led to austerity measures aimed in particular at rebalancing public finances and easing structural constraints by redefining the respective roles of the public and private sectors. The extensive economic liberalisation that ensued did make the Senegalese economy less vulnerable, but at the cost of considerable negative repercussions for poverty and employment, as privatisation and public spending cuts led to reductions in social spending and threw a great many Senegalese out of work. Figure 1. GDP growth rate since 1980 (constant 2000 prices) Source: World Bank (2005), World Development Indicators. AFD Working paper No 21 Vocational Training in the Informal Sector - Report on the Senegal Field Survey 6

7 2. Economic and social issues Although agriculture contributes proportionally less to the creation of wealth than the other sectors, it employs around 54% of the population. The sector is dominated by the main export crops, notably groundnuts and cotton; the food crops grown are mainly cereal grains for subsistence consumption. Pro-active crop diversification policies have increased production of maize, manioc (cassava) and sesame. Fishing is another sector fuelling growth and the main source of foreign currency after tourism. The depletion of fishing stocks, however, is leading to a gradual fall in the number of industrial fisheries, while traditional fishing continues to attract a significant number of workers. The industrial sector is dominated by the agri-food industry and also by the mining, textile and chemical sectors. In adopting its Accelerated Growth Strategy (Stratégie de croissance accélérée SCA), Senegal decided to base its development on five sectoral clusters of competitiveness, that is, clusters of interconnected businesses or activities selected for their labour-intensive nature and export orientation. The five high-potential sectors identified were agriculture and agro-industry; seafood; tourism and the cultural and crafts industries; textiles and clothing manufacture; and ICT and teleservices. According to the SCA, each of the five sectoral clusters should act as a locomotive for restructuring their entire industry, both upstream and downstream An economy caught between accelerated and instable growth Senegal is without a doubt one of the countries (along with Mali and Burkina Faso) driving growth in the West African Economic and Monetary Union (WAEMU), with a growth rate well above the WAEMU average. After a slowdown in 2002, when the growth rate fell from 5.6% to 1.1%, largely due to rainfall shortages affecting harvests, the country s growth stabilised at an average of 5.9% from 2003 to In 2005, growth slowed again slightly, even though the year was characterised by robust activity in the services and manufacturing sectors. This can be attributed to the poor crop year in owing to poor climate conditions and locust attacks. Table 1. Average annual growth rate of real GDP (market prices) Growth rate (%) Senegal Benin Burkina Faso Côte d Ivoire Mali Niger Togo WAEMU average Franc Zone average Source: AFD (2006), Rapport de conjoncture et prévisions des pays de la zone Franc 2. 2 Amprou, J., T. Bossuroy, H. Djoufelkit, T. Latreille, B. Leenhardt and N. Meisel (2006), Rapport de conjoncture et prévisions des pays de la zone Franc, AFD Working Paper. AFD Working paper No 21 Vocational Training in the Informal Sector - Report on the Senegal Field Survey 7

8 2. Economic and social issues Table 2. Growth rates of main aggregates (%) GDP Imports Consumption Households Administration Investment Public Private Exports Primary Other Consumer prices Source: AFD (2006), Rapport de conjoncture et prévisions des pays de la zone Franc. According to the Jumbo report 3, the overall prospects for 2006 and 2007 are mixed. While the slowdown should continue in 2006, due, at least in part, to the increase in oil prices and its impact on production costs, growth should be more robust in 2007 (5.8%). The main drivers of Senegal s growth are consumption and public investment, as shown by Table An economy slowly emerging from poverty In 2003, Senegal s GDP per capita in purchasing power parity terms was $1,557, the second highest among the WAEMU countries (behind Togo at $1,603). This figure is, however, below the average GDP per capita for sub- Saharan Africa, which was $1,613 for the same year. The SCA targets a growth rate of 8% by 2015, which would place Senegal among the emerging countries. Although Senegal s current growth rate is relatively high, it is insufficient to cope with the country s high rate of population growth (approximately 2.4% according to the World Bank). If this rate is maintained, it would take 30 years to double GDP per capita, which could threaten the country s stability. There are many reasons for this mixed performance. One of them is worsening terms of trade, to which the Senegalese economy is particularly vulnerable: according to the World Bank, exports and imports accounted respectively for 27.8% and 40.5% of its GDP in The lack of stability in export revenues and occasionally unfavourable climatic conditions are also worth noting. Domestically, one may point to the relatively low level of saving, a high level of corruption and restrictive fiscal policy. Furthermore, for many years before the devaluation of the CFA franc in 1994, the overvalued exchange rate detracted from the international competitiveness of Senegalese products. Senegal became eligible for the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) Initiative in June 2000, and reached the completion point in April According to UNDP data, around 26.3% of Senegal s population is living below the poverty line of $1 a day 4 (compared to 28.5% in Benin). This rate would rise to 33.4% if the national monetary poverty line were used and to 67.8% if the poverty line of $2 a day per person were used. Senegal has however made steady progress in development terms since The value of the HDI 5 rose from in 1975 to in 2003, putting Senegal in 157th place out of 177 countries in the world ranking. In comparison with the other countries surveyed in sub-saharan Africa, this puts Senegal between Cameroon (148th place) and Benin (162nd place). 3 Op.cit. 4 According to the most recent data available for the period; UNDP (2005), Human Development Report. 5 Human Development Index: a UNDP composite indicator which takes into account life expectancy, adult literacy rate, number of years in education and GDP per capita. AFD Working paper No 21 Vocational Training in the Informal Sector - Report on the Senegal Field Survey 8

9 2. Economic and social issues 2.2 Uncertain progress in the education system Senegal had 11.1 million inhabitants in 2003 (according to UNDP data 6 ), with annual population growth of 2.4%. The population is very young (43.4% of the total population was under the age of 15 in 2003) and urban (49.6% of the population). If one compares the situation in Senegal to that of the WAEMU countries, the picture obtained reveals sharp contrasts in the Senegalese education system An average literacy rate The literacy rate in Senegal has nearly doubled in 20 years. It is above the WAEMU averages of 31.5% for the population aged 15 and above and 41.5% for those aged between 15 and 24, but less than those in Côte d Ivoire (48.1% and 59.8% respectively) and Togo (53% and 74% respectively). Compared to literacy rates in sub-saharan Africa as a whole, Senegal s are far below the regional average rates for the population aged 15 and above and for the population aged 15 to 24. There is a significant difference almost 20 points between literacy rates for men and women, at 49% and 30% respectively. This gender gap is only slightly less in literacy rates for young people aged 15 to 24, because although this group has a higher overall literacy rate (53% compared to 39%) the rate for men was 61% as against 44% for women in Table 3. Adult literacy rates (% of those aged 15 and above) Total Female Male Source: World Bank (2005), World Development Indicators. Table 4. Youth literacy rates (% of those aged 15 to 24) Total Female Male Source: World Bank (2005), World Development Indicators. Table 5. Comparison of literacy rates in sub-saharan Africa Senegal Total (% of those aged 15 and above) Young people (% of those aged 15 to 24) Average for sub-saharan Africa Total (% of those aged 15 and over) Young people (% of those aged 15 to 24) Source: World Bank (2005), World Development Indicators. 6 UNDP (2005), Human Development Report. AFD Working paper No 21 Vocational Training in the Informal Sector - Report on the Senegal Field Survey 9

10 2. Economic and social issues Unconfirmed educational progress The gross enrolment ratio in primary education rose to 80% in 2002 in Senegal but remains below the average for sub-saharan Africa of 95%. The net enrolment ratio in primary education is 58% compared to 68% for sub- Saharan Africa. Comparative data for 1992 and 2002 show that the gross enrolment ratio for Senegal has increased by 22 points in ten years, at the same rate as that of sub-saharan Africa, while the net enrolment ratio has risen less in Senegal than in the other countries. The efforts to increase enrolment can therefore be considered significant in relation to the country s internal situation but insufficient in comparison to what has been achieved in the sub-saharan region. According to World Bank data, the pupil/teacher ratio dropped to 51 between 1995 and , as against 58 five years earlier. The reason behind this is the 52% increase in the number of teachers between 1995 and 2000, to an overall figure of 22,813 teachers in primary education. According to the same data, 72% of children reach the last year of primary education, which means that the survival rate is fairly high compared to other countries. Despite these moderately good results in terms of educational quality, the European Commission Delegation to Senegal 10 considers that there is a risk that the quality of primary education will decline to a certain extent, due to teachers lack of qualification, a drop in staff motivation, laxness in inspections and major discrepancies between regions. Table 6. Gross enrolment ratio in primary education (%) Senegal Enrolment ratio in primary education Female enrolment ratio in primary education Male enrolment ratio in primary education Sub-Saharan Africa Enrolment ratio in primary education Female enrolment ratio in primary education Male enrolment ratio in primary education Source: World Bank (2005), World Development Indicators. NB: This indicator may be higher than 100% as a result of grade repetition and early or late admission of some children. Table 7. Net enrolment ratio in primary education (%) Senegal Enrolment ratio in primary education Female enrolment ratio in primary education Male enrolment ratio in primary education Sub-Saharan Africa Enrolment ratio in primary education Female enrolment ratio in primary education 50 NA Male enrolment ratio in primary education 58 NA Source: World Bank (2005), World Development Indicators. 7 Gross enrolment ratio (UNESCO definition): number of pupils enrolled in a given level of education, regardless of age, expressed as a percentage of the population in the relevant official age group. 8 Net enrolment ratio (UNESCO definition): number of pupils in the official age group for a given level of education enrolled in that level expressed as a percentage of the total population in that age group. 9 According to the World Bank, in , not including South Africa and Nigeria. 10 European Commission Delegation to Senegal, Guide du Sénégal, Situation politique, économique et sociale: AFD Working paper No 21 Vocational Training in the Informal Sector - Report on the Senegal Field Survey 10

11 2. Economic and social issues 2.3 A primarily informal labour market Although the statistical data available do not provide such detailed information as exists for Morocco and Cameroon, the information gathered on the comparative relationship between the economically active population in the formal and informal sectors does give us a fair idea of their respective situations The overall formal and informal employment situation In , the economically active population in Senegal numbered 3 million. Around 85.6% were in employment in the country as a whole, compared to 72.3% in Dakar. The low participation rate can be partly attributed to the fact that the population is very young: in 2003, 44% of the Senegalese population was under the age of 15. Although the proportion of economically active children aged 10 to 14 who work is steadily decreasing, nearly 25% of children in this age group still work (World Bank, 2005). Analysis of the economically active population in Dakar provides both contrasting and complementary information. It shows a participation rate for children aged 10 that is well above the national average (51.1% compared to 25%). Comparison of the participation rates for men and women (62.12% as against 41.1%) reveals a negative gap of 10 points between the female participation rates in Dakar and in the other WAEMU capitals (41.1% compared to 52.5%). Lastly, the analysis shows that the unemployment rate, using the ILO definition 11, is 11.7% in the capital compared to 14% in the country as a whole, although this rate masks invisible unemployment the case of workers whose pay is lower than the local minimum wage, which often means they work longer hours which affects 52.5% of the working population. Table 8. Analysis of the economically active population in Senegal in Economically Economically Total Gross Employment Unemployment active active population Unemployed population participation rate rate rate population in employment Senegal 3,028,746 2,593, ,820 9,802, Dakar 800, , ,580 2,411, Source: ESAM-01/02. Table 9. Participation, unemployment and employment Dakar (2002) WAEMU Economically active population (thousands) (avg.) Participation rate (aged 10 and above) (%) Male participation rate (%) Female participation rate (%) Number of discouraged workers 161, ,429 (avg.) Number of unemployed (ILO definition) 87,000 65,786 (avg.) Unemployment rate (ILO definition) (%) Broad unemployment rate 1 (%) Broad unemployment rate 2 (% ) Visible underemployment rate (%) Invisible underemployment rate (%) Source: Surveys WAEMU , Jumbo April 2005, data from report by Leenhardt, B. (2005), Le poids de l informel en UEMOA, premières leçons en termes de comptabilité nationale des enquêtes de , AFD Report. 11 International Labour Organisation. 12 Broad unemployment rate 1: the ratio of unemployed people to the economically active population (in or out of work), applying a broader definition of unemployment by adding to the ILO definition all those out of work who, although they did not seek work during the reference month, would nevertheless be available should they be offered a job (calculation specific to the WAEMU). 13 Broad unemployment rate 2: further expanding the concept of unemployment, it calculates the ratio of unemployed people according to the strict ILO definition, plus discouraged unemployed people, to the economically active population (in or out of work); the out-of-work population is also extended to include discouraged workers. 14 Visible underemployment rate: percentage of the labour force obliged to work less than 35 hours a week. 15 Invisible underemployment rate: percentage of the labour force earning less than the local minimum wage (regardless of whether they work more or less than 35 hours a week). AFD Working paper No 21 Vocational Training in the Informal Sector - Report on the Senegal Field Survey 11

12 2. Economic and social issues In 1990, the sectoral breakdown of employment was as follows: 76.7% for agriculture, 15.8% for services and 7.5% for industry (World Bank, 2005). Over 70% of the economically active population still earn their living from agricultural activities. The total number of jobs recorded in the modern sector rose to 105,231 in 2003, most of which were in industry (48% of jobs) and more specifically in the food industry (27% of jobs). In the same year, the proportion of civil servants was 6.5 per 1,000 inhabitants, which gives a total of 65,650 civil servants for Senegal as a whole. Although there are no overall statistical data for the number of informal jobs 16, the information available for the formal sector seems to indicate that these jobs represent at least 90% of total employment. This means that Senegal s labour market is structured in much the same way as those of Cameroon and Benin. The informal sector was the lifeblood of the economy in 2003, accounting for some 60% of Senegal s GDP 17. It is flexible and dynamic, as both a partner (not just through sub-contracting but also as a distribution partner) and a competitor for businesses in the modern sector. It is also highly organised, since it comprises 10 business associations, including the National Union of Senegalese Merchants and Manufacturers (Union nationale des commerçants et des industries du Sénégal UNACOIS) and its 100,000 members. Some informal businesses have grown sufficiently large to establish themselves on the international stage, such as Comptoir commercial Bara Mboup, which after 25 years in business has turnover of around CFAF 20 million and works in partnership with Samsung The characteristics of informal employment in Dakar In the second quarter of 2003, there were 281,600 informal production units (IPUs) in the Dakar area, employing 434,200 people in non-agricultural market sectors 18. This figure indicates the economic importance of informal activities for the capital s population, as there are more IPUs than households in Dakar. On average, each household in Dakar receives all or part of its income by running an informal production unit. The distribution of these IPUs by major sector of activity is as follows: 46.5% work in trade, 30.6% in industry, 21.3% in services and 1.6% in fishing. This breakdown shows that they are first and foremost an essential means of meeting household needs. In terms of number of employees, 76.9% of IPUs are sole traders and just 7.7% employ more than three people. The largest recorded in the survey had eleven employees, but less than 1% of IPUs have more than eight. These figures reflect the predominance of self-employment and indicate the informal sector s low capacity for accumulation it is a sector which seems incapable of developing in any other way than through a process of extensive growth, characterised by the proliferation of small production units. Due to the small size of IPUs and the overwhelming predominance of self-employment, the proportion of salaried workers (the ratio of salaried workers to total working population) scarcely reaches 13%. The salaried workers ratio allows us to make a fairly clear distinction between the informal sector and the formal sector, where salaried workers are the norm. Only 2% of IPUs employ salaried workers only. Finally, the informal sector provides significant opportunities for young people, just as much for those who have failed at school as for those who want to set up their own businesses and for whom too much bureaucracy would be prohibitive. 16 The survey conducted by AFRISTAT in collaboration with INSEE and DIAL (STATECO [2005], Méthodes statistiques et économiques pour le développement et la transition, No. 99) analyses the data on the informal sector in Dakar. 17 Afrikeco.com, article dated 24 July This figure has been confirmed by the Ministry for Technical and Vocational Education and Training, Literacy and National Languages (2002), Le document de politique sectorielle de l enseignement technique et de la formation professionnelle. 18 These data are taken from STATECO, op.cit., and Government of Senegal, Forecasting and Statistics Directorate (2005), Le secteur informel dans l agglomération de Dakar: performances, insertion et perspectives. AFD Working paper No 21 Vocational Training in the Informal Sector - Report on the Senegal Field Survey 12

13 2. Economic and social issues The 140,600-strong IPU workforce (excluding owners, selfemployed and partners) comprises 14.6% salaried workers, 22.6% family workers and 62.8% apprentices, 41.8% of whom are paid. The lack of social security coverage is the main characteristic of jobs available to informal sector workers. These characteristics go hand in hand with two other major features specific to the sector. Self-sufficiency: the informal sector is its own main supplier: 87% of all IPU owners say that they get their supplies from other people working in the sector, and the proportion is 83.6% among traders, while the main markets are the households of those working in the sector. Furthermore, the informal sector is geared exclusively towards the domestic market. Value creation: if the results of the survey 19 are extrapolated up to national level, they suggest that the informal economy contributes 93% to wealth creation in the primary sector, 45% in the secondary sector and 46% in the tertiary sector. Analysis of the tertiary sector at a finer level of detail indicates that the informal economy dominates repair activities (91% of national value added in this segment), real-estate activities (93% of value added), followed by collective or individual activities (51% of value added) and transport (48% of value added). Although the statistics available for the Senegalese informal sector are incomplete, they demonstrate its overriding importance for the labour market and the significant contribution it makes to national wealth. The few qualitative appraisals of the way it is organised suggest that it has a well-developed organisational capacity and an ability to adapt, making it a dynamic and often competitive force on the national market. When combined, these quantitative and qualitative data also explain why the sector is starting to become an essential participant in the current changes in public vocational training policies, and why the various stakeholders involved are embracing schemes and projects designed with the informal sector s specific needs and circumstances in mind WAEMU surveys, , Jumbo April 2005, data taken from B. Leenhardt (2005), Le poids de l informel en UEMOA, premières leçons en termes de comptabilité nationale des enquêtes de , AFD Report. AFD Working paper No 21 Vocational Training in the Informal Sector - Report on the Senegal Field Survey 13

14 3. Strategic and operational thrusts of the reform During the field survey, the main public, business and private stakeholders involved in the sector were interviewed in order to identify both the strategic and operational framework for their activities and the various mechanisms and schemes they plan to introduce in order to upgrade the skills and qualifications of young and adult workers in the informal economy. 3.1 A national policy in tune with the informal sector s training needs The sectoral policy document on technical and vocational education and training (TVET) published in was drawn up after the National Conference on Technical and Vocational Education and Training held in April 2001 and in accordance with the action plan laid down by the Ten-Year Education and Training Programme (Programme décennal de l éducation et de la formation PDEF) for the period. It defines the main lines of the reforms to be implemented and highlights the strategic importance of the informal sector for the Senegalese economy. The informal sector, a seedbed for the craft industry, generates over 60% of GNP and employs the vast majority of the working population. In many countries, the informal and craft sector has often been behind the development of a powerful modern industrial and service sector, sometimes producing goods and services exclusively for the external market Senegal has a craft industry with a huge amount of creativity and dynamism which is universally recognised; very few other countries in the sub-region are as fortunate 21. Political leaders believe that the sector will have a greater chance of fulfilling its economic potential if its workers are better trained and skilled. In every case, when businesses have made the transition from the informal sector to the modern sector, they have needed skilled human resources who were not just trained on the job, but acquired skills through a qualification-based training system. It is also an established fact that the modernisation and development of small businesses very often depends on the owner and a minimum number of his/her employees being qualified 22. Given the importance of the informal sector, both as fertile ground for strengthening the formal sector and as a means of bringing new energy into its own activities, the ministry has recognised that current training resources are not appropriate. They are not really well suited to the modern sector since, according to the ten-year development plan 23, training provision in Senegal is very imbalanced in terms of its distribution across economic sectors and in terms of the distribution of people and training establishments, and they are inappropriate for the informal sector given that, as the sectoral policy document states 24, the low school enrolment ratio and high attrition in primary education put a significant number of children onto the labour market every year who cannot be taken into the vocational training system. Learning on the job in informal sector businesses is often the only way left for this mass of children to gradually learn the basics of a trade. However, they lack the knowhow backed up by theory which would allow them to achieve better results and afford them a better chance of joining 20 Ministry for Technical and Vocational Education and Training, Literacy and National Languages (2002), op.cit. 21 Ibid. 22 Ibid. 23 Ministry of Education (2003), Programme de développement de l éducation et de la formation /Education pour tous. 24 Ibid. AFD Working paper No 21 Vocational Training in the Informal Sector - Report on the Senegal Field Survey 14

15 3. Strategic and operational thrusts of the reform the labour force. This in turn could promote small technological and organisational improvements in the small businesses that recruit them. As a result of all these analyses, the government defined the main lines of action for vocational training 25. Aside from bring a skilled workforce into the market, notably in five or six priority sectors, and setting up systematic partnership-based management system for vocational and technical training, this means extending the field of vocational training to apprenticeship, which is a type of non-formal professional training, with the aim of setting up a standards-based and appropriate skills acquisition process 26. The training of apprentices in the craft sector and that of master craftsmen, which are inextricably tied intertwined, are therefore an integral part of the overall training system to be introduced through the reform. As an official from the Ministry for Technical and Vocational Education and Training (Ministère de l Enseignement technique et de la Formation professionnelle METFP) confirmed, taking apprenticeship into account does not mean using it to offload those excluded from the school system. On the contrary, it means changing traditional apprenticeship to address the increasing demand for skills and qualifications in the informal sector, and turning it into a real system of dual training leading to qualifications. Although apprenticeship in the agricultural field is far less formalised and developed and know-how is passed down from mother to daughter (apart from in the food service industry where one sees some apprentices and in businesses as far as boys working at machines are concerned) 27, it should not be forgotten that the informal sector also includes agriculture and that traditional apprenticeship must be so organised as to ensure that young people from rural areas are not excluded. This is all the more important given that the Constitutional Bylaw of June 2004 on agriculture, forestry and husbandry (Loi d orientation agro-sylvopastoral LOAPS) states that all those employed in agricultural occupations and all rural workers have the right to initial and continuing training. 3.2 A training system in need of far-reaching reform The METFP is a ministry with a full remit. This is a recent development in the history of Senegal s education system, as the Directorate of Vocational Training changed hands seven times over a period of 30 years. The ministry is not the only one operating in this area, however, as other ministries, including those for agriculture and the craft industry, have training establishments under their remit. Moreover, it is a ministry with resources that are ill-suited to the political aims of the reform, making it one of the state s priorities A complex and fragmented training system Technical and vocational education and training is currently provided in several different types of establishment under the responsibility of the ministry concerned: Technical colleges, of which there are eight. They aim to provide young people with sound scientific and technical knowledge: they give students the opportunity to obtain diplomas equivalent to those in general education (technological and scientific secondary school diplomas), and some allow them to take the brevet de technicien supérieur (BTS), an advanced technician s diploma, usually taken at the age of 18. Some also offer vocational training courses leading to the brevet d enseignement professionnel (BEP), a vocational diploma qualifying students either for entry into a trade or for further study, usually taken at the age of 18, and the brevet de technicien (BT), a technician s certificate usually taken at the age of 16. Vocational training centres (Centres de formation professionnelle CFPs). These may be either state-run (79 centres) or private (62 according to some data, but their numbers fluctuate). They are designed to prepare young people for direct entry into the labour market. The 25 Republic of Senegal (January 2005), Lettre de politique générale pour le secteur de l éducation et de la formation. 26 Lettre de politique générale pour le secteur de l éducation et de la formation, op. cit. 27 Broutin, C. et al. (2004), Etude sur la formation des femmes dans l agro-alimentaire, Groupe de recherche et d échanges technologiques (GRET). AFD Working paper No 21 Vocational Training in the Informal Sector - Report on the Senegal Field Survey 15

16 3. Strategic and operational thrusts of the reform state-run centres allow pupils to take the BEP and BT while the private centres prepare them for the vocational skills certificate (certificat d aptitude professionnelle CAP) which qualifies pupils for entry into a specific trade or for further study after two years of training. CFPs also run schemes in the training market. Regional training centres and vocational training departments, of which there are five. These were set up with the help of the European Union to provide training for school dropouts and apprentices, and improve the skills of craftworkers, with support from the National Office for Vocational Training (Office national de la formation professionnelle ONFP). Women s Technical Education Centres (Centres d enseignement techniques féminins CETF), of which there are 34. They do not currently provide training leading to a qualification, but are beginning to introduce CAP diplomas in the food services and clothing segments. Education and training are also provided in agricultural centres, which initially reported to the ministry in charge of vocational training and were placed under the authority of the Ministry of Agriculture in Similarly, there are centres under the authority of the Ministry for the Craft Industry. A vocational training centre which recruits at junior secondary school level and, in a three-year course, trains craftworkers in the fields of precision mechanics (jewellery), dressmaking, basketry and shoe repair. Four rural craftworker training centres (Centres de formation des artisans ruraux CFAR) set up with the help of the ILO with the aim of using craftworkers to help develop rural areas (mechanics, construction, woodwork). All centres have now recently been renovated and, due to a lack of apprentices, are used to help talibes (young boys who can be found begging for food or money) develop initial job-related skills. GTZ 28 centres in Dakar and Thiès which run dual apprenticeship schemes and allow trainees, who are recruited selectively, to obtain the CAP in two years through a combination of workplace experience and study. This centre will be financed until the end of 2006 through the Koblenz and Dakar twinning project. The Ministry for the Craft Industry is currently looking for solutions to ensure the centre s future and to replicate the dual system elsewhere A system facing economic and social challenges The vocational training reform affects all of these establishments. It forces them and all the ministries involved to respond to several challenges. The first of these is extending the field of vocational training to encompass traditional apprenticeship and to integrate this, not as a means of solving the social problems of children excluded from school or with schooling problems, but as a system which can be developed according to the principles of combined theoretical and practical training, or dual training. This means integrating 300,000 apprentices who are currently denied any recognition for the skills they acquire in craft workshops, into a qualification system based on encouraging skills development in informal sector jobs, using an approach which promotes practical skills while topping them up with the knowledge and know-how needed to keep pace with technological change and market standards of quality. The second challenge is to review the content of training programmes already in place and rethink them in terms of the skills-based approach and with regard to the way occupations and the qualifications they require are changing. As stated in the general policy paper 29, what is required is to bring a skilled workforce into the market, responding to the needs of the productive sector and the economy. This would first mean reviewing and reorganising curricula which have not been updated since the 1960s in order to meet today s needs 30. In addition to this need to revamp training programmes, the Education and Training Development Programme (PDEF/EPT) 31 stresses the need to develop 28 The German technical cooperation agency. 29 Op.cit. 30 Clement, S., R. Walther, H. Bougault and E. Filipiak (2005), Les mécanismes de financement de la formation professionnelle, Algérie, Maroc, Sénégal, Tunisie, AFD. 31 Ministry of Education (2003), Programme de développement de l éducation et de la formation (PDEF/EPT). AFD Working paper No 21 Vocational Training in the Informal Sector - Report on the Senegal Field Survey 16

17 3. Strategic and operational thrusts of the reform training provision of interest to all sectors of the economy and to review infrastructure and equipment, which is antiquated, out of date and inadequate for educational purposes. The third challenge is a quantitative one. It concerns the training system s ability to meet the needs of five or six key growth sectors with the goal of training 20,000 people per year by 2010, according to the general policy paper for the education and training sector 32 published in January It also sets the goal of near 100% employment for those trained within the system. Finally, it creates an obligation to provide the training sector with the resources needed to achieve the quantitative and qualitative objectives laid down in the ten-year plan and the general policy paper, as spending on training accounts for only 4.5% of education spending and the latter has itself decreased as a proportion of the central government state budget and as a percentage of GDP (from 4.8 to 3.3% between 1992 and 1997) 33. All the people interviewed during the survey stressed that the resources provided for vocational training are insufficient given the challenges facing the sector. Of these three challenges, which are simply another way of expressing the major goals which the current system must achieve, the most fundamental is that of transforming traditional apprenticeship into a dual or combined training system. As the PDEF/EPT asserts, it should enable Senegal to promote the modernisation of small business, while integrating the vast majority of young people and craftworkers into a skills development process which will enable them to gain recognition for their skills and which increases the level and quality of these skills A system in need of overall control and management With the creation of the Ministry for Technical and Vocational Education and Training in July 2005, as the successor to a lower-level ministry under the Ministry of Education, Senegal instituted a political authority with ultimate responsibility for overseeing and managing the vocational training system. Nonetheless, the decision taken in 1998 to place training for people such as craftworkers and those living in rural areas under the responsibility of the technical ministries (which is not the case for higher education) makes it more difficult to coordinate strategic policies and operational programmes, unless plans are set in hand for an interdepartmental coordination mechanism which would give the various ministries a shared vision of the training sector as a whole, including the training provided by the private sector 34. The field survey saw no evidence of such a shared vision, which was such a strong feature in the reform of traditional apprenticeship in countries like Benin. On the contrary, it revealed a dispersed array of approaches among the different partners, giving the impression, for both the institutions and businesses involved, that duplication or fragmentation was far more common than coordination in the policies implemented and the resources used. What is the real working relationship between the training and education ministries, which are both trying to reform apprenticeship? How are tasks divided between the Directorate for Apprenticeship, the Apprenticeship Development Agency and the Chamber of Trades, and how are these tasks coordinated with those called for by various business organisations and intersectoral organisations? Although a distinction exists between the missions and resources of the ONFP and those of the Technical and Vocational Education and Training Development Fund (Fonds de développement de l Enseignement technique et de la Formation professionnelle FONDEF), it is not clearly observed by those working in the field. Most of those interviewed for the survey felt that the vocational training sector needs an overall management structure able to coordinate and organise all of the projects under way and to control their impact through monitoring and coordinated evaluation. 32 Op.cit. 33 Ten-Year Plan, op.cit. 34 This is what has been observed from 1999 onwards by the working group on Training for a new agricultural and rural economy: Training policies and strategies through AFD Working paper No 21 Vocational Training in the Informal Sector - Report on the Senegal Field Survey 17

18 3. Strategic and operational thrusts of the reform The National Joint Committee for Vocational Training (Commission paritaire nationale de la formation professionnelle CPNF) set up recently after a regional project to promote the involvement of management and labour organisations (supported by the French cooperation agency) is an exception to the rule of fragmentation in that it creates a real forum for social dialogue for the whole issue of continuing vocational training, while increasingly focusing on initial training. It is however a platform for dialogue and not a tool for managing the system. 3.3 Pilot projects and schemes organised as part of the reform Since the 2001 National Conference s recommendations, which formed the basis for the sectoral policy document on technical and vocational education and training and the general policy paper for the education and training sector, vocational training, together with basic education, has become the Senegalese government s key education priority. The result has been a great deal of work to design projects and pilot schemes, some of which are now starting to be implemented and some which are still pending. Some have involved consultation between the Ministry for Technical and Vocational Education and Training (METFP) and the French cooperation agency, which transferred responsibility for steering and financing to the AFD. Others were prepared by the Ministry of Education as part of the work of the Directorate for Educational Planning and Reform. Partnership for Apprenticeship and Opening Up the Vocational Training System (Partenariat pour l apprentissage et l ouverture du système de formation professionnelle PAO/sfp), is financed under the French government s aid programme ( 2,750 million all four project strands together) and aims to forge models for apprenticeship which can replicated across other occupations and sectors. The pilot scheme is a key feature of the reform and is linked to a new Apprenticeship Unit within the METFP. This unit s task is to manage the pilot projects and to coordinate the various schemes being developed in this area 35. The field survey s contacts with ministry officials and members of the Apprenticeship Unit made it possible to make the following observations: The partnership for apprenticeship and opening up the vocational training system This is a project based on genuine partnership between France and Senegal. It aims to support the METFP in its reform policy. The project has several strands, including helping economic partners to get involved in the different stages of the reform, helping the FONDEF to operate and ensure its sustainability, adjusting the initial and continuing training provided in technical education colleges to the needs of the economy and, finally, integrating apprenticeship, especially informal sector apprenticeship, into the overall training system. the Ministry s work is based on the principle that apprenticeship must be organised in such a way that it respects the diverse nature of the pilot schemes to be implemented; it states as prerequisites that the current length of apprenticeship (which can be up to ten years) must be reduced to a maximum of three years, that such apprenticeship should be developed without craftworker associations being able to develop their own training centres (which would be too costly and could also focus the wrong amount of attention on in-house business training), that there must be a skills-based approach and The aim of this final strand is to set up a non-formal education pilot scheme to develop traditional apprenticeship and conduct experiments in three sectors of activity which are traditionally known for training apprentices: car mechanics, construction and clothing. This scheme, entitled the 35 The unit comprises representatives from the METFP, the Craft Industry Directorate, the Vocational Training Directorate, the Directorate for Educational Planning and Reform (DPRE), the National Union of Craftworkers, Traders and Industrial Workers of Senegal (UNACOIS), the National Union of Chambers of Trades (UNCM), the Project to Support Vocational Training for the Newly Literate (Projet d appui à la formation professionnelle des néo-alphabétisés PAFNA) and the National Organisation for Workers in the Metal, General and Car Mechanics Industries (PROMECABILE). The French cooperation agency provides technical assistance and that of Canada supports the PAFNA project. The German technical cooperation agency GTZ may also join the unit soon. AFD Working paper No 21 Vocational Training in the Informal Sector - Report on the Senegal Field Survey 18

19 3. Strategic and operational thrusts of the reform that the certification process should lead to a CAP level qualification; the Ministry states that it does not have a particular model in mind, but that it hopes to design one by drawing on the standards established by the trial projects under way. According to those in the unit, the Ministry has set a twoyear schedule for achieving an initial standardisation of current schemes. This will be based on the PAO/sfp and the projects it is launching in the three selected sectors, while integrating those already implemented in other sectors or by other partners, supported by the Canadian, German, Belgian and French development agencies. The METFP s work to promote apprenticeship is also supported by the Programme to Promote Skilled Human Resources through Vocational Training (Programme de renforcement de la qualification des ressources humaines de la formation professionnelle), set up by the AFD as part of the wider PARCES programme (Programme d appui au renforcement de la compétitivité de l économie sénégalaise) to support increased competitiveness in the Senegalese economy. This programme provides for, among other things, setting up three sectoral vocational training centres, each based on a productive sector (agrifood, construction and civil engineering, and port activities). These centres aim to link vocational training curricula very closely to the labour market by adopting new teaching methods, including dual training and training through apprenticeship Pilot adult and youth education schemes leading to a qualification The Ministry of Education and the METFP have a common policy framework: the Education and Training Development Programme/Education for All (Programme de développement de l éducation et de la formation/education pour tous PDEF/EPT). As part of this plan, the Directorate for Educational Planning and Reform (DPRE), which performs work for both ministries and serves as the national EFA focal point, has developed an action plan for youth and adult skills education leading to a qualification (Education qualifiante des jeunes et des adultes EQJA). The EQJA project The project was one of the follow-up actions to the World Education Forum in Dakar (Goal 3), which set the urgent goal of developing skills training for uneducated learners and of reducing adult illiteracy rates while reinforcing their vocational training. It thereby forms part of the efforts to achieve the Education for All (EFA) goals and complements the goals of the vocational training reform (planning training in terms of employment and the introduction of apprenticeship standards). For the EFA programme, the project entails a certain number of pilot schemes aimed at young people and adults who are excluded from education and socially marginalised. But, according to the World Forum conclusions, this goal can only be achieved by enabling the excluded to acquire both social and work-related skills. The EQJA, which receives support from UNESCO and more specifically from UNESCO s International Institute for Educational Planning (IIEP), concerns the informal sector in that the latter offers more job opportunities for young people, teenagers and adults (in urban and rural areas) and that traditional apprenticeship, despite educational shortcomings, is the main avenue for development in the sector 36. To achieve the goal of universal education, the project has shouldered the task of seeking solutions to allow skills training for learners outside school and of reducing illiteracy levels among adults while at the same time reinforcing their vocational training. With this in mind, the EQJA has put forward four pilot schemes designed by the DPRE in liaison with the IIEP. According to the officials interviewed, however, the Ministry for Technical and Vocational Education and Training has sole responsibility for implementing them. According to the project document, these schemes must be in keeping with the following specific goals: to support the co-determination of training needs by the different social partners; to adapt training tools and programmes to actual local conditions; 36 Ministry of Education (2005), Actions pilotes d éducation qualifiante des jeunes et des adultes (EQJA), Project document. AFD Working paper No 21 Vocational Training in the Informal Sector - Report on the Senegal Field Survey 19

20 3. Strategic and operational thrusts of the reform test a new consultation-based continuing vocational training system; test an apprenticeship system; to encourage consultation with training structures, business organisations, technical bodies, local communities and public services. five years at a total cost of CFAF million ( 546,000) 37. The DPRE is in overall charge of the project, but it will delegate the project management function to the Research and Technological Transfer Group (GRET). Pilot schemes Apprenticeship in craft trades The overall project is divided into four sub-strands involving different target groups, different sectors of activity and different institutional stakeholders. Skills training for women in the agri-food industry Food processing plays a central role in terms of jobs, as an estimated 90% of processed products sold on urban markets are produced in this sector. The project has found that the majority of women working there have had no school education and are therefore illiterate. It has also discovered that the entry requirements for the training on offer are inappropriate for the population segment requiring training. It has therefore proposed a series of coordinated measures: testing a new continuing training scheme for those working in the sector by identifying agri-food industry occupations, which have not yet been clearly defined, and drawing up corresponding skills portfolios and training courses; testing a new apprenticeship system in a sector where know-how is handed down from mother to daughter in an insufficiently structured way. This system of apprenticeship must be a dual one which allows for a significant basic education component; promoting dialogue between the stakeholders involved (business organisations, training structures, local communities and public services) in the areas targeted by the project: Saint Louis, Ziguinchor, Dakar (Pikine) and Thiès (Mbour). The project plans to train 20 adults and 20 young women apprentices per location, using the regional women s technical education centres (Centres régionaux techniques d enseignement féminin CRTEF). It is planned to run for The pilot scheme has been designed in the same way as the pilot scheme implemented by the Ministry for Technical and Vocational Education and Training, by adopting an experimental approach which will allow the government to structure, harness, sustain, and replicate successful schemes, and to this end, to give consideration to some trial projects already under way, to encourage those concerned to get involved and assume responsibility, and to set up a national management system comprising the same stakeholders as the METFP Apprenticeship Unit. The latter is nonetheless involved in overall management of the project. The scheme is scheduled to run for two years ( ) and should provide places for 300 apprentices in rural and semi-rural areas and lead to the scheme being replicated elsewhere. It is expected to cost CFAF million (approximately 192,000). Skills education for young talibes This scheme has been designed for young people in Koranic schools or daara. It aims to consolidate the skills of talibes aged 14 to 25 by providing them with extra basic education and an introduction to working life to help them start up, conduct and manage income-generating activities (IGAs). The aim of the project is to train 300 talibes in three regions (Diourbel, Louga and Saint Louis) and more widely to initiate pilot training schemes for the young workers in how to start up and run IGAs, while helping families who send their children to the daara due to a lack of financial means to combat poverty more effectively = CFAF AFD Working paper No 21 Vocational Training in the Informal Sector - Report on the Senegal Field Survey 20

21 3. Strategic and operational thrusts of the reform The scheme is planned to run for two years and would chiefly be managed by the EQJA (DPRE). It requires a budget of CFAF million (approximately 199,000). Skills education for rural people This initiative aims to set up a training scheme to help integrate young people and adults into the local social and economic fabric. The goals are to set up a local consultation system in several priority areas (Fatick, Mbacké, Kébémer and Nioro) and to train trainers to be able to assess the local situation with participation from the local population and then to identify the rural population s real training and education needs. All this should lead to modular training programmes adapted to the needs of the rural population, giving equal attention to literacy needs, the organisation of everyday life, the demand for technical agricultural skills (husbandry, agriculture, forestry), non-agricultural skills (craftwork, product development), managerial skills and skills for putting products and services onto the market. It is planned that the scheme will be implemented in collaboration with the Ministry of Agriculture, and with the participation of the UN Food and Agriculture Organisation, UNESCO/Breda, UNESCO/IIEP and agricultural organisations. The planned duration is three years with an overall budget of CFAF million (approximately 480,000) A profusion of schemes and projects, but a dispersion of efforts The trials and pilot training schemes undertalen as matters of government policy are either in the first stages of implementation or awaiting decisions. It is therefore impossible to come to any conclusions about their ability to stimulate the informal sector by increasing opportunities for apprentices to obtain skills and gain access to jobs, as well as opportunities for young people and adults, especially women, to initiate IGAs, and their ability to transform the current training system so that it can adapt to the training requirements of those actually engaged in production, service provision and fine crafts in the non-structured economy. At this stage in our understanding of actual conditions and situations in Senegal, however, it does seem clear that developing traditional apprenticeship into a dual training system will be a test of the reform s ability to meet the demand for skills and training in the informal sector. There is also no doubt that the various pilot schemes launched and planned will not be sufficient to achieve the goals of the reform if they remain dispersed and managed in a spirit of institutional competition (between the METFP and the Ministry of Education) or if these institutions try to exploit the benefits separately. This presentation of the various projects and pilot schemes highlights the similarities in their underlying principles (involving the partners concerned, setting up coordinated dialogue arrangements, tailoring training provision to demand and in particular helping people into work and starting up activities, etc.), but it also emphasises the risk that efforts and trial schemes will be scattered in all directions, with the danger that such dispersion will make it impossible for the reform to effectively target the real needs of a sector which accounts for 90% of the workforce and generates more than 50% of national wealth. By identifying a certain number of apprentice and craftworker training projects already under way, whose experience the pilot projects and schemes hope to draw on, the field survey thus seeks to offer some specific solutions to the problems which are arising as a result of the profusion, if not the dispersion, of pilot schemes and projects. AFD Working paper No 21 Vocational Training in the Informal Sector - Report on the Senegal Field Survey 21

22 4. Initiatives to structure and transform the sector It is clear that the political leaders responsible for implementing the reform all wish to root it in the apprenticeship and training schemes already launched and under way, either on an individual or partnership basis, by sector bodies, chambers of commerce, NGOs, donors and training institutions already working in the field. The meetings with these stakeholders revealed their capacity to promote change and implement initiatives that point the way to how a vocational training system could and should be organised in close coordination with all types of informal sector production units. They also showed that Senegal, in comparison the other countries studied, has a particularly fragmented and unstructured informal sector facing the overall reform plans which will affect it first and foremost. 4.1 Ongoing reorganisation of apprenticeship schemes The field survey showed that the concept of dual training was a central feature in a number of projects implemented largely in collaboration with international donor agencies to improve the traditional apprenticeship system and the way it is organised. The following selection of projects, while not exhaustive, does include those projects which those interviewed during the survey described as being the most significant and the most frequently cited. These different schemes will be drawn on by the Apprenticeship Unit during its discussions on the organisation of traditional apprenticeship and its integration with the vocational training system Training for apprentices and the dual system The German technical cooperation agency, GTZ, has set up a partnership scheme involving the cities of Dakar and Koblenz, and their respective chambers of trades, to create two training centres for apprentices: one in Dakar, in the Sodida district, and the other in Thiès. The project aims to provide training in the carpentry and wood-working sector for young people, frequently school dropouts, from the outlying areas of both cities. It also organises trainer training programmes for craftworkers wishing to take on apprentices. The training centre is open to young people who have reached the end of primary school. Training is based on the German dual system, and lasts two years. The programme alternates one week of classroom-based training, including classes in French, mathematics, computer studies, technology and civic studies, followed by two weeks practical training with a master craftsman. The apprentice s practical work is regularly monitored and assessed; grades are given at the end of each term. At the end of their training, apprentices can take the first level of the CAP diploma. No apprentice who has reached this level and continued his training for a further four or five months has yet failed to obtain the full CAP diploma. To date, the centre has trained four intakes of apprentices. GTZ s involvement in the project terminates in December 2006, which raises the question of the sustainability of the centres in Dakar and Thiès. The National Union of Chambers of Trades (Union nationale des chambres des métiers UNCM), the Dakar Chamber of Trades, the Directorate for the Craft Industry (Direction de l Artisanat) AFD Working paper No 21 Vocational Training in the Informal Sector - Report on the Senegal Field Survey 22

23 4. Initiatives to structure and transform the sector and the Agency for the Promotion and Development of Crafts (Agence pour la promotion et le développement de l artisanat APDA) are all of the view that the dual training schemes in these centres should be continued and replicated. GTZ is not withdrawing from Senegal. It will continue to cooperate with the METFP in its efforts to reorganise the traditional apprenticeship system, but the focus of its work will be rather on piloting skills improvement schemes for master craftsmen and on developing a specific apprenticeship certificate. According to an official representative, the work the Ministry has launched in collaboration with the AFD for integrating the apprenticeship scheme into the general education and training system has been severely hampered by the reticence of upper secondary school teachers with regard to the dual training system and by the frequently outdated approach training centre trainers have towards technical subject teaching. GTZ has openly stated its willingness to continue collaborating on the current project and also to cooperate with the Apprenticeship Unit and the AFD, but again insists that in its view the content and methods of the German dual system cannot be transferred into the vocational training system in Senegal without adaptation of methods and content to the Senegalese context SThe PAFPNA project The Project to Support Vocational Training for the Newly Literate (Projet d appui à la formation professionnelle des néo-alphabétisés PAFPNA) is run by the Paul Guérin Lajoie Foundation, a Canadian NGO that has actively supported educational and literacy projects in Senegal for the last 15 years. The PAFPNA project is the Foundation s first vocational training project. It was launched in March 2004 and will terminate in June Objectives craftsmen s workshops. The model also aims to provide capacity-building programmes for master craftsmen as trainers. Mindful of the needs of a target group made up of newly literate and out-of-work young people in the Saint-Louis and Louga regions, the project has opted for low-level technology dependent sectors. These were selected by crossing the results of various studies on gender issues and supply and demand in vocational training with the major economic development choices in the regions concerned. The sectors chosen thus include: maintenance mechanics for farm vehicles, mechanical construction applied to farming machinery, domestic refrigeration systems, sewing/dyeing, and farm produce processing (in the broad sense of the term). The project aims more specifically: to organise and enhance the status of traditional apprenticeship by exploiting the possibilities offered by functional literacy in national and workplace languages; to give girls and women access to trades traditionally reserved for men, in order to achieve gender parity in these areas; to set up a participatory and responsible system of management for vocational training tailored to the needs of the communities served, and involving the regional chambers of commerce and trade, craft trade associations, certain master craftsmen, and all the other key stakeholders in the education community at local and regional level; to integrate an educational and awareness-raising dimension into apprenticeship schemes in order to better meet the challenge of two major survival and development issues: the AIDS pandemic, and the sustainable management of the environment, which has been made vulnerable by inappropriate work practices. The PAFPNA project is designed to provide skills training for work in growth sectors for young people left on the margins of the formal education system 38. It aims to contribute to the development of vocational training by providing support for the implementation of a training model based on actual practice in the non-formal environment of master 38 The description of this project is based on notes from survey meeting report and a document produced by the Paul Guérin Lajoie Foundation for the Association for the Development of Education in Africa (ADEA). AFD Working paper No 21 Vocational Training in the Informal Sector - Report on the Senegal Field Survey 23

24 4. Initiatives to structure and transform the sector Implementation Content design and development The PAFPNA project does not aim to create new training centres, but to support training given within existing workshops. It selects the best workshops and the best craftworkers, and gives every encouragement to the latter to develop quality training schemes. Parents are thus much more motivated to take an active interest in the training their children receive. The training proposed is essentially practical, and is provided by master craftsmen in their workshops, with the support of supervising technicians, as and when needed. 50% of these technicians, who are selected by the different partners involved in the project, are trainers from training centres in the formal sector; the other 50% are craftworkers selected in consultation with the chambers of trades and the craft trade associations. The project thus combines the contributions of the formal and informal sectors: academic training from the former, and practical skills training from the latter. The training process is monitored by supervisors who have been trained by Canadian experts. They have responsibility for supervising the master craftsmen to help them improve their methods for training young people in the neighbourhood workshops and garages. The approach to training is based on training plans that include precise scales of progression. The training is further enriched with complementary modules on financial management, entrepreneurship, marketing and environmental issues, AIDS prevention and gender equality. The project is built on the skills-based approach (SBA) with a view to improving the contents of traditional apprenticeship offered in master craftsmen s workshops. It benefits from Canadian expertise through the provider agency and the contribution of consultants, as well as from the expertise of the Senegalese themselves. The training programmes were structured around the skillsbased approach on the basis of work situation analysis (WSA). Development work was carried out in a participatory manner, involving supervising trainers, master craftsmen and the resources of technical and vocational training colleges. The programmes were then validated at regional meetings with master craftsmen in both regions. Teaching tools were also developed to support the training scheme. These include training guides for learners, master craftsmen and supervising trainers, and various teaching materials. Following the 14-month test period, these guides and tools were reviewed in the light of the observations made by the master craftsmen and supervising trainers during training sessions. Monitoring and assessment procedures The PAFPNA project provides for a three-level assessment of the training learners are given: The training programme provides for 40 hours of training per week over a total of 14 months. Training is largely practical and, in terms of content, corresponds to courses given in technical schools. The proportion of academic training relative to technical training is low, and is dispensed in a very functional manner. For its first training programmes the project selected six low-level technology dependent sectors with high job-creation potential, in consultation with the local authorities and chambers of trades. first, learners self-assess their progress regularly by marking off in their learner s guide each skills element they consider they have mastered, then dating and signing the assessment; second, the master craftsmen confirm that skills elements have been mastered by signing and dating learner self-assessments in the learner guides; finally, during their weekly visits, supervising trainers confirm the master craftsmen validation of the skills elements mastered by observing learners in normal or specially created work situations. AFD Working paper No 21 Vocational Training in the Informal Sector - Report on the Senegal Field Survey 24

25 4. Initiatives to structure and transform the sector This assessment system clearly focuses on skills acquisition, which explains why the PAFPNA project has launched talks with the different local stakeholders and partners on the most appropriate certification arrangements for validating the training learners receive by means of a certificate confirming that the basic skills targeted in the learner guides have indeed been mastered. The arrangements are still under discussion, as they will need to take account of proposals linking the apprentices training schemes with the formal vocational training system for those young people whose career plan includes raising their vocational qualification level through obtaining nationally recognised diplomas such as the BEP, CAP and BTS. Project sustainability By December 2005 the project had trained 150 apprentices, and 250 others will have been trained by August 2006, 74% of them girls. Twelve supervisors have been recruited and trained in the PAFPNA approach, including 4 women. Eighty-four master craftsmen have also been recruited and trained in the PAFPNA approach, of whom 38 are women, and 56 artisan workshops have been directly involved in training schemes. In spite of these positive results, the sustainability of the project is in question. Sustainability is first and foremost dependent on the decisions of the Canadian development agency which co-finances the current pilot scheme with the Paul Guérin Lajoie Foundation. In the course of the study, it was not possible to obtain precise figures on the budget for the pilot phase, but it seems that this is more than CFAF 1 billion ( 1.52 million). Apprentices families participate indirectly by assuming the opportunity costs of apprenticeship. Neither of the two funding organisations, the ONFP and FONDEF, wishes to pursue the project. Two technical assistants have been seconded from the METFP to the project for purposes of monitoring the pilot phase. Sustainability is also linked to the capacity to maintain local management committee involvement in the project and, on a rather more concrete level, to maintain the enthusiasm among master craftsmen and the supervising trainers. It depends too on how easily the scheme can be transferred to other sectors, stakeholders and apprentices: several interviewees mentioned the short duration of the training schemes (14 months as opposed to 3 years for other projects under experimentation) and the difficulty of replicating these without the level of financial support PAFPNA had benefited from. Finally, sustainability is subject to the project s inclusion in both the national apprenticeship development scheme and in an officially recognised qualifications and certification system The PROMECABILE project PROMECABILE is the official sector body for the metalworking, general mechanics and automobile sectors. It has branches in all six regions of Senegal (Dakar, Thiès, Saint- Louis, Kaolack, Fatick and Louga), and brings together 17,042 entrepreneurs who employ and train 78,600 journeymen and apprentices. The Dakar region alone accounts for 72% of members, and is divided into 32 sectors which correspond to those zones with a high concentration of garages. PROMECABILE considers that it has an obligation to participate in vocational training and that such training is the key to strengthening the competitiveness of businesses, including small and micro businesses. It has thus decided to involve itself extensively in improving traditional apprenticeship in terms of training programme content, training methods and skills upgrading schemes for apprentices and master trainers. The project is supported by various funding organisations such as the ILO (2000), the French cooperation agency ( ), UNIDO 39 and the GTZ (through the current INWENT project). Technical assistance and methodological support are provided by the NGO Concept, which was developed out of a partnership with Sauvegarde du Nord, a French not-for-profit association based in the Nord/Pas de Calais region of France; Concept still enjoys the support of the Nord/Pas de Calais region, as well as benefiting from the assistance of the ILO and the French cooperation agency. The current apprenticeship system was developed by Concept in partnership with the chairperson of PROMECABILE and other key persons in the organisation. Some ten master craftsmen involved in the project 39 United Nations Industrial Development Organisation. AFD Working paper No 21 Vocational Training in the Informal Sector - Report on the Senegal Field Survey 25

26 4. Initiatives to structure and transform the sector and 70 apprentices in training under the new system were interviewed during the course of the field study. The apprenticeship system 40 The current system derives from the experience of the improved apprenticeship workshops developed by Concept in Senegal with ILO support. The system is built on the principle of linking production workshops with training centres and uses training programmes developed and implemented jointly by key persons in PROMECABILE and the training centres. During the first phase of the project only pilot workshops offering goods or services in the sectors of activity the organisation represents were authorised to take part in apprentice training schemes. The workshops were selected according to criteria applied to both the workshop (workshop environment, standard of equipment, volume of production) and the master craftsman as trainer (character, technical level, aptitude for teaching and working with others). In accordance with regulations and the law, an apprenticeship contract is drawn up between the craftworkers, the apprentices and their parents or guardian. The minimum legal age for becoming an apprentice is 15, and training normally lasts four years. However, the actual duration of the training depends on an apprentice s level of instruction: apprentices may be put at level 1 (apprentices who have never been to school or who are at beginners or pre-elementary level), level 2 (apprentices having attained elementary levels 1 and 2), or level 3 (apprentices having attained intermediate levels 1 and 2), and attend functional literacy or remedial classes, according to their specific needs. Apprentices under the age of 15 can be recruited for preapprenticeship, on condition that they do not work in production. Training targeting this group focuses on knowledge of the work environment and French language skills. The same training is provided for those who are illiterate but these apprentices also do literacy courses in preparation for attending remedial classes. Finally, to ensure that the apprenticeship schemes are carried out in optimal conditions, PROMECABILE has signed an agreement with the Social Security Office to give the apprentices health insurance coverage. The training scheme The scheme is based on the principle of dual training: apprentices spends two thirds of their time doing practical work in a workshop under the supervision of an accredited master trainer, and the remaining third following doing academic courses in a vocational training college. Practical work experience in businesses is an integral part of the scheme and is covered by agreements signed between the state and business organisations. In addition to the literacy and remedial work mentioned above, PROMECABILE is also developing training in hygiene/safety, and other training schemes in management (including the GERME approach), with a particular emphasis on time and enterprise management. The different stages in the four-year apprenticeships are organised as follows: three months to familiarise apprentices with the work environment; three months instruction on health and safety issues; six months in a workshop, with training on the use of tools and equipment; three years hands-on training through involvement in production activities. The number of training hours per day is limited to six in order to maintain family and peer group links. Training is assessed at regular intervals to detect and correct any knowledge and skills gaps. After a final assessment covering the entire four-year training period, apprentices receive a certificate recognised by all the actors involved. Apprentices who have completed their training and satisfy the academic requirements can go on to sit for nationally recognised diplomas: the CAP, the BEP or the BT. 40 The description of the system is taken from the field study and from a document made available by M. Packy Thiam, the National Secretary-General of PROMECABILE. AFD Working paper No 21 Vocational Training in the Informal Sector - Report on the Senegal Field Survey 26

27 4. Initiatives to structure and transform the sector The PROMECABILE educational committee is composed of business professionals and retired technical subject area teachers. It acts as a steering committee and monitors the apprentices training scheme throughout its different stages. The committee pays particular attention to ensuring quality trainer training, notably in the technical and methodological fields. Integration schemes PROMECABILE has defined three levels or types of entry into work: self-supported entry with material assistance from a cooperative: PROMECABILE assists individuals in joining together to form group workshops; to support this, they receive CFAF 100,000 to 200,000 (about 150 to 300) worth of tools and equipment; employment by the workshop owner: in this case the apprentices stays in the workshop where they did their apprenticeship and become aspiring master craftsmen; employment in a business: PROMECABILE has signed maintenance agreements with several big companies, which frequently contact PROMECABILE so that it can send them their most promising apprentices. Table 10 shows the work-start rates for the years 2001 to 2005 based on the three modes of entry mentioned above. The figures demonstrate the pertinence of the apprenticeship scheme: all of the apprentices trained under the scheme have found work. Table 10. The integration of trained apprentices by mode of integration Year Self-supported entry Employment by Employment in the TOTAL business owner private sector TOTAL % Source: PROMECABILE. AFD Working paper No 21 Vocational Training in the Informal Sector - Report on the Senegal Field Survey 27

28 4. Initiatives to structure and transform the sector Sustainability of the scheme Funding for the scheme comes principally from membership fees and from payment for services. There is some financial support from international organisations, but this is in no way comparable to the funds made available to PAFP- NA. The ONFP has made a modest contribution towards the training of craftworkers; the parents of apprentices have joined together to form an association and contribute to the scheme through enrolment fees. PROMECABILE is keen to create an employment support fund into which membership fees would be paid; the fund would serve to finance a model centre and set up improved apprenticeship workshops. The organisation s directors are seeking to obtain quality assurance for their apprenticeship model in order to ensure easier access to the job market for the young people they train. However, given that PROMECABILE is a member of the Apprenticeship Unit and is also involved in the project for creating an AFD sector-based centre for the automobile industry, it would be more immediately useful to seize the opportunity for drawing on its experience in order to reorganise a particular form of apprenticeship in such a way that it could be integrated within the formal vocational training system and give skills recognition to young people in the informal sector Other projects in progress Most of the other pilot apprenticeship projects currently under way are given financial and technical support by outside organisations. An Apprenticeship Unit Project (Projet d unité d apprentissage UAP) has been developed by the METFP in partnership with the Belgian aid authorities and a Belgian training agency, APEFE (Association pour la promotion de l éducation et de la formation à l étranger). Apprenticeship units aim to provide technical training for apprentices and capacity-building programmes for craftworkers. The training courses offered last on average 10 days, and participants receive a certificate on completion of a session. The Luxembourg development agency supports women s regional technical training centres (Centres régionaux d enseignement technique féminins CRETF), which target young women with little schooling and whose knowledge and skills base has remained virtually undeveloped. The agency is particularly active in the Saint Louis CRETF where, in collaboration with the regional Women s Union of Fruit and Vegetable Processors, it assists the centre in developing dual vocational training aimed at giving young women relevant skills for working in the food processing sector. The project also includes a post-training follow-up mechanism designed to help leavers better find their way into the labour market. The agency is also present in Thiès where, in 2003, it laid the foundation stone of an upper secondary school for technical education and vocational training ( 10.5 million invested in the project), which was nearing completion in June The total 12.8 million investment covers construction work, a review of the training curricula to adapt them to the skills-based approach, and the training of technical education trainers to enable them to adopt apprenticeship techniques. These projects constitute the raw material on which the Apprenticeship Unit will work with a view to developing a revised, standardised traditional apprenticeship system based both on the enhancement of existing practice and on the transformation of this towards a dual training system. Each project contributes in its own way to the development of the new system. But this will not be made up from the simple sum of different experiences. The system will be viable only if a comprehensive, methodical approach to apprenticeship is used to seek out best practices in existing schemes, and if these are integrated with a national standardised system adapted to the needs of the various actors in the informal sector, and validated by them. AFD Working paper No 21 Vocational Training in the Informal Sector - Report on the Senegal Field Survey 28

29 4. Initiatives to structure and transform the sector 4.2 The lack of resources for continuing training The different field surveys show that the success of re-organising the apprenticeship system in the informal economy cannot be dissociated from its corollary, which is the training of craftworkers and small and micro business entrepreneurs. In Senegal s case, continuing training is offered by various organisations and providers but, unlike initial training schemes, is not linked with any operational national strategic plan. The information concerning the craft sector was gathered during the survey; that on the agricultural and rural sectors was provided by the Research and Technological Transfer Group (Groupement de recherches et d échanges technologiques GRET) which produced a report on the training of women in the farm produce industry in Training in support of IGA growth and development These training schemes target the activities of women in rural and urban areas, and underline the essential role played by Senegalese women in two areas: the fight against poverty and food processing. PROMER training for women in rural areasx 42 The Project for the Promotion of Rural Micro-Businesses (Projet de promotion des micro-entreprises rurales PRO- MER), which got under way in 1997, gives support to private operators in the informal sector for managing their own production and commercial activities. To this end, the project has a training component specifically targeting women as promoters of economic activities in rural areas. The project works with women s groups, which offer an entry into the sector for identifying individual training needs. women in particular. Young women are not excluded from these courses by PROMER, but they are less well represented on them because they are attracted more to those on catering, hairdressing and sewing. In addition to providing technical training the project has also developed broad-based training schemes, such as the GERME programme (the acronym stands for Gérez mieux votre entreprise, or how to manage your business better ) and others on women s entrepreneurship, leadership development, commercial law and management accounting. Lastly, PRO- MER has also delivered literacy courses, but not in direct association with its other training provision. Since 1998 for Kamba and Tolda, and 2001 for Kaolack and Fatick, more than 4,400 people have participated in the training schemes. This includes more than 1,400 for technical training courses (11% of which concerned food-processing activities), about 800 for broad-based training schemes (68% for training in leadership development), and more than 2,000 for literacy courses. The training programmes mainly target women s groups, which chose from among their members those who will attend the courses. These generally last eleven days and aim to help newly trained women start up income-generating activities, or to develop these, for example through programmes including support services for looking for new markets. PROMER has developed a post-training monitoring mechanism designed to study the impact of its management module on book-keeping through an analysis of micro-business accounts. Women s groups: meeting their own training needs PROMER has provided a wide variety of technical training courses in fields directly connected with the activities of rural micro businesses, including food processing activities: fruit and vegetables, groundnut oil, cashew nuts, fish and milk. Training programmes were launched in 1998 for the Tamba and Kolda regions, and in 2001 for the Kaolack and Fatick regions. The food processing training courses target The Ournou Mountaga Tall group, which was founded in 1991, is today an economic interest group that brings together more than 1,800 women and young women from Dakar 41 GRET (2004). Education qualifiante des jeunes et des adultes (EQJA), Etudes sur les formations des femmes dans le domaine de l agroalimentaire. 42 GRET, op.cit. AFD Working paper No 21 Vocational Training in the Informal Sector - Report on the Senegal Field Survey 29

30 4. Initiatives to structure and transform the sector and 15 women s associations. It has a seven-member training commission which has responsibility for analysing training needs and translating these into training offers according to demand. The group promotes the expansion of production work in such areas as fruit and vegetable processing, dyeing, chicken-farming and micro-gardening. To this end, it offers training opportunities on a wide range of topics: business management and planning; management, literacy, fruit and vegetable processing, dyeing, and enterprise management according to the GERME method. Some of the training courses are financed by ONFP, others by the Luxembourg development agency. As the group s activities have expanded over the years, so the group has taken care to build up its in-house expertise. Thus, today, the group has a pool of women trainers in a variety of income-generating sectors. The group has also set up a revolving credit fund, financed through membership fees. This will serve to offer further training and provide an enabling environment for the creation and development of income-generating activities. Figures for July 2005 show that the group had granted 1,262 loans in a total amount of CFAF million (approximately 36,000). In addition to these initiatives, the Women s Entrepreneurship Bureau (Direction de l entrepreneuriat féminin) has trained more than 100 women in each region, using the GERME method; a number of these training schemes were financed by ONFP Improved skills training in the informal sector The field study identified several capacity-building programmes aimed at raising workers skills levels according to meet market requirements. It also showed the increasing importance of training in management and entrepreneurship for helping sole traders and micro-business owners better organise and expand their businesses. Support for the development of women s crafts The Dakar Chamber of Trades has, in partnership with the Koblenz Chamber of Trades, launched a project for developing women s crafts. Between 2000 and 2005, the project trained 900 women in dyeing, soap making, doll making, sewing and the processing of locally grown cereals. Funding for the project came for the most part from the Koblenz Chamber. For each training module, participants were asked to pay CFAF 4,000 ( 6) each, but after two years this was reduced to CFAF 2,000 ( 3) because of the difficulty experienced by some women in raising the larger sum. At the end of the programme, the women were urged to officially register as craftworkers. Among other advantages, registering affords them access to the loans that the West African Development Bank grants to craftworkers. Training in standards requirements for electricians in Dakar A group of 300 electricians in Dakar (that is, all of the officially registered electricians) put in a request for training which would update their working knowledge of standards in the profession. The need for capacity-building came from changes in the law which relieved SENELEC of the task of installing electrical systems in private homes. This opened up the market to artisan-electricians, but brought with it the obligation to carry on where SENELEC had left off in compliance with electrical standards requirements. The training programme the electricians had asked for comprised six modules that covered 19 standards requirements. Their request was submitted, with the approval of the Chamber of Trades, to FONDEF which, after re-working the original programme into two modules, agreed to defray 75% of the cost of the training scheme (an estimated CFAF 16 million, or 25,000); the electricians were asked to find the remaining 25%. Given the importance of this contribution, and the meagre resources available to both the electricians and the Chamber of Trades, a request for funding was made to ONFP. This was accepted in principle, and is awaiting final approval. AFD Working paper No 21 Vocational Training in the Informal Sector - Report on the Senegal Field Survey 30

31 4. Initiatives to structure and transform the sector Training for women in enterprise management 43 The Women s Entrepreneurship Bureau, as part of its stated plan to participate in the reconstruction of the Casamance region, set up a national programme for developing women s managerial skills through the GERME training programme. The Bureau benefited from the support of the International Finance Corporation (IFC), a World Bank subsidiary, for the implementation of the pilot phase providing training and follow-up for 80 women in the region. Training took place over a period of ten days (from 2 to 12 May 2005) in four classrooms fitted out specifically for this purpose, in Oussouye, Bignona and Ziguinchor (two classrooms). The first stage in the process, which focused on needs analysis, was followed by a training phase focusing on seven capacity-building modules (enterprise and family, marketing, supplies, stock management, costing, accounting, and financial planning), and on leadership development through four modules of an enterprise simulation game. For each module the women participants drew up an action plan which was assessed during the post-training follow-up phase. Two post-training follow-up sessions were held, respectively after two months and six months; a third was planned to take place after approximately ten months. The follow-up phase included other support activities, provided according to needs. These were determined on the basis of an assessment and on the mapping of the performance the women entrepreneurs businesses. Each of the women could then be given relevant support: this was offered in the form of two-day capacity-building seminars, group training for improving enterprise performance, or individual assistance. The analysis of the results of the mapping of 30 women showed, on the economic level, an increase in real terms in the size of the businesses (the number of workers had increased in twenty cases) a doubling of turnover after six months for each of the production units surveyed, or a diversification of activities, and in some instances even, a migration towards more profitable niches. Cashbooks were kept in all the units, and more than 90% of the women paid their workers a salary compared with the 10% of them who did so at the beginning of the training scheme. The increased credibility these trained women entrepreneurs had gave them easier access to sources of funding. A final follow-up session was programmed for February or March The main conclusions drawn from the first two sessions were: that it was important to support training with an offer of financial services, that networking improved women entrepreneurs performance, and that the women were anxious to have access to other training and services to help them improve the quality of their products, or to obtain information on market realities (notably through the Internet). It was also shown that an approach to training based on post-training action plans was seven times more effective than a one-off seminar-type approach. An overview of other training schemes The NGO Concept is heavily involved in capacity-building programmes for craftworkers, notably in areas such as organisational skills, marketing, or quality issues, aimed at giving greater visibility to the activities of their production units. Central to Concept s work is the provision of support services to craftworkers and their sector bodies. Concept has thus, among others, helped PROMECABILE provide training for its members, and given assistance to the Oumou Mountaga Tall women s group for better defining its requests for training. Concept s strong point is its proximity to the realities of professional organisations operations. The National Union of Chambers of Trades (Union nationale des chambres des métiers) has developed training programmes for craftworkers, largely in rural areas where trades with growth potential have been identified. Two trainers have been trained for each of these trades (a total of 17 trades was selected), and each trainer has subsequently trained 40 craftworkers. In addition, 1,200 craftworkers have been given management skills training under initiatives for promoting self-employment. The Dakar Chamber of Trades also organises training on capacity-building for craftworkers. Participants are asked to make a minimum contribution. One example of the training 43 Information provided by the West Africa GERME project leaders. AFD Working paper No 21 Vocational Training in the Informal Sector - Report on the Senegal Field Survey 31

32 4. Initiatives to structure and transform the sector offered is the training of 20 carpenters, which took place from 12 to 16 July The total budget for this was CFAF 675,000, which included trainer fees, materials and the trainees contribution of CFAF 2,000 each. The German cooperation agency, in association with INWENT, organises further training for craftworkers to prepare them for implementing a dual approach to apprenticeship. Under the scheme several craftworkers have followed skills training courses in Germany with a view to becoming master craftsmen. It has yet to be seen how the knowledge and skills they have acquired there can be transposed into the Senegalese apprenticeship system. Finally, the West African Development Bank has opened a credit line specifically for craftworkers, covering loans, institutional support and management training. In , 169 craftworkers (4 sessions of 40 each) were trained under this scheme; the cost of a training module ranged from CFAF 500,000 to CFAF 600,000. These many different training schemes, whether they focus on income-generating activities or the development of small and micro-businesses, show that Senegal has sufficient expertise to identify informal sector training needs and to translate these into relevant and efficient training provision. However, they also show that such provision cannot be rolled out on a large enough scale to meet all the sector s needs. This is due to the absence of sufficient funding to replicate the schemes (see the following presentation of ONFP and FON- DEF funding activities) and also to the absence of any concerted strategy on the part of existing sector bodies to encourage their members to improve the standard of their products and services, and thereby raise their skills levels. 4.3 The forms and limitations of organisational and financial support mechanisms In comparison with other countries, Senegal is unusual in that it has many vocational organisations, both sectoral and local, but they tend to operate independently of each other. Moves are afoot to try to bring them together at national level, but such initiatives have little chance of creating positive synergies because they are so numerous and disparate. This situation renders largely ineffective the role that such organisations could play in implementing a structured training initiative suited to the realities of the informal sector, especially as the financial means available to the sector are relatively modest The real but limited role of chambers of trades Chambers of trades were created in 1977 but really became operational in There is a chamber in each region and a National Union of Chambers of Trades, the UNCM. The chambers have supported most training activities: ILO initiatives to reduce the length of apprenticeships and redefine training methods for each craft/trade at levels corresponding to the length of basic schooling completed; assistance in structuring training in the various sectors (loaders, rural crafts etc.); participation in designing several projects (EQJA, PAFPNA); supporting dual apprenticeship training in the Dakar (Sodida) and Thiès centres. The Dakar Chamber of Trades helped set up entrepreneurship training for women and training in standards in electrical installation for electricians. It also helped set up technical training in the fields of fuel injection systems, refrigeration and air conditioning, metal-working, and technical drawing. The chambers also worked to help their registered members in skills acquisition, for example enabling them to obtain the national craftwork enterprise identification number (numéro d identification national des entreprises artisanales NINEA), to trade abroad and take advantage of guarantee funds. They provided advice on tax to those working in the informal economy, concerning the universal business tax (contribution générale unique CGU) and social insurance (minimum contributions guaranteeing AFD Working paper No 21 Vocational Training in the Informal Sector - Report on the Senegal Field Survey 32

33 4. Initiatives to structure and transform the sector entitlement to family allowances and industrial accident allowances without, for the latter, the need to make a personal declaration). Despite all these extremely useful initiatives, the chambers still represent only a small number of craftworkers and people working in the informal sector (15% according to the most optimistic figures provided by the people interviewed during the survey), and they fail to give any real impetus to the sector overall Absence of any concerted initiative among existing sector bodies The process of inter-sectoral organisation of craftworkers seen in the national craftwork federations in Benin, Mali and Burkina Faso does not exist as such in Senegal. According to the information gathered and the people interviewed, representation is primarily sectoral or occupational (PRO- MECABILE for the motor mechanics and automotive sector, FENAPH for the clothing sector, ACS for the fashion design sector, ANBS for jewellers and so on) 44. Such representation has the advantage of enabling a sectoral approach to skills and sector training needs. According to several interviewees, however, it is not capable of maximising the effect of training initiatives already under way and building consensus on what reforms should be implemented, especially in the field of apprenticeship. Several organisations are trying to organise craftworkers or traders at the intersectoral level. The Senegal National Federation of Craftworkers (Fédération national des artisans du Sénégal FENAS) FENAS is an umbrella organisation launched following a craftworkers forum held in Louga and with support from the Austrian development agency. They wanted to have an contact for their craftwork promotion project (Projet de promotion de l artisanat PPA). FENAS has about 15,000 members, of whom 60% are women, from 10 of 11 regions in Senegal, rural and urban craftworkers of all types engaged in services, the production of goods and art. FENAS forms part of a process of improving the quality of education, training and dialogue among craftworkers, with a view to improving the quality of their goods and services. It has set up a collective fund that provides finance for members when the need arises. The Senegal National Network of Craftworkers (Réseau national des artisans du Sénégal RENA) RENA was set up in 2003 but its member bodies have been in existence for about ten years. It brings together, among others, the national building and public works federation, the national wood federation, female potters, and the young craftworkers network. It set up a young apprentices parliament to give young people in this sector a voice. RENA is represented in seven regions and has about 10,000 members. The network is defined as an umbrella organisation seeking to bring together existing structures and also upand-coming new trades. It is considering setting up a model centre for dual training, and also creating bridges between apprenticeship training and the CAP to enable apprentices to continue their studies within the formal training system. RENA advocates a more unifying role for chambers of trades and the involvement of local authorities in supporting the training of both craftworkers and apprentices. The Senegal National Union of Traders and Industrialists (L union nationale des commerçants et des industriels du Sénégal UNACOIS) UNACOIS, set up in 1989, is a business association which had over 100,000 members in The number should be much greater today, however, given that other trades have joined the association. UNACOIS is thus now a multi-sectoral organisation, including mainly traders but also fishermen, craftworkers, farmers and some industrialists. It exists in the 11 regions of Senegal. UNACOIS approached the African Institute of Management (Institut africain de management IAM), with a view to creating a training centre devoted to the informal sector. The training that would be delivered there would essentially focus on entrepreneurship and management. Course 44 Republic of Senegal, Projet de promotion de l entrepreneuriat rural (PROMER Phase 2), pre-evaluation report, lists some 20 corporatist sectoral bodies in the craft sector. AFD Working paper No 21 Vocational Training in the Informal Sector - Report on the Senegal Field Survey 33

34 4. Initiatives to structure and transform the sector content would be compiled from an analysis of needs at local level. The training that would be given does not currently exist in any other public or private establishment. Trainers would mainly be businessmen. The state would be involved as an observer and as supporting partner. UNACOIS also set up a mutual fund to provide loans. It is an autonomous financial institution in respect of its legal status, and it lends to members requiring financial assistance. Union members have the opportunity to contribute to the fund by buying a CFAF 5,000 share (about 8). Applicants must submit a formal application for a loan. The loans granted vary from one regional fund to another each has its own lending policy. Some grant large sums (up to CFAF 10 million, just over 15,200) while others specialise more in micro-credit. UNACOIS represents the informal sector on the FONDEF board of directors and takes part in the analysis and selection procedure for training applications from modern enterprises, but also from groupings within the informal sector. It is also a member of the joint national committee for vocational training. In this respect, it is the only member of the informal sector with a formal representative function. There are about another ten vocational organisations in the agricultural and food processing informal sector: the Fruit and Vegetable Processors Association (Association des transformateurs de fruits et legumes TRANSFULEG), the Senegal Federation of Independent Farmers and Dairy Foods Processors (Fédération des éleveurs indépendants et transformateurs laitiers du Sénégal FEITLS) and the Senegal National Federation of Dairy Producers (Fédération nationale des acteurs de la filière lait du Sénégal FENAFILS) among others, but it was not possible to meet them during the field survey visit Strategic rather than operational support from government ministries In the craft sector Craftwork (Agence pour la promotion et le développement de l artisanat APDA). Although it is involved in supervising training in the sector, the Directorate s principal field is supervising the access of craftworkers to funding for their activities, encouraging the setting up of craft villages in local authority areas, doing everything to modernise the sector and implementing innovation and standards policies to facilitate exports. In the field of vocational training, it operates mainly through the chambers of trades. APDA is an administrative body under the supervision of the Ministry for Industry and Crafts. Its job is to organise and develop crafts, and it focuses on craftworkers, the majority of whom work in the informal sector. It has carried out sectoral studies and, in collaboration with the AFD, has drawn up a strategic operational plan which takes account of the informal nature of craftworker activity. This plan comprises two action programmes, both of which are designed to enhance the skills of craftworkers. The first programme entitled to improve craftworker organisations, skills and communication (Programme de renforcement des organisations, des compétences et de la communication des artisans PROCCA) aims to support self-organisation, so that participants themselves create the conditions required for sustainability and stability. To achieve this, it proposes upgrading craftworkers technical, technological and managerial skills to professional level, while at the same time supporting the growth and development of chambers of trades and vocational organisations and the development of partnerships at national, regional (West Africa) and international level. The second programme to promoting entrepreneurship among craftworkers aims to encourage greater competitiveness in the craftwork sector through better access to finance, through an appropriate promotions and publicity policy and through improving the technical, technological and managerial skills of craftwork enterprises. ADPA is moreover carrying out feasibility studies in the craftwork field, including a strategic craftwork development study in Senegal running up to 2018 and a study to identify craftworker training needs. Support goes through the Craftwork Directorate-General and the Agency for the Promotion and Development of APDA is convinced that training is essential to improve the quality and competitiveness of Senegalese products since AFD Working paper No 21 Vocational Training in the Informal Sector - Report on the Senegal Field Survey 34

35 4. Initiatives to structure and transform the sector the poor quality of some such was evident at exhibitions and trade fairs held in The agency is also considering setting up and running a national craftworker contact network. It has also indicated that there is a craftworker guarantee fund of CFAF 751 million ( million), and this fund could be used to help solve craftworkers recurrent problem of gaining access to credit. In agriculture support for the most important and innovative initiatives. The PROMECABILE project received no Senegalese funding and the only support given to the PAFPNA project was that the Ministry seconded two of its officials to the project. The NGO Concept, which plays an important role in terms of expertise and technical support in the field of craftworker and apprentice training, is funded by a French regional council by means of a twinning arrangement between French and Senegalese associations. The Ministry for Agriculture, Rural Hydraulics and Food Safety set up the Agricultural Vocational Training Bureau (Bureau de la Formation professionnelle agricole BFPA) to be responsible for devising and implementing the agricultural vocations training policy and supervising and coordinating all agricultural vocational training bodies. It was with this remit in mind and in accordance with the 1999 National Agricultural and Rural Training Strategy (Stratégie nationale de formation agricole et rurale SNFAR) that the Agricultural Vocational Training Bureau commissioned an expert report in 2004 describing and analysing the overall current situation regarding trainers and training available (Basse Casamance and the Delta area). The basis of this report is consultation at local level to analyse the expectations of interested parties and beneficiaries, elicit suggestions for the general outline of a sustainable scheme for supporting the updating and formalising of training demands. The results of this expert report were sent to a national monitoring group that stressed the need for improving the regulation and management mechanisms of the agricultural vocational training initiative at national and regional level, in keeping with decentralisation laws. The Ministry also wishes, in accordance with SNFAR national strategy for up to 2015 to set up an interdepartmental mechanism responsible for developing, monitoring, evaluating and coordinating training policy. Regional councils, public, community and private training institutions and vocational organisations are invited to participate in this The opportunities and limitations of available financial support mechanisms The field survey established that the informal sector had little access to funding for vocational training and that international funding donors were often the only source of financial There are however two official instruments for funding vocational training. The National Vocational Training Office (Office national de la formation professionnelle ONFP) The ONFP is an industrial and commercial establishment under the twin supervision of the Ministry of Finance and the METFP, the purpose of which was defined by Act No of 11 August The Office has been in operation since February Its 2006 budget is CFAF million (almost 390,000), of which CFAF 85.5 million (a little over 130,000, equivalent to 33.5% of the total budget) is set aside for the 2006 informal sector programme (in this context, the craftworker sector) and CFAF 53.5 million (about 81,500, namely 20.9% of the total budget) for the primary sector. Therefore the amounts allocated to the informal economy exceed 50% of the total budget. Our interviewees listed the following among the initiatives that received funding: 675 apprentices in Dakar trained at a cost of CFAF million (about 43,800) and 225 craftworkers trained in Saint-Louis. The 2006 training programme lists training initiatives in the following areas: electricity (journeymen), metal-working (apprentices), wood-working (journeymen), mechanics (master craftsmen) and building (master craftsmen). Funding is granted according to the following procedure: potential beneficiaries draw up a proposed programme which is sent to the ONFP. The ONFP evaluates the proposal and, if it is approved, decides on the modules to be delivered and the scheduling, and identifies training centres capable of delivering such training. AFD Working paper No 21 Vocational Training in the Informal Sector - Report on the Senegal Field Survey 35

36 4. Initiatives to structure and transform the sector The ONFP operates nationwide and in all trade organisations. It relies on existing public and private establishments to deliver training. At present, there is no scheme for accrediting such establishments. The Technical and Vocational Education and Training Development Fund (Fonds de l enseignement technologique et de la formation professionnelle FONDEF) FONDEF was set up in June 2004 for an experimental period of three years to develop the country s human resources and make continuing training available to enterprises. It comes under the Ten-Year Education and Training Programme (Programme décennal de l éducation et de la formation PDEF) and its purpose is to match available training with production needs in order to achieve radical development in the current system of initial and continuing training 45. FONDEF is a public establishment with financial independence, and is a legal entity. It is run by a tripartite board of directors made up of state representatives, employers and unions. It is an independent body under the supervision of the METFP. The board is assisted by a selection and accreditation committee which selects projects to be funded and approves operators to carry out them out. This is also a tripartite committee and also includes a representative from among fund donors. FONDEF offers continuing training to people in work who have articulated their needs formally. It allocates funds to companies that fulfil the following conditions: have a clear legal status and are registered companies; pay the flat rate tax levied on companies (contribution forfaitaire à la charge des entreprises CFCE). The board of directors decided that, during the experimental phase, priority funding would be given to company employees in the modern sector and existing funds would be granted to companies with a clear training plan and to those which, even though lacking any such plan, have clearly identified management and administrative functions. However, this situation is changing, since informal production units that pay the CGU universal business tax are de facto participating in the CFCE rules and the Fund managers have perfected an application procedure enabling craftworkers or micro businesses grouped into federations or Economic Interest Groups (EIGs) to apply for FONDEF funding. For example, FONDEF agreed to funding for training in standards for electricians, supported by the Dakar Chamber of Trades. Other projects are under way in vocational sectors such as building and public works, food, harbour workers and the hotel trade. FONDEF has a budget of about CFAF 1.2 billion (almost 1.83 million) for Most of this is allocated to the informal sector and exclusively to continuing training. Nevertheless, with respect to the Fund s initial objectives of supporting radical development in continuing and initial training and supporting the supervising ministry s priority policies of reforming traditional apprenticeship into dual training, it is difficult to see how FONDEF can remain removed from training young people and adults in the informal sector. Especially since the claim it makes to collecting the CFCE directly would give it an increased budget (the annual amount collected by the CFCE amounts to CFAF 8 to 9 billion ( 12.2 million to 13.7 million), and its desire to influence the development of the system involves extending its current missions and operations. This description of the forms and limitations of organisational and financial support mechanisms underscores the main features of Senegal s situation. There are strategic plans and pilot schemes scheduled to run until 2010 or 2015, but funding falls short of the intended goals. There is also an abundance of schemes and operators, but, through lack of concerted management across government departments and occupational sectors and of a clearly structured system, such abundance may well create conflicts of interest and fail to generate the synergy required for radical reform of the current system and, in particular, for meeting the skills needs of the informal sector, which represents 90% of the country s workforce. This risk is all the greater since there is no effective coordination between donors, and, through lack of harmonisation, the funds they provide may harming the common cause they are intended to support. The prospects for change and action that round out this analysis of the field survey are intended to identify the conditions under which Senegal may truly succeed in implementing its chosen strategy. 45 Ten-Year Plan, op. cit. AFD Working paper No 21 Vocational Training in the Informal Sector - Report on the Senegal Field Survey 36

37 5. The need for change and action The meetings with the various Senegalese stakeholders provided an opportunity for discussion and debate about the ways and means of enabling the country to introduce vocational training schemes and systems which would give the greatest boost to the informal sector and which, through increased skills development among apprentices, craftworkers and small and micro-business entrepreneurs alike, would help it to increase the quality of its products and services and to create new, profitable income-generating activities. The information gathered during the survey, together with a comparative analysis of the quantitative and qualitative data collected, serves as the basis for some observations identifying the main features of the measures necessary to enable the country to achieve its operational and strategic objectives of strengthening the informal sector s creativity and vitality through vocational training. 5.1 Training and skills development in growth sectors Analysis of Senegal s economic situation showed that the country is looking to promote sectors with high growth potential. It accordingly emphasised the importance of the services and agriculture sectors, bearing in mind the high number of workers they employ and for whom they procure the means of subsistence. The adoption of an Accelerated Growth Strategy has identified the following high-potential sectors: agriculture and agri-industry; seafood; tourism and cultural and crafts industries; textiles and clothing manufacture; and, lastly, ITC and teleservices. In addition, the review of pilot schemes and projects concerning vocational training in the informal economy revealed that certain sectors are given priority when it comes to developing the skills of young people and adults: car mechanics, construction and civil engineering, the agri-food industry, port activities and handicrafts in rural areas. For all of the people interviewed, there is no doubt that Senegal must use vocational training as a means of investing in occupations that are strategic for the economy and the labour market. However, there is no point in making such an investment unless it meets certain very specific conditions. The people interviewed also stressed the need to train both apprentices and existing craftworkers in new technical and quality standards introduced as a result of the standardisation of markets and services. It is clear that there is a need for greater professional skills in all occupations, but especially those in which technical change is the fastest and in which safety standards, hygiene and the environment have the most restrictive impact. This is all the more important bearing in mind, as this study has shown, the poor quality of certain Senegalese products and services. The development of vocational training targeted at the informal sector should not neglect these skills and occupational development needs, especially because better quality training has an immediate impact on the profitability of IPUs and their ability to access markets, which is something all of the statistical surveys have identified as being a priority concern. AFD Working paper No 21 Vocational Training in the Informal Sector - Report on the Senegal Field Survey 37

38 5. The need for change and action 5.2 Strengthening coordination and consultation structures The description of current organisational dynamics has clearly demonstrated that the model of worker organisation is based on territorial or occupational dynamics, and that it scarcely focuses on common national interests. Here, Senegal differs sharply from certain West African countries, which have created amalgamated craftworkers federations bringing together local and sectoral associations, and which are able to clearly articulate the requirements and interests of informal sector craftworkers and producers. This situation goes hand in hand with several observations Fostering a shared vision of reform among all stakeholders concerned Although there have been some attempts to bring urban or rural craftworkers and traders at national level, organisations such as the FENAS, the RENA or the UNACOIS coexist and defend their sectoral interests, rather than consulting with each other in order to establish joint positions. The field survey emphasised that each of these organisations had its own plans for developing informal sector training, which has obliged the METFP to take on the role of coordinating and synthesising the positions of the various stakeholders, thus making it even harder to implement the reform. Also, while the chambers of commerce have a coordination role which cuts across the interests of various different stakeholders, they are not sufficiently representative of the informal sector to compensate for its fragmentation or amalgamate its differing viewpoints. The case of the other countries surveyed shows that only a shared vision among the various public and private stakeholders with responsibility for vocational training can make it possible to implement, within a reasonable timeframe, vocational training measures and schemes suited to the informal sector s needs and circumstances Aligning the action of the various donor agencies The dispersal of sector bodies and business associations is matched by a lack of coordination among donor agencies providing support for the informal sector: the French, German, Canadian, Austrian, Belgian and Luxembourg cooperation agencies are working to reorganise traditional apprenticeship without any sort of coordination among these different initiatives, and without them taking any sort of active role in the Apprenticeship Unit set up by the METFP. The GTZ has expressed a strong desire to work on apprenticeship in partnership with the AFD. However, it is also very important to ensure a certain alignment of the various donor initiatives in order to avoid a situation where, for example, a Luxembourg apprenticeship model is used in Thiès alongside a Canadian apprenticeship scheme in Saint-Louis, which might itself coexist with the Belgian apprenticeship project units. The Apprenticeship Unit and the social dialogue platform seem to offer the best places for instigating moves towards coordination and consultation between the various national and international stakeholders working on vocational training in the informal sector. However, this would mean giving the unit a greater role and wider scope for influencing the development of the future apprenticeship model. It would also require that the employers and trade unions which have included the UNACOIS as informal sector partners extend this recognition to other organisations which are more representative of the craft sector. 5.3 Ensuring better control over the development of traditional apprenticeship During the field survey, it became clear that there are differing opinions on the current pilot schemes on the development of traditional apprenticeship, both on the part of those who are implementing them and those who oversee them owing to their institutional responsibility or representative role in the craft sector The need to ensure effective overall management control The success of the development of traditional apprenticeship raises the issue of whether there is any overall management control and coordination of the whole process. This applies to the coordination needed between existing and AFD Working paper No 21 Vocational Training in the Informal Sector - Report on the Senegal Field Survey 38

39 5. The need for change and action planned schemes under the responsibility of the Ministry of Agriculture, the Ministry of Education and the METFP. It also applies within the METFP itself, concerning the way it coordinates projects aimed at services on the one hand, or craft and industrial production on the other. Comparing the situation in Senegal with that in Benin, it is clear that there is a both a lack of any sort of concerted interdepartmental coordination on the subject and a lack of any public/private consultation which might be able to forge a shared vision and operational plan for the apprenticeship model to be introduced Linking management control with the future system s methodological development Bringing traditional apprenticeship up to an initial basic level of training and thus qualification not only requires efficient management of the overall plan, but also the use of methodological expertise capable of analysing aspects of existing schemes, comparing them with an ideal model of apprenticeship, and adopting and improving them while progressively integrating them into a single consensual model. Such work requires both a full understanding of occupational profiles (the job/occupation, tasks, activities and skills), without which it is impossible to define the content of apprenticeship, as well as an ability to assess and validate knowledge and skills acquisition on the job and to introduce the design and development of training and teaching content which can efficiently help the young people, in the time available, to acquire their level of skills development and qualification. If there is no interrelationship between overall management control and the design and development of existing pilot schemes, it will be difficult to develop a single system leading to standardised certification and its roll-out to all of those concerned in the informal economy Training people and ensuring they find jobs All of the people interviewed emphasise that access to traditional apprenticeship as part of a trend towards dual, skills-based training should not just help young apprentices to obtain their final level of certification, or, if nothing else, a training completion certificate. It must also be effective in helping them to find a job. Thus, as already mentioned, PROMECABILE has several ways of helping people into work. It helps apprentices to set up group workshops and gives them support in the form of tools and equipment worth CFAF 100,000 to CFAF 200,000. It has signed agreements with several sectors to ensure they take on young people who have completed their training. Lastly, it encourages master craftsmen to keep some of their trainees as aspiring master craftsmen, which will thereby help to improve the productivity of their workshop. Officials at the Dakar Chamber of Trade also stressed the fundamental importance of getting young trainees into work. They pointed out that youngsters trained in entrepreneurship through the GERME business start-up programme CREE (for Créez votre entreprise) can obtain loans from a micro-credit institution. The amount of such loans depends on the occupations concerned. They can range from CFAF 2 to CFAF 4 million, or about 3,000 to 6,100 (CFAF 350,000 for electricians, or 530, and CFAF 1 million for upholsterers, or slightly over 1,500). Repayments are made monthly, with the deadline for total repayment varying from three to five months after the date the business was created. In all of the countries surveyed to date (Morocco, Cameroon and Benin), a linkage exists between training, apprenticeship and provision of resources to help people into work. It will be essential for Senegal which has already tried this approach in certain current training schemes to make the linkage between apprenticeship training and getting people into work one of the key components of the system it is currently establishing Organising pre-vocational skills training for young people prior to apprenticeship During the visits made to apprenticeship pilot schemes under way, it was seen that groups of young people under the age of 15 are out of school and present in workshops in which they do not have the right to work. With help from the ONG Concept, PROMECABILE has introduced a whole literacy and pre-apprenticeship system for this particular target group. On one hand, it helps to familiarise the youngsters with occupational practices and introduces them to the workshop s activities. On the other hand, it AFD Working paper No 21 Vocational Training in the Informal Sector - Report on the Senegal Field Survey 39

40 5. The need for change and action runs a functional literacy course, which is organised according to the youngsters educational levels. They have to attend classes twice a week, which focus on the acquisition of French language and basic maths skills. The literacy scheme is run over a period of five months and has clearly identified stages of educational progress. In contrast to other countries, this field survey hardly dealt with the issue of uneducated 12- to 14-year-olds who either work or are on the streets, who are likely to lose any educational achievements and are just waiting to be officially eligible to start apprenticeship. The PROMECABILE is certainly not unique. However, it raises an issue which does not seem to be dealt with systematically across the whole country, notably that of taking responsibility for children who are neither at primary school nor in apprenticeship and of how to make suitable arrangements to help them prepare effectively for any future new apprenticeship schemes. 5.4 Giving equal emphasis to craftworkers and apprentices The current pilot schemes involve both apprenticeship and training for craftworkers. However, they are insufficiently interrelated, especially as far as the acknowledgement and recognition of currently established craftworkers is concerned The fundamental link between training for apprentices and training for master craftsmen It will be impossible to develop the future dual apprenticeship training system without determining the skills levels which master craftsmen should achieve, and this will raise the issue of how to recognise and even certify these skills levels. The current experience of the INWENT project, which enables Senegalese craftworkers to train along the lines of the German dual training system, is not replicable as it stands, because scaling it up would require considerable resources and because there is no question of transposing as is to Senegal a whole training system that has proved effective only in a specific socio-economic context. The PAFNA pilot scheme, which receives considerable financial support from the Canadian development agency, underlines that dual apprenticeship can be introduced only if the master craftsmen are very strongly committed to their own training and to first acquiring the skills which they will then pass on to apprentices. The fact that the relationship between master trainers and their apprentices is at the heart of the future system calls for immediate debate about the fact that nothing will succeed unless thought and specific resources are devoted to developing the skills of both partners, and that it is impossible to talk about skills certificates for young apprenticeships without considering the issue of recognising the skills and responsibilities of those who will train them in their workshops The need for validation of skills acquired in the informal sector Securing employment in the informal sector for young people who are both better trained and qualified will mean that their older peers will be confronted with competitors who are better equipped to deal with current technological changes and market trends. This will also make older craftsmen more vulnerable in that they are often illiterate and have acquired strong practical skills without these being recognised by anybody other than their regular customers. In other words, transforming the traditional apprenticeship system into a dual system may undermine occupational and social solidarity in the informal labour market unless such changes are accompanied by a sustained debate and initiative on the means of recognising and acknowledging the situation and real skills of existing craftworkers. The experience in Benin, which is planning to set up Occupational Development Centres and introduce Occupational Skills Certificates designed to accredit acquired practical skills, may provide useful food for thought which the Apprenticeship Unit should take on board in order to avoid leaving those who are already in business by the wayside, thus making them highly resistant to a reform from which they have the right not to be excluded. AFD Working paper No 21 Vocational Training in the Informal Sector - Report on the Senegal Field Survey 40

41 5. The need for change and action 5.5 Creating a favourable environment for boosting the informal sector Training and skills development schemes for the informal sector will only be fully effective if they are included as part of a range of efforts and resources designed to provide the sector with a minimum degree of financial and regulatory support which can give them the means to act and gain optimal access to internal and external markets Improving the coordination of financial strategies and resources Analysis of the public funds devoted to vocational training shows that it only receives a minuscule part of the central government s operational budget (4.5% of expenditure on education) and that the informal sector, which trains 20 times more young people than the TEVT system, is mainly supported by donor agencies. It also reveals that the resources made available to the ONFP (about CFAF 80 million in 2006, or about 122,000) can only finance symbolic measures which are insufficient in face of current needs, and that the FONDEF, which is primarily focused on continuing training for employees, is only just starting to support that modern companies often sub-contract their activities to the informal sector, it will be difficult for the FONDEF to continue to fund the formal sector almost exclusively, especially because the introduction of the CGU universal business tax means that IPUs which pay this tax effectively contribute to the CFCE flat rate tax levied on companies Helping the sector to become part of the country s economic and social fabric The statistical survey on the city of Dakar 47 provides some significant information on the situation of IPUs regarding their integration within the economy and society as a whole. It points out that over 90% of IPUs lack a national craftwork enterprise identification number (NINEA) and taxpayer code. Neither are they on the trade register or registered with the social security fund. When asked why this is the case, a great majority of IPUs call for a single tax and a one-stop contact point for tax matters, and they would prefer to see a simplified tax at regional and especially local level. some exemplary schemes such as the one on training for electricians in how to respect standards for household installations. During the field survey, it was not possible to verify whether the situation in 2005 had greatly changed since However, it was observed that efforts have been made to This situation is contrary to national political strategy, which has set training as one of the country s priorities. It is also counterproductive given that the lack of national funding for current pilot schemes means that their development is dependent on the internal resources of sector bodies, such as PROMECABILE, for example, or on the decisions and support of external technical and financial partners (e.g. Canada, Austria, Belgium and Luxembourg). The support which the METFP receives from the AFD as part of French development aid is the only project aimed at developing central management and coordination of existing pilot schemes. facilitate informal sector operators efforts to register and help them gain access to minimal social security coverage. According to the National Union of Chambers of Trades, the CGU has been introduced and has greatly simplified the way IPUs can register for tax purposes. Similar efforts have been made to ensure minimal social insurance guaranteeing entitlement to family benefit and industrial accident allowances without, for the latter, the need to make a personal declaration. Lastly, efforts have been made to enable craftworkers and micro-entrepreneurs to trade outside the country s borders and have access to the craft trade guarantee fund by registering with the chambers of trades. The reform cannot succeed unless sufficient extra funds are made available in order to meet its ambitious objectives. Given that apprenticeship training comes under the initial training area, the state has no option other than to assume full responsibility for this area 46. Furthermore, given 46 According to the PDEF Paper (2006), La réforme de l ETFP en marche, the METFP plans to devote CFAF 4.5 billion to the reform of apprenticeship training. 47 Government of Senegal, Forecasting and Statistics Directorate, op.cit. AFD Working paper No 21 Vocational Training in the Informal Sector - Report on the Senegal Field Survey 41

42 5. The need for change and action Despite these indications of progress, IPUs are still unable to benefit from the facilitation measures, notably those concerning financial matters and market access, or the support measures promised by the Charter for Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises adopted by the government in Nevertheless, it is clear that all of the efforts undertaken in both the initial and continuing vocational training field aimed at upgrading the skills and qualifications of apprentices, craftworkers and informal sector entrepreneurs will be truly effective only if the public authorities, in collaboration with the representative bodies concerned, adopt simplified regulations suited to the sector s circumstances. This would facilitate both recognition of the sector and the development of its potential as set out in the Ten- Year Education and Training Programme: Senegal has a crafts sector whose creativity and vitality is acknowledged by all; this offers an opportunity shared by very few other countries in the sub-region. 48 Ministry for Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises and Micro-finance (2003), Charte des petites et moyennes entreprises du Sénégal. AFD Working paper No 21 Vocational Training in the Informal Sector - Report on the Senegal Field Survey 42

43 6. Concluding observations Like the other countries of sub-saharan Africa, Senegal has a strong informal sector, which employs about 90% of its workers and produces a share of national wealth that some estimate at 60% of GDP. To take the circumstances of this sector into account, the country has undertaken a reform of the vocational training system that should allow it gradually to transform traditional apprenticeship into dual training and, most important, to establish it as the first level of its vocational qualifications system. private stakeholders to have a shared vision of the aims and means for implementing the future training system for apprentices and craftworkers; coordinating and managing this system in a concerted and efficient manner; developing a coordination framework that will make up for the fragmented organisation of sector bodies and donor agencies, and prevent them from pursuing individual and often competing interests; and, lastly, taking a demand-driven and skillsbased approach to all training provision. Senegal has several assets for coping with the issues raised by the reform: well-conceived pilot apprenticeship training schemes (in terms of theory and practice), a plethora of organisations and stakeholders which are involved in a growing number of informal sector training activities, and solid expert support (both from within and from outside the country) that can help to design an informal training system tailored to the specific circumstances and development potential of the sector s production units and businesses. If it is to achieve its objectives, the country must also meet a number of challenges: modernising its entire training system; ensuring that it makes a positive contribution to job creation and accelerated growth; bringing together, at national level, the conditions required for all public, social and Senegal is just starting the process of structuring its initiatives in the informal sector. It has made clear strategic choices, and the stakeholders involved have, with determination and conviction, begun to shift the informal sector towards skills and quality. The ultimate result will depend on the government s ability to foster cooperation among its departments, to involve all craft and business organisations in a concerted effort to structure the sector, to profit from the increasingly active social dialogue and to provide sufficient funding and expertise to support the reform of vocational training. This reform will be successful when it manages to establish an apprenticeship and continuing training system which gives both craftworkers and informal economy workers an initial qualification level that is certified at national level and recognised by all. AFD Working paper No 21 Vocational Training in the Informal Sector - Report on the Senegal Field Survey 43

44 List of acronyms and abbreviations APDA BEP BFPA BT BTS CAP DPRE EFA EQJA FONDEF GDP GRET GTZ HDI HIPC IGA ILO METFP NGO NINEA ONFP Agence pour la promotion et le développement de l artisanat Agency for the Promotion and Development of Crafts Brevet d enseignement professionnel Vocational education diploma Bureau de la Formation professionnelle agricole Agricultural Vocation Training Bureau Brevet de technicien Technician s diploma Brevet de technicien supérieur Higher technician s diploma Certificat d aptitude professionnelle Vocational skills certificate Direction de la Planification et de la Réforme de l Education Directorate for Educational Planning and Reform Education for All Education qualifiante des jeunes et des adultes Youth and adult skills education (leading to a qualification) Fonds de développement de l Enseignement technique et de la Formation professionnelle Technical and Vocational Education and Training Development Fund Gross domestic product Groupe de recherche et d échanges technologiques Research and Technological Transfer Group Gesellschaft für technische zusammenarbeit The German technical cooperation agency Human Development Index Heavily indebted poor countries Income-generating activity International Labour Organisation Ministère de l Enseignement technique et de la Formation professionnelle Ministry for Technical and Vocational Education and Training Non-governmental organisation numéro d identification national des entreprises artisanales National craftwork enterprise identification number Office national de la Formation professionnelle National Office for Vocational Training AFD Working paper No 21 Vocational Training in the Informal Sector - Report on the Senegal Field Survey 44

45 PAFPNA PARCES PDEF PDEF/EPT PROMER RENA SBA SCA SNFAR TEVT UNACOIS UNCM UNDP UNESCO UNIDO WAEMU Projet d appui à la formation professionnelle des néo-alphabètes Project to Support Vocational Training for the Newly Literate Programme d appui au renforcement de la compétitivité de l économie sénégalaise Programme to Support Increased Competitiveness of the Senegalese Economy Programme décennal de l éducation et de la formation Ten-Year Education and Training Programme ( ) Programme de développement de l éducation et de la formation/education pour tous Education and Training Development Programme/Education for All Projet de promotion des micro-entreprises rurales Project for the Promotion of Rural Micro-Businesses Réseau national des artisans du Sénégal Senegal National Network of Craftworkers Skills-based approach Stratégie de croissance accélérée Accelerated Growth Strategy Stratégie nationale de formation agricole et rurale National Agricultural and Rural Training Strategy Technical and vocational education and training Union nationale des commerçants et des industries du Sénégal National Union of Senegalese Merchants and Manufacturers Union nationale des chambres des métiers National Union of Chambers of Trades United Nations Development Programme United Nations Organisation for Education, Science and Culture United Nations Industrial Development Organisation West African Economic and Monetary Union AFD Working paper No 21 Vocational Training in the Informal Sector - Report on the Senegal Field Survey 45

46 References Amprou, J., T. Bossuroy, H. Djoufelkit, T. Latreille, B. Leenhardt and N. Meisel (2006), Rapport de conjoncture et prévisions des pays de la zone Franc, AFD Working Paper. Bangre, H. (2003), Le poids du secteur informel sénégalais. Broutin, C. et al. (2004), Etude sur la formation des femmes dans l agro-alimentaire, Groupe de recherche et d échanges technologiques (GRET). Clement, S., R. Walther, H. Bougault and E. Filipiak (2005), Les mécanismes de financement de la formation professionnelle, Algérie, Maroc, Sénégal, Tunisie, AFD. Government of Senegal, Forecasting and Statistics Directorate (2005), Le secteur informel dans l agglomération de Dakar : performances, insertion et perspectives. GRET (2004), Education qualifiante des jeunes et des adultes (EQJA), Etudes sur les formations des femmes dans le domaine de l agroalimentaire. Leenhardt, B. (2005), Le poids de l informel en UEMOA, premières leçons en termes de comptabilité nationale des enquêtes de , AFD Report. Ministry of Education (2003), Programme de développement de l éducation et de la formation / Education pour tous (PDEF/EPT). Ministry of Education (2005), Actions pilotes d éducation qualifiante des jeunes et des adultes (EQJA), Project Document. Ministry for Small and Medium-Sized Enterpirses and Micro-finance (2003), Charte des petites et moyennes entreprises du Sénégal. Ministry for Technical and Vocational Education and Training, Literacy and National Languages (2002), Le document de politique sectorielle de l enseignement technique et de la formation professionnelle. Republic of Senegal (January 2005), Lettre de politique générale pour le secteur de l éducation et de la formation. STATECO (2005), Méthodes statistiques et économiques pour le développement et la transition, No. 99. UNDP (2005), World Human Development Report, Economica, Paris. Bank (2005), World Development Indicators. AFD Working paper No 21 Vocational Training in the Informal Sector - Report on the Senegal Field Survey 46