Handbook of Literary and Historical Terms

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1 Resource Center Handbook of Literary and Historical Terms The World of Work Writer s Handbook Language Handbook Glossary Spanish Glossary Academic Vocabulary Glossary in English and Spanish

2 Handbook of Literary and Historical Terms ALEXANDRINE A line of poetry made up of six iambs that is, a line written in iambic hexameter. The following alexandrine is from Lord Byron s Childe Harold s Pilgrimage (Collection 8): Without a grave, unknelled, uncoffined, and unknown. ALLEGORY A story in which the characters, settings, and events stand for abstract or moral concepts. Allegories thus have two meanings: a literal meaning and a symbolic meaning. Allegories were a popular literary form during the Middle Ages. The bestknown English allegory is John Bunyan s The Pilgrim s Progress (Collection 3), which recounts the adventures of a character named Christian. The hero s journey to the Celestial City brings him up against many trials that symbolize the pitfalls facing the Christian traveling through this world toward the spiritual world. ALLITERATION The repetition of consonant sounds in words that are close to one another. Alliteration occurs most often at the beginning of words, as in rough and ready. But consonants within words sometimes alliterate, as in baby blue. The echoes that alliteration creates can increase a poem s rhythmic and musical effects and make its lines especially memorable. In this line from Shakespeare s Sonnet 30 (page 393), the /w/ sounds emphasize the melancholy tone: And with old woes new wail my dear time s waste. Alliteration is an essential feature of Anglo-Saxon poetry; in most lines, two or three of the four stressed syllables alliterate. Basil, do you think the center is going to hold? Drawing by Booth; 1984 The New Yorker Magazine, Inc. ALLUSION A reference to a statement, person, place, event, or thing that is known from literature, history, religion, mythology, politics, sports, science, or popular culture. The concluding lines of Wilfred Owen s poem Dulce et Decorum Est (Collection 11) are Dulce et decorum est / Pro patria mori. ( It is sweet and proper to die for one s country ). These lines allude to a line from an ode by the Latin poet Horace. The title of William Faulkner s The Sound and the Fury is an allusion to a line from Shakespeare s Macbeth (Collection 4). The cartoon above alludes to William Butler Yeats s poem The Second Coming (Collection 12). ANALOGY A comparison of two things to show that they are alike in certain respects. Writers often make analogies to show how something unfamiliar is like something well-known or widely experienced. For example, people often draw an analogy between creating a work of art and giving birth to a child Handbook of Literary and Historical Terms

3 ANECDOTE A brief and sometimes witty story that focuses on a single interesting incident or event, often in order to make a point or teach a moral lesson. Sometimes an anecdote reveals the character of a famous person. Taoists, Zen Buddhists, and Sufis, among others, use anecdotes to convey indirectly the teachings of their philosophies. ANIMISM A belief that spirits or souls are present in all living things. This belief was at the heart of the ancient Celtic religion, and it can be found in many other ancient religions. ANTAGONIST The character or force that opposes or blocks the protagonist, or main character, in a narrative. Usually the antagonist is human, like Sir Modred, the villainous rebel who destroys the Round Table in Sir Thomas Malory s Le Morte d Arthur (Collection 2) or the schoolgirls who mercilessly taunt the Kelvey sisters in Katherine Mansfield s The Doll s House (Collection 13). Sometimes the antagonist is supernatural, like Satan, who opposes God in John Milton s Paradise Lost (Collection 3). ANTICLIMAX See Climax. ANTITHESIS A contrast of ideas expressed in a grammatically balanced statement. In the following line from Canto III of The Rape of the Lock (Collection 6), Alexander Pope balances noun against noun and verb against verb: And wretches hang that jurymen may dine. APHORISM A concise, sometimes witty saying that expresses a principle, truth, or observation about life. Alexander Pope s poetry contains some of the most famous aphorisms in the English language, as in this heroic couplet from An Essay on Criticism (Collection 6): To err is human, to forgive, divine. APOSTROPHE A figure of speech in which a speaker directly addresses an absent or dead person, an abstract quality, or something nonhuman as if it were present and capable of responding. Apostrophe was a popular device with the Romantic poets: Wordsworth, for example, apostrophizes the river Wye in his Tintern Abbey (Collection 7). Among the second-generation Romantics, Shelley apostrophized the west wind; Byron apostrophized the ocean; and Keats apostrophized a nightingale and a Greek urn (all in Collection 8). ARCHETYPE A pattern that appears in literature across cultures and is repeated through the ages. An archetype can be a character, a plot, an image, or a setting. All stories or myths that contain a quest, for example, share certain features, suggesting that each quest-story has been formed from a master pattern. Similarly, all epic heroes have a number of common characteristics, though each one also has culturally specific characteristics. Ignoring the culturally specific characteristics of a particular epic hero will allow you to perceive what the archetype of the epic hero is. ASIDE Private words that a character in a play speaks to the audience or to another character and that are not supposed to be overheard by others onstage. Stage directions usually tell when a speech is an aside. ASSONANCE The repetition of similar vowel sounds followed by different consonant sounds in words that are close together. Assonance differs from exact rhyme in that it does not repeat the consonant sound following the vowel. The words face and base rhyme, while the words face and fade are assonant. Like alliteration, assonance can create musical and rhythmic effects. In this line from Alfred, Lord Tennyson s The Lady of Shalott (Collection 9), the repetition of the short /a/ sounds creates a rhythmic effect that mimics the action being described: An abbot on an ambling pad, ATMOSPHERE The mood or feeling in a literary work. Atmosphere is usually created through descriptive details and evocative language. RESOURCE CENTER Handbook of Literary and Historical Terms Handbook of Literary and Historical Terms 1453

4 Handbook of Literary and Historical Terms RESOURCE CENTER AUGUSTAN Similar to the reign of Emperor Augustus (63 b.c. a.d. 14) or having qualities or tastes that are associated with classical Rome. In English literary history the Augustan Age dates from the Restoration to the middle of the eighteenth century. Perhaps more than anyone else, Alexander Pope (Collection 6) exhibits Augustan literary tastes in his poetry. AUTOBIOGRAPHY A written account of the author s own life. Unlike diaries, journals, and letters, autobiographies are unified narratives usually prepared for a public audience. And unlike memoirs, which often focus on famous events and people, autobiographies are usually quite introspective. George Orwell s Shooting an Elephant (Collection 11) is a well-known autobiographical essay. See also Memoir. BALLAD A song or songlike poem that tells a story. Most ballads have a regular pattern of rhythm and rhyme, and they use simple language with a great deal of repetition. Ballads generally have a refrain lines or words that are repeated at regular intervals. They usually tell sensational stories of tragedy, adventure, betrayal, revenge, and jealousy. Folk ballads are composed by anonymous singers and are passed down orally from generation to generation before they are written down (often in several different versions). Lord Randall (Collection 2) is an example of a folk ballad. Literary ballads, on the other hand, are composed and written down by known poets, usually in the style of folk ballads. Samuel Taylor Coleridge s The Rime of the Ancient Mariner (Collection 7) is a famous literary ballad. The typical ballad stanza is a quatrain with the rhyme scheme abcb. The first and third lines have four stressed syllables, and the second and fourth lines have three. The number of unstressed syllables in each line may vary, but often the meter is primarily iambic. an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable ( ). Blank verse is the most important metrical form used in English dramatic and epic poetry. It is the verse line used in Shakespeare s plays and John Milton s Paradise Lost (Collection 3). One of the reasons blank verse has been so popular, even among modern poets, is that it combines the naturalness of unrhymed verse with the structure of metrical verse. Except for free verse, it is the poetic form that sounds the most like natural speech. It also lends itself easily to slight variations within the basic pattern. Like most of the English Romantic poets, William Wordsworth made extensive use of blank verse, as in these lines from Tintern Abbey (Collection 7): And now, with gleams of half-extinguished thought, With many recognitions dim and faint, And somewhat of a sad perplexity, The picture of the mind revives again: CADENCE The natural rise and fall of the voice. Poets who write in free verse try to imitate the natural cadences of spoken language. See also Rhythm. CAESURA A pause or break within a line of poetry, usually indicated by the natural rhythm of the language. A midline, or medial, caesura is a characteristic of Anglo-Saxon poetry; it divides the four-beat line in half. Later poets use the caesura less predictably, as in the following lines from Wilfred Owen s Dulce et Decorum Est (Collection 11). Here, the caesuras are indicated by the symbol. Bent double, like old beggars under sacks, Knock-kneed, coughing like hags, we cursed through sludge BIOGRAPHY An account of a person s life written by another person. The Life of Samuel Johnson by James Boswell is one of the most famous biographies ever written. BLANK VERSE Poetry written in unrhymed iambic pentameter. Blank means that the poetry is unrhymed. Iambic pentameter means that each line contains five iambs, or metrical feet, each consisting of CANTO A subdivision in a long poem, corresponding to a chapter in a book. Poems divided into cantos include Pope s The Rape of the Lock (Collection 6) and Byron s Childe Harold s Pilgrimage (Collection 8). Not all major subdivisions of long poems are called cantos: Milton s Paradise Lost (Collection 3) is divided into books, and Coleridge s The Rime of the Ancient Mariner (Collection 7) into parts Handbook of Literary and Historical Terms

5 The word canto comes from a Latin word for song and originally designated a section of a narrative poem that a minstrel could sing in one session. CAPITALISM An economic philosophy that advocates the idea that the means of production and distribution should be owned and controlled by private individuals. Adam Smith, an eighteenth-century economist, is one of the great theorists of capitalism, a system which helped to foster the conditions that produced the Industrial Revolution in England and the technological advances of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. See also Laissez Faire. CARPE DIEM A Latin phrase that literally means seize the day that is, make the most of present opportunities. The carpe diem theme is common in seventeenth-century English poetry, as in this famous line from Robert Herrick s To the Virgins, to Make Much of Time : Gather ye rosebuds while ye may. The theme is also forcefully expressed in Andrew Marvell s To His Coy Mistress (both in Collection 3) CHARACTER An individual in a story or play. A character always has human traits, even if the character is an animal, like the ravens in The Twa Corbies (Collection 2); or a god, as in the Iliad (Collection 1); or a monster, as in Beowulf (Collection 1). A character may also be a human with superhuman powers, like Gilgamesh (Collection 1). But most characters are ordinary human beings, like Geoffrey Chaucer s colorful pilgrims in The Canterbury Tales (Collection 2) and the boy in James Joyce s Araby (Collection 13). The process by which the writer reveals the personality of a character is called characterization. A writer can reveal a character in the following ways: 1. by telling us directly what the character is like: humble, ambitious, vain, easily manipulated, and so on 2. by describing how the character looks and dresses 3. by letting us hear the character speak 4. by revealing the character s private thoughts and feelings 5. by revealing the character s effect on other people showing how other characters feel or behave toward the character 6. by showing the character s actions The first method of revealing a character is called direct characterization. When a writer uses this method, we do not have to figure out what a character s personality is like the writer tells us directly. The other five methods of revealing a character are known as indirect characterization. When a writer uses these methods, we have to exercise our own judgment, putting clues together to figure out what a character is like just as we do in real life when we are getting to know someone. Characters can be classified as static or dynamic. A static character is one who does not change much in the course of a story. A dynamic character, on the other hand, changes in some important way as a result of the story s action. Characters can also be classified as flat or round. Flat characters have only one or two personality traits. They are one-dimensional they can be summed up by a single phrase. In contrast, round characters have more dimensions to their personalities they are complex, solid, and multifaceted, like real people. CHIVALRY The system of ideals and social codes governing the behavior of knights and gentlewomen in feudal times. The ideal knight was meant to be brave, honorable, and courteous; gentlewomen were meant to be chaste. The code of chivalry is reflected in medieval romance literature, particularly in Malory s Le Morte d Arthur (Collection 2). CLASSICISM A movement in art, literature, and music that advocates imitating the principles manifested in the art and literature of ancient ( classical ) Greece and Rome. Classicism emphasizes reason, clarity, balance, harmony, restraint, order, and universal themes. Classicism is often placed in direct opposition to Romanticism, with its emphasis on unrestrained emotions and personal themes. However, this opposition should be approached with caution, as it is sometimes exaggerated for effect. Classicism was particularly admired in art in the eighteenth century and is exemplified in Alexander Pope s mock heroic epic, The Rape of the Lock (Collection 6). See also Neoclassicism, Romanticism. CLICHÉ An expression that was fresh and apt when it was first coined but is now so overused that it has become hackneyed and stale. Busy as a bee and fresh as a daisy are two examples. Clichés are often likened to dead metaphors figures of speech ( leg of a chair, mouth of a river ) whose power to surprise has now been completely lost. RESOURCE CENTER Handbook of Literary and Historical Terms Handbook of Literary and Historical Terms 1455

6 Handbook of Literary and Historical Terms RESOURCE CENTER CLIMAX The point of greatest emotional intensity or suspense in a plot when the outcome of the conflict becomes known. In Shakespeare s plays, the climax usually occurs in the last act, just before the final scene. Following the climax, the story is resolved, or closed. Some critics talk of more than one climactic moment in a long work (though usually the greatest climax occurs near the end of the plot). In drama, one such climactic moment is called the turning point, or crisis. At the turning point, something happens that seals the fate of the hero. In Shakespeare s plays, this moment usually occurs in the third act. At the turning point the hero s fortunes begin to decline or improve. All the action leading up to this turning point is rising action, and all the action following it is falling action. The turning point in Guy de Maupassant s The Jewels (Collection 10) occurs when Madame Lantin dies, leaving her husband alone and ravaged by grief. From that point onward, it is downhill for Monsieur Lantin everything goes wrong, culminating in the story s climax, when Lantin, attempting to sell his wife s necklace, discovers that she has been deceptive. The sale of the jewels brings about the ironic resolution of the story: Lantin becomes wealthy and remarries, choosing a wife who is virtuous but makes him very unhappy. In contrast, when something trivial or comical occurs at the point in a narrative when one expects something important or serious, the accompanying deflation is called an anticlimax. James Joyce s Araby (Collection 13) contains such an anticlimactic moment. See also Plot. COMEDY In general, a story that ends happily. The hero of a comedy is usually an ordinary character who overcomes a series of obstacles that block what he or she wants. Often a comedy pits two young people who wish to marry against parental blocking figures who want to prevent the marriage. The wedding that concludes these comedies suggests the formation of a new society and a renewal of life. Comedy is distinct from tragedy, in which a great person comes to an unhappy or disastrous end, usually through some lapse in judgment or character flaw. Comedies are often, but not always, intended to make us laugh. Two famous comedies are Oscar Wilde s play The Importance of Being Earnest and George Bernard Shaw s Pygmalion. Even though it contains some of the darker elements of tragedy, Shakespeare s The Tempest is considered a comedy because harmony and reconciliation are achieved by the end of the play. See also Farce, Tragedy. COMMUNISM A philosophy that advocates the creation of a classless and stateless society in which economic goods are distributed equally. The most famous communist government is, of course, the now dissolved Soviet Union, a country which one could say perverted the ideals of communism, since it had a ruling class which was better off than the working class. Human nature seems to prevent people from bringing into being a perfect communist society. George Orwell s novel Animal Farm satirizes the ideals of communism, showing the ruination of a farm which has been taken over by radical animal reformers. CONCEIT A fanciful and elaborate figure of speech that makes a surprising connection between two seemingly dissimilar things. A conceit may be a brief metaphor, or it may form the framework of an entire poem. Two particularly important types of conceits are the Petrarchan conceit and the metaphysical conceit. Petrarchan conceits get their name from the fourteenth-century Italian poet Petrarch (page 400), who developed their use in his influential sonnet sequence. Poets influenced by Petrarch used these conceits to describe the beauty of the lady for whom they wrote. She invariably had hair of gold, lips of cherry red, and teeth of oriental pearl. In Sonnet 130 (Collection 4), Shakespeare ridicules the use of such conceits. Petrarchan conceits were also used to describe a paradoxical state. The metaphysical conceit is so called because it was widely used by the seventeenth-century metaphysical poets. This type of conceit is especially startling, complex, and ingenious. A famous example is John Donne s comparison of separated lovers to the legs of a compass in A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning (Collection 3). CONFLICT A struggle or clash between opposing characters, forces, or emotions. In an external conflict, a character struggles against some outside force: another character, society as a whole, or some natural force. An internal conflict, on the other hand, is a struggle between opposing needs, desires, or emotions within a single character. Many works, especially longer ones, contain both internal and external conflicts. In Doris Lessing s No Witchcraft for Sale (Collection 13), the conflict between Gideon and the scientist reflects larger cultural conflicts. See also Plot Handbook of Literary and Historical Terms

7 CONNOTATIONS All the meanings, associations, or emotions that have come to be attached to a word. For example, an expensive restaurant might prefer to advertise its delicious cuisine rather than its delicious cooking. Cuisine and cooking have the same literal meaning prepared food. But cuisine has connotations of elegance and sophistication, while cooking does not. The same restaurant would certainly not describe its food as great grub. Notice the difference between the following pairs of words: young/immature, ambitious/cutthroat, uninhibited/shameless, lenient/lax. We might describe ourselves using the first words but someone else using the second ones. The English philosopher Bertrand Russell once gave a classic example of the different connotations of words: I am firm. You are obstinate. He is a pigheaded fool. See also Denotation. CONSONANCE The repetition of final consonant sounds after different vowel sounds. The words east and west, dig and dog, turn and torn, and Shakespeare s famous struts and frets (from Macbeth, in Collection 4) are examples of consonance. The term is also sometimes used to refer to repeated consonant sounds in the middle of words, as in solemn stillness. (Consonance, when loosely defined, can be a form of alliteration. Strictly speaking, however, alliteration is the repetition of initial consonant sounds.) Like assonance, consonance is one form of approximate rhyme. See also Alliteration, Assonance. COUPLET Two consecutive lines of poetry that rhyme. The couplet has been widely used since the Middle Ages, especially to provide a sense of closure. A couplet that presents a completed thought is called a closed couplet. Shakespeare used closed couplets to end his sonnets, as in this example from Sonnet 29 (Collection 4): For thy sweet love remembered such wealth brings That then I scorn to change my state with kings. A couplet written in iambic pentameter is called a heroic couplet. Although the heroic couplet has been used in English literature since Chaucer, it was perfected during the eighteenth century. Here is an example from Pope s An Essay on Man (Collection 6): Alike in ignorance, his reason such, Whether he thinks too little, or too much: COURTLY LOVE A conventional medieval code of behavior that informed a knight of the proper way to treat his lady. The code was first developed by the troubadours (lyric poets) of southern France and extensively employed in European literature from the twelfth century throughout the medieval period. DEISM The belief that God, after creating the universe, ceased to interfere with the laws of nature and society. Influenced by Newton s description of the universe as a great clock that was set in motion by the Creator, the deists of the mid-eighteenth century argued that people could only gain an understanding of the laws of nature and society by using their reason. DENOTATION The literal, dictionary definition of a word. For example, a denotation, or dictionary definition, of the word star (as in movie star ) is an eminent actor or actress, but the connotation is that of an actor or actress who is adored by fans and who leads a fascinating and glamorous life. See also Connotation. DENOUEMENT See Plot. DEUS EX MACHINA Any artificial or contrived device used at the end of a plot to resolve or untangle the complications. The term is Latin and means god from a machine. The phrase refers to a device used in ancient Greek and Roman drama: At the conclusion of the play, a god would be lowered onto the stage by a mechanical device so that he could save the hero and end the story happily. The term now refers to any device that resolves a plot in a forced or implausible way: An orphan finds that he has inherited a fortune just as he is being packed off to the poorhouse; a hero is saved because the villain has forgotten to load his gun. Oscar Wilde s The Importance of Being Earnest and Charles Dickens s Oliver Twist both contain examples of deus ex machina. DIALECT A way of speaking that is characteristic of a particular region or group of people. A dialect may have a distinct vocabulary, pronunciation system, RESOURCE CENTER Handbook of Literary and Historical Terms Handbook of Literary and Historical Terms 1457

8 Handbook of Literary and Historical Terms RESOURCE CENTER and grammar. In the Middle Ages, when Latin was the literary language of Europe, writers such as Geoffrey Chaucer (Collection 2) began writing for middle-class audiences in their own regional languages, or what are now interchangeably called dialects or vernaculars. Today one dialect usually becomes accepted as the standard for a country or culture. In the United States, the dialect used in formal writing and spoken by most TV and radio announcers is known as standard English. Writers often use other dialects, however, to establish character or to create local color. For example, V. S. Naipaul (Collection 13) has used the dialect spoken by Trinidad s Asian Indian population in many of his works. The East London cockney dialect, and the lower-class background it betrays, are at the very heart of George Bernard Shaw s famous play Pygmalion. In this excerpt from the play, Henry Higgins, with his friend Colonel Pickering in attendance, begins to instruct the flower girl Eliza Doolittle in how to speak proper English: Higgins. Say your alphabet. Liza. I know my alphabet. Do you think I know nothing? I dont need to be taught like a child. Higgins. (thundering). Say your alphabet. Pickering. Say it, Miss Doolittle. You will understand presently. Do what he tells you; and let him teach you in his own way. Liza. Oh well, if you put it like that Ahyee, beyee, ceyee, deyee Higgins. (with the roar of a wounded lion). Stop. Listen to this, Pickering.... (To Eliza) Say A, B, C, D. Liza. (almost in tears). But I m saying it. Ahyee, Bee, Ce-ee Diction is an essential element of a writer s style. A writer s diction can be simple or flowery (shop/boutique), modern or old-fashioned ( pharmacy/apothecary), general or specific (sandwich/grilled cheese on rye). Notice that the connotations of words (rather than their strict, literal meanings, or denotations) are an important aspect of diction. DIDACTIC LITERATURE Literary works that are meant to instruct, give advice, or convey a philosophy or moral message. Much didactic literature derives from religious teaching, as is the case with The Parable of The Prodigal Son (Collection 3) and the Taoist anecdotes (Collection 3). Secular works such as fables, folk tales and maxims are also didactic in intent. See also Fable, Parable. DISSONANCE (DIHS uh nuhns) A harsh, discordant combination of sounds. The opposite of euphony (YOO fuh nee), a pleasant, harmonious combination of sounds, dissonance is usually created by the repetition of harsh consonant sounds. Dissonance is often used in poetry to communicate energy. Dissonance is also called cacophony (kuh KAHF uh nee). DRAMATIC MONOLOGUE A poem in which a character addresses one or more listeners who remain silent or whose replies are not revealed. The occasion is usually a critical one in the speaker s life. Tennyson s Ulysses and Browning s My Last Duchess (Collection 9) are famous dramatic monologues. DIALOGUE Conversation between two or more people. Writers use dialogue to advance the action of a plot, to present an interplay of ideas and personalities, and to reveal the background, occupation, or social level of the characters through tone and dialect. DICTION A writer s or speaker s choice of words. Speakers and writers use different types of words depending on the audience they re addressing, the subject they re discussing, and the effect they re trying to produce. For example, slang that would be suitable in a casual conversation with a friend ( He s a total nerd ) would be unsuitable in a political debate. Similarly, the language that a nutritionist would use to describe a meal would be different from the language that a restaurant reviewer or a novelist would use. DRAMATIC SONG A poem found in a play that serves to establish mood, reveal character, or advance action. The songs in Shakespeare s plays are the best songs of this kind. Employing a variety of techniques and forms and relying heavily on onomatopoeia, Shakespeare wrote songs that can be read alone, but which are best understood within the context of the plays in which they appear. ELEGY A poem that mourns the death of a person or laments something lost. Elegies may lament the passing of life and beauty, or they may be meditations on the nature of death. A type of lyric, an elegy is usually formal in language and structure and solemn or even melancholy in tone. Much of English poetry is elegiac, from the Anglo-Saxon lyric The Seafarer 1458 Handbook of Literary and Historical Terms

9 (Collection 1) to A. E. Housman s To an Athlete Dying Young (Collection 10) and Dylan Thomas s Do Not Go Gentle into That Good Night (Collection 12). END-STOPPED LINE A line of poetry in which the meter and the meaning conclude with the end of the line. Often the end-of-line pause is marked with punctuation, though it need not be. These lines from Alexander Pope s An Essay on Man (Collection 6) are end-stopped: Know then thyself, presume not God to scan; The proper study of mankind is man. See also Run-on line. ENLIGHTENMENT; THE AGE OF REASON Names historians have applied to the eighteenth century. The period has been called the Enlightenment and the Age of Reason because at that time, people began to rely on reason and experience, rather than superstition and church authority, to gain an understanding of the world. EPIC A long narrative poem that relates the great deeds of a larger-than-life hero who embodies the values of a particular society. Most epics include elements of myth, legend, folklore, and history. Their tone is serious and their language grand. Most epic heroes undertake quests to achieve something of tremendous value to themselves or their society. Homer s Odyssey and Iliad (Collection 1) and Virgil s Aeneid are the bestknown epics in the Western tradition. The two most important English epics are the Anglo-Saxon poem Beowulf (Collection 1) and John Milton s Paradise Lost (Collection 3). Many epics share standard characteristics and formulas known as epic conventions, which the oral poets drew upon to help them recall the stories they were recounting and which the writers of literary epics draw upon to establish the epic quality of their poems. The conventions include: an invocation, or formal plea for aid, to a deity or some other spiritual power; action that begins in medias res (literally in the middle of things ) and then flashes back to events that take place before the narrative s current time setting; epic similes, or elaborately extended comparisons relating heroic events to simple, everyday events; a consistently predictable metrical structure; and stock epithets, or descriptive adjectives or phrases used repeatedly with or in place of a noun or proper name. See also Literary Epic. EPIGRAM A brief, clever, and usually memorable statement. Alexander Pope s writings are epigrammatic in style. Here is an example from his Essay on Criticism: We think our fathers fools, so wise we grow, Our wiser sons, no doubt, will think us so. See also Maxim, Proverb. EPIPHANY In a literary work, a moment of sudden insight or revelation that a character experiences. The word comes from the Greek and can be translated as manifestation or showing forth. The term has religious meanings that have been transferred to literature by modern writers. James Joyce first gave the word its literary meaning in an early draft of A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man. In Joyce s story Araby (Collection 13), the narrator experiences an epiphany at the end of the story when he recognizes the cheap vulgarity of the bazaar and the emptiness of his dream. EPITAPH An inscription on a tombstone or a commemorative poem written about a person who has died. Epitaphs range from the solemn to the farcical. Ben Jonson s On My First Son (Collection 3) contains a famously poignant epitaph. EPITHET An adjective or other descriptive phrase that is regularly used to characterize a person, place, or thing. Phrases such as Peter the Great, Richard the Lion-Hearted, and America the Beautiful are epithets. Homer created so many descriptive epithets in his Iliad (Collection 1) and Odyssey that his name has been permanently associated with a type of epithet. The Homeric epithet consists of a compound adjective that is regularly used to modify a particular noun. Famous examples are the wine-dark sea, the gray-eyed goddess Athena, and the rosy-fingered dawn. See also Kenning. RESOURCE CENTER Handbook of Literary and Historical Terms Handbook of Literary and Historical Terms 1459

10 Handbook of Literary and Historical Terms RESOURCE CENTER ESSAY A short piece of nonfiction prose that examines a single subject from a limited point of view. There are two major types of essays. Informal essays (also called personal essays) generally reveal a great deal about the personalities and feelings of their authors. They tend to be loosely structured, conversational, sometimes even humorous, in tone; and usually highly subjective. Formal essays (also called traditional essays) are usually serious and impersonal in tone. Because they are written to inform or persuade, they are expected to be factual, logical, and tightly organized. In the European literary tradition the essay began in France with Michel de Montaigne, who sought to test his own judgment by analyzing it in a series of short prose pieces, which he called essais, a common sixteenth-century spelling of the French word assay, which means trial or attempt. Sir Francis Bacon, who published his Essays (see Of Studies Collection 3) in the late sixteenth and early seventeenth century, brought the form into England and pioneered what we now call the formal essay. Notable twentieth-century English essayists include Virginia Woolf and George Orwell (both in Collection 11). EXAGGERATION See Hyperbole. FABLE A very brief story in prose or verse that teaches a moral, or a practical lesson about life. The characters in most fables are animals that behave and speak like humans. Some of the most popular fables are those attributed to Aesop, who was supposed to have been a slave in ancient Greece. Several of the pilgrims tales in Geoffrey Chaucer s The Canterbury Tales (Collection 2) also contain fables. Other popular and widely influential fables include those collected in the Panchatantra, like Right-Mind and Wrong-Mind. See also Parable. FALLING ACTION See Climax. FARCE A type of comedy in which ridiculous and often stereotyped characters are involved in farfetched, silly situations. The humor in farce is based on crude physical action, slapstick, and clowning. Characters may slip on banana peels, get pies thrown in their faces, and knock one another on the head with ladders. The movies featuring Abbott and Costello, Laurel and Hardy, and the Marx brothers are all examples of farces. The word farce comes from a Latin word for stuffing, and in fact farces were originally used to fill in the waiting time between the acts of a serious play. Even in tragedies, farcical elements are often included to provide comic relief, or a break from the pervading tension. Shakespeare frequently lets his common characters engage in farcical actions. FASCISM A nationalistic philosophy that advocates rule by a single charismatic dictator. Fascism properly speaking refers to the philosophy of Benito Mussolini s political party, which was founded in 1919 to oppose communism in Italy. The word, however, was soon used to describe the philosophies of similar repressive, nationalistic political parties in other countries. The German Nazis were fascists. The regimes of Francisco Franco in Spain and Juan Peron in Argentina were fascistic. FEUDALISM The economic, political, and social system of medieval Europe. This system was basically composed of three classes: the feudal lords, who were powerful landowners; vassals, who did work or military service for the feudal lords in exchange for land; and serfs, who were servants to the lords and vassals and who were bound to their masters land. FIGURE OF SPEECH A word or phrase that describes one thing in terms of another, dissimilar thing, and is not meant to be understood on a literal level. Some 250 different types of figures of speech have been identified, but the most common are the simile ( My love is like a red, red rose ), the metaphor ( The Lord is my shepherd ), and personification ( Death, be not proud ). These involve a comparison between unlike things, but not all figures of speech involve comparison. When one refers to the king using the word crown, one is not comparing the crown to the king, but associating the crown with the king. See also Hyperbole, Metaphor, Metonymy, Oxymoron, Personification, Simile, Symbol. FLASHBACK A scene in a movie, play, short story, novel, or narrative poem that interrupts the present action of the plot to flash backward and tell what happened at an earlier time. The Demon Lover by Elizabeth Bowen (Collection 11) includes a flashback that describes Mrs. Drover s farewell to her fiancé twenty-five years before the main action of the story takes place Handbook of Literary and Historical Terms

11 FOIL A character who sets off another character by strong contrast. This contrast emphasizes the differences between two characters, bringing out the distinctive qualities in each. In Gilgamesh (Collection 1), Enkidu is a foil to Gilgamesh. FORESHADOWING The use of clues to hint at what is going to happen later in the plot. Foreshadowing arouses the reader s curiosity and builds up suspense. Foreshadowing occurs in Elizabeth Bowen s The Demon Lover (Collection 11) when Mrs. Drover imagines spectral glitters in the place of her fiancé s eyes, and when we learn that she made an unnatural promise to him that she could not have plighted a more sinister troth. See also Suspense. FRAME STORY An introductory narrative within which one or more of the characters proceed to tell individual stories. Perhaps the best-known example of stories contained in a frame story is the Persian collection called The Thousand and One Nights. In English literature, Geoffrey Chaucer s The Canterbury Tales (Collection 2) uses a frame story involving a group of people on a pilgrimage; within the narrative frame, each of the pilgrims then tells his or her own story. FREE VERSE Poetry that has no regular meter or rhyme scheme. Free verse usually relies on the natural rhythms of ordinary speech. Poets writing in free verse may use alliteration, internal rhyme, onomatopoeia, and other musical devices to achieve their effects. They may also place great emphasis on imagery. Matthew Arnold s Dover Beach (Collection 10) is an early example of free verse, and T. S. Eliot s poems, including The Hollow Men (Collection 12), are especially fine and famous examples. GOTHIC A term used to describe literary works that contain primitive, medieval, wild, mysterious, or natural elements. Such elements were frowned upon by eighteenth-century neoclassicists but hailed by the Romantic writers of the following era. The Gothic novel, a genre popular in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, is chiefly characterized by gloomy settings and an atmosphere of terror and mystery. Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley s Frankenstein is one of the most widely known Gothic novels. HAIKU A brief, unrhymed, three-line poem developed in Japan in the 1600s. The first and third lines of a traditional haiku have five syllables each, and the middle line has seven. Haiku generally juxtapose familiar images and present them in a compressed form, forcing the reader to make an imaginative leap to understand the connection between them. HUMANISM An intellectual movement of the Renaissance that restored the study of the classics and focused on examining human life here and now. Though humanists were still interested in theology and religious questions, the focus of their interest expanded to include earthly matters as well. Famous humanists include Sir Thomas More and Erasmus. HYPERBOLE A figure of speech that uses exaggeration to express strong emotion or create a comic effect. While hyperbole (also known as overstatement) does not express the literal truth, it is often used in the service of truth to capture a sense of intensity or to emphasize the essential nature of something. For instance, if you claim that it was 250 degrees in the shade, you are using hyperbole to express the truth that it was miserably hot. IAMBIC PENTAMETER A line of poetry made up of five iambs. An iamb is a metrical foot, or unit of measure, consisting of an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable ( ). The word suggest, for example, is made up of one iamb. Pentameter derives from the Greek words penta (five) and meter (measure). Here are two lines from John Keats s Ode to a Nightingale (Collection 8) that are written in iambic pentameter: Forlorn the very word is like a bell To toll me back from thee to my sole self! Iambic pentameter is by far the most common verse line in English poetry. Shakespeare s sonnets and plays, for example, are written primarily in this meter. Many modern poets, such as W. H. Auden (Collection 12), have continued to use iambic pentameter. Other than free verse, it is the poetic meter that sounds the most like natural speech. See also Blank Verse. RESOURCE CENTER Handbook of Literary and Historical Terms Handbook of Literary and Historical Terms 1461

12 Handbook of Literary and Historical Terms RESOURCE CENTER IMAGERY Language that appeals to the senses. Most images are visual that is, they appeal to the sense of sight. But imagery can also appeal to the senses of hearing, touch, taste, or smell. While imagery is an element in all types of writing, it is especially important in poetry. INCREMENTAL REPETITION A device widely used in ballads whereby a line or lines are repeated with slight variations from stanza to stanza. Each repetition advances the plot of the narrative. Incremental repetition is used in the folk ballad Lord Randall (Collection 2). INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION The period of social and economic change following the replacement of hand tools by machines and power tools, which allowed manufacturers to increase their production and save money. The perfection of the steam engine in the last half of the eighteenth century signaled the arrival of the age of the machine. The Industrial Revolution began on a small scale among textile manufacturers in the middle of the eighteenth century, but soon spread rapidly. Most textile products were produced by steam-engine-powered machines by the early nineteenth century. As the nineteenth century progressed, other industries began to use steam engines to produce their goods. George Eliot used the Industrial Revolution as the backdrop for Silas Marner (1861), and Charles Dickens satirizes its social effects in Hard Times (1854). IN MEDIAS RES The technique of starting a story in the middle and then using a flashback to tell what happened earlier. In medias res is Latin for in the middle of things. Epics traditionally begin in medias res. For example, John Milton s Paradise Lost (Collection 3) opens with Satan and his cohorts in Hell, after the war in Heaven and their fall, events that are recounted later in a flashback. IRONY A contrast or discrepancy between expectation and reality between what is said and what is really meant, between what is expected and what really happens, or between what appears to be true and what really is true. Verbal irony occurs when a writer or speaker says one thing but really means something quite different often the opposite of what he or she has said. If you tell your friend that you just love being kept waiting in the rain, you are using verbal irony. A classic example of verbal irony is Jonathan Swift s suggestion in A Modest Proposal (Collection 5) that the Irish solve their poverty and overpopulation problems by selling their babies as food to their English landlords. Situational irony occurs when what happens is the opposite of what is expected or appropriate. In James Joyce s story Araby (Collection 13), the boy hears about a bazaar called Araby and imagines that it will be a splendid, exotic place, yet when he arrives, he finds that the bazaar is cheap and commonplace. Dramatic irony occurs when the audience or the reader knows something important that a character in a play or story does not know. Dramatic irony occurs in Elizabeth Bowen s The Demon Lover (Collection 11), when Mrs. Drover is riding in the taxi. The reader suspects that the taxi driver is the demon lover even though Mrs. Drover does not. Dramatic irony is a powerful device in William Blake s The Chimney Sweeper from Songs of Innocence (Collection 7). The speaker is a child who believes what he has been told that if all do their duty they need not fear harm. But the reader, who is not so innocent, knows this is not so. KENNING In Anglo-Saxon poetry, a metaphorical phrase or compound word used to name a person, place, thing, or event indirectly. Beowulf (Collection 1) includes the kennings whale-road for the sea and shepherd of evil for Grendel. See also Epithet. LAISSEZ FAIRE (LEHS ay FAIR) An economic policy based on the idea that economic forces should be allowed to operate freely and without government regulation. LITERARY EPIC Literary epics are epics that have been composed by individual writers, often following earlier models. Unlike an oral epic or a primary epic, which is performed by generations of anonymous storytellers and modified slightly with each retelling, a literary epic is the product of a single imagination working within the epic tradition. See also Epic Handbook of Literary and Historical Terms

13 LYRIC POETRY Poetry that focuses on expressing emotions or thoughts, rather than on telling a story. Most lyrics are short, and they usually imply rather than directly state a single strong emotion. The term lyric comes from the Greek. In ancient Greece, lyric poems were recited to the accompaniment of a stringed instrument called the lyre. Today, poets still try to make their lyrics melodious, but they rely only on the musical effects they can create with words (such as rhyme, rhythm, alliteration, and onomatopoeia). Samuel Taylor Coleridge s Kubla Khan, William Wordsworth s Tintern Abbey (both in Collection 7), and Matthew Arnold s Dover Beach (Collection 10) are all lyric poems. MAGIC REALISM A literary style that combines incredible events with realistic details and relates them all in a matter-of-fact tone. Magic realism originated in Latin America, where writers such as Gabriel García Márquez and Julio Cortázar drew on elements of surrealism and local folklore to create a style that is both timeless and innovative. MATERIALISM A belief that nothing exists except matter and that the operations of everything, including thought, will, and feeling, are caused by material agencies. MAXIM A brief, direct statement that expresses a basic rule of human conduct or a general truth about human behavior. It is better to give than to receive is an example of a well-known maxim. See also Epigram, Moral Tale, Proverb. MEMOIR A type of autobiography that usually focuses on a single time period or historical event. Survival in Auschwitz by Primo Levi (Collection 11) is a memoir about the author s experience at the death camp in Some metaphors are directly stated, like Percy Bysshe Shelley s comparison My soul is an enchanted boat. (If he had written, My soul is like an enchanted boat, he would have been using a simile.) Other metaphors are implied, like John Suckling s line Time shall molt away his wings. The words molt and wings imply a comparison between time and a bird shedding its feathers. An extended metaphor is a metaphor that is extended, or developed, over several lines of writing or even throughout an entire poem. A dead metaphor is a metaphor that has become so common that we no longer even notice that it is a figure of speech. Our everyday language is filled with dead metaphors, such as foot of the bed, bone of contention, and mouth of the river. A mixed metaphor is the incongruous mixture of two or more metaphors. Mixed metaphors are usually unintentional and often conjure up ludicrous images: If you put your money on that horse, you ll be barking up the wrong tree. METAPHYSICAL POETRY A term applied to the poetry of John Donne, Andrew Marvell, and other seventeenth-century poets who wrote in a difficult and abstract style. Metaphysical poetry is intellectual and detached. It is characterized by ingenious, obscure imagery, philosophical meditation, verbal wit, and it often uses rough-sounding meter. METER A generally regular pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables in poetry. When we want to indicate the metrical pattern of a poem, we mark the stressed syllables with the symbol and the unstressed syllables with the symbol. Indicating the metrical pattern of a poem in this way is called scanning the poem, or scansion. Here is how to scan these lines from William Blake s The Tyger (Collection 7): Tyger! Tyger! burning bright In the forests of the night RESOURCE CENTER Handbook of Literary and Historical Terms METAPHOR A figure of speech that makes a comparison between two seemingly unlike things without using a connective word such as like, as, than, or resembles. You are using a metaphor if you say you re at the end of your rope or describe two political candidates as running neck and neck. Meter is measured in units called feet. A foot usually consists of one stressed syllable and one or more unstressed syllables. The basic metrical feet used in English poetry are the iamb (as in cŏnvίnce), the trochee (as in bórrŏw), the anapest (as in cŏntrădíct), the dactyl (as in áccŭráte), and the spondee (as in séawéed). A poem is described as iambic, trochaic, Handbook of Literary and Historical Terms 1463

14 Handbook of Literary and Historical Terms RESOURCE CENTER anapestic, dactylic, or spondaic according to what kind of foot appears most often in its lines. A complete description of a metrical line indicates both the type and number of feet the line contains. For example, a line of iambic pentameter consists of five iambs, while a line of trochaic tetrameter consists of four trochees. METONYMY (muh TAHN uh mee) A figure of speech in which something closely related to a thing or suggested by it is substituted for the thing itself. You are using metonymy if you call the judiciary the bench, the king the crown, the president (or presidential staff) the White House, or the race track the turf. See also Synecdoche MOCK EPIC A comic narrative poem that parodies the epic by treating a trivial subject in a lofty, grand manner. A mock epic uses dignified language, elaborate figures of speech, and supernatural intervention. The style of the mock epic is called mock heroic (and short mock epics are often called mock heroics). Alexander Pope s The Rape of the Lock (Collection 6) is considered the supreme mock epic in the English language. MODERNISM A broad trend in literature and other arts, from approximately 1890 to 1940, that reflected the impact of works like Sigmund Freud s writings on psychology. In general, modernist writers rejected the forms and values of the past and sought new forms to reflect the fragmentation and uncertainty that they felt characterized modern life. Many modern poets, for example, rejected traditional poetic meters and wrote free verse. Novelists such as James Joyce employed a technique called stream of consciousness to record the randomness and free associations of their characters thoughts. MONOLOGUE A long, formal speech made by a character in a play. A monologue may be directed at another character or the audience. Shakespeare s soliloquies (Collection 3) can also be called monologues. See also Soliloquy. MOOD See Atmosphere. MORAL TALE A tale that teaches a lesson about life. Several of the pilgrims tales in Geoffrey Chaucer s The Canterbury Tales (Collection 2) are moral tales. MOTIF In literature, a word, a character, an object, an image, a metaphor, or an idea that recurs in a work or in several works. The rose is a motif that runs through many love poems. Beowulf (Collection 1) contains many of the traditional motifs associated with heroic literature from all over the world, including a hero who does great deeds in battle or undertakes an extraordinary journey and a supernatural or fantastic being that takes part in the action. These motifs, along with others common to heroic literature, also appear in epics such as the Iliad (Collection 1) and Milton s Paradise Lost (Collection 3). A motif almost always bears an important relationship to the theme of a work of literature. MOTIVATION The reasons for or forces behind the action of a character. Motivation is revealed through a combination of the character s desires and moral nature with the circumstances in which he or she is placed. In James Joyce s Araby (Collection 13), the narrator s crush on Mangan s sister and his romanticized view of the world combine to provide his motivation for attending the bazaar. See also Character. MYTH An anonymous traditional story, rooted in a particular society, that usually serves to explain the mysteries of nature and a society s beliefs and customs. Most myths grew out of religious rituals, and almost all of them involve the exploits of gods and heroes. Myths helped people to understand and cope with things beyond human control. Every culture has its own mythology, but in the Western world the most important myths have been those of ancient Greece and Rome. In twentieth-century literature, allusions to myths are often ironic, intended to reveal how diminished humanity has become in comparison with grand mythological figures. NARRATOR One who tells, or narrates, a story. In fiction the narrator occupies any one of a variety of 1464 Handbook of Literary and Historical Terms

15 relations to the events described: from the center of the action to a distant, even objective, observer. A narrator may also be reliable or unreliable if unreliable, the reader is made aware that the narrator s perceptions and interpretations of the action are different from those of the author. Such unreliable narrators can be deceitful or bumbling, but are often just naive or highly impressionable characters. The narrator at the beginning of James Joyce s Araby (Collection 13), for example, is an impressionable boy, and the story is, in part, about how the boy s point-of-view changes and becomes more reliable. See also Point of View. NEOCLASSICISM The revival of classical standards and forms during the late seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The neoclassicists valued the classical ideals of order, reason, balance, harmony, clarity, and restraint. In particular, they studied and tried to emulate the Latin poets Horace and Virgil. Alexander Pope (Collection 6) is one of the most celebrated English neoclassical poets. NOVEL A long fictional prose narrative, usually of more than fifty thousand words. In general, the novel uses the same basic literary elements as the short story: plot, character, setting, theme, and point of view. The novel s length usually permits these elements to be more fully developed than they are in the short story. However, this is not always true of the modern novel. Some modern novels are basically character studies, with only the barest plot structures. Others reveal little about their characters and concentrate instead on setting or tone or even the language of the novel itself. Some of the greatest novels ever written are Tom Jones by Henry Fielding, Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen, Jane Eyre by Charlotte Brontè, Bleak House and Great Expectations by Charles Dickens, The Brothers Karamazov by Fyodor Dostoyevsky, Madame Bovary by Gustave Flaubert, Middlemarch by George Eliot, Jude the Obscure by Thomas Hardy, War and Peace by Leo Tolstoy, Lord Jim by Joseph Conrad, Sons and Lovers by D. H. Lawrence, Ulysses by James Joyce, and One Hundred Years of Solitude by Gabriel García Márquez. OCTAVE An eight-line stanza or poem or the first eight lines of an Italian, or Petrarchan, sonnet. The usual rhyme scheme of the octave in this type of sonnet is abbaabba. The octave, which is sometimes called the octet, is followed by a six-line sestet with the rhyme scheme cdecde or cdcdcd. See also Sonnet. ODE A complex, generally long lyric poem on a serious subject. In English poetry, there are basically two types of odes. One is highly formal and dignified in style and is generally written for ceremonial or public occasions. This type of ode derives from the choral odes of the classical Greek poet Pindar. The other type of ode derives from those written by the Latin poet Horace, and it is much more personal and reflective. In English poetry, it is exemplified by the intimate, meditative odes of such Romantic poets as Wordsworth, Keats, and Shelley ( Collections 7 and 8). ONOMATOPOEIA (ahn uh mat uh PEE uh) The use of a word whose sound imitates or suggests its meaning. Many familiar words, such as clap, squish, sizzle, and wheeze are onomatopoeic. In poetry, onomatopoeia can reinforce meaning while creating evocative and musical effects. The word lapping, in the following lines from W. B. Yeats s The Lake Isle of Innisfree (Collection 12), is onomatopoeic. I will arise and go now, for always night and day I hear lake water lapping with low sounds by the shore; OTTAVA RIMA An eight-line stanza in iambic pentameter with the rhyme scheme abababcc. The form was developed in Italy and was popularized by the fourteenth-century Italian poet Giovanni Boccaccio. The most famous example of ottava rima in English poetry is Lord Byron s Don Juan. William Butler Yeats s Sailing to Byzantium is another notable example. OXYMORON A figure of speech that combines apparently contradictory or incongruous ideas. Bittersweet, cruel kindness, and eloquent silence are oxymora. The classic oxymoron wise fool is almost a literal translation of the term from the Greek oxys RESOURCE CENTER Handbook of Literary and Historical Terms Handbook of Literary and Historical Terms 1465

16 Handbook of Literary and Historical Terms RESOURCE CENTER means sharp or keen, and moros means foolish. A famous oxymoron in literature is John Milton s description of Hell in Paradise Lost (Collection 3): No light, but rather darkness visible... PARABLE A short, allegorical story that teaches a moral or religious lesson about life. The most famous parables in Western literature are those like The Parable of the Prodigal Son (Collection 3) told by Jesus in the Gospels of the Bible. PARADOX An apparent contradiction that is actually true. A paradox may be a statement or a situation; as a statement, it is a figure of speech. The metaphysical poets of the seventeenth century (Collection 3) made brilliant use of paradoxes, as in this famous example from John Donne s Death be not proud (Collection 3): One short sleep past, we wake eternally, And death shall be no more; Death, thou shalt die. The speaker in the cartoon does not understand the famous series of paradoxes that open A Tale of Two Cities by Charles Dickens. PARALLELISM The repetition of words, phrases, or sentences that have the same grammatical structure or that restate a similar idea. Parallelism is often used in literature meant to be spoken aloud, such as poetry, drama, and speeches, because it can help make lines emotional, rhythmic, and memorable. It is also one of the most important techniques used in Biblical poetry. The parallelism in the following lines from Psalm 23 (Collection 3) heightens the emotional effect and enacts a meditative tone: He maketh me to lie down in green pastures: He leadeth me beside the still waters. He restoreth my soul: He leadeth me in the paths of righteousness for his name s sake. PARODY The imitation of a work of literature, art, or music for amusement or instruction. Parodies usually use exaggeration or inappropriate subject matter to make a serious style seem ridiculous. Alexander Pope s The Rape of the Lock (Collection 6) is a parody of such serious and sweeping epics as the Iliad (Collection 1) and the Aeneid. Cervantes Don Quixote (Collection 5) is a parody of medieval romances. PASTORAL A type of literature that depicts country life in idyllic, idealized terms. The term pastoral comes from the Latin word for shepherd, and originally, pastorals were about shepherds, nymphs, and rural life. Today, the term has a looser meaning and refers to any literary work that portrays an idyllic rural setting or that expresses nostalgia for an age or place of lost innocence. The most famous traditional English pastoral is Christopher Marlowe s The Passionate Shepherd to His Love, which is satirized in Sir Walter Raleigh s The Nymph s Reply to the Shepherd (both in Collection 3). PERSONIFICATION A kind of metaphor in which a nonhuman or nonliving thing or quality is talked about as if it were human or had life. In these lines, from William Wordsworth s The World Is Too Much I wish you would make up your mind, Mr. Dickens. Was it the best of times or was it the worst of times? It could scarcely have been both. Drawing by Handelsman; 1987 The New Yorker Magazine, Inc Handbook of Literary and Historical Terms

17 with Us (Collection 7), the sea is given human form and the wind is given a voice: This Sea that bares her bosom to the moon; The winds that will be howling at all hours, See also Apostrophe, Figure of Speech, Metaphor. PLOT The series of related events that make up a story or drama. The plot is the underlying structure of a story. Most plots are built on these bare bones : A basic situation, or exposition, introduces the characters, setting, and, usually, the story s major conflict. Out of this basic situation, complications develop that intensify the conflict. Suspense mounts until a climax the tensest or most exciting part of the plot is reached, where something happens to determine the outcome of the conflict. Finally, all the problems or mysteries of the plot are unraveled in the resolution, or denouement. See also Climax. POINT OF VIEW The vantage point from which a writer tells a story. There are three main points of view: first person, limited third person, and omniscient third person. In the first-person point of view, the narrator is a character in the story. Using the pronoun I, this narrator tells us his or her own experiences but cannot reveal the private thoughts of other characters. When we read a story told in the first person, we hear and see only what the narrator hears and sees. We may have to interpret what this narrator says because a first-person narrator may or may not be objective, honest, or perceptive. For example, in James Joyce s Araby (Collection 13), the narrator is a boy who is, in the beginning of the story, a youth whose point of view is romantic, and the story is about his giving up this view. In the limited-third-person point of view, the narrator is outside the story like an omniscient narrator but tells the story from the vantage point of only one character. The narrator can enter the mind of this chosen character but cannot tell what any other characters are thinking except by observation. This narrator also can go only where the chosen character goes. For example, In the Shadow of War by Ben Okri is told entirely from the point of view of Omovo, the main character. We experience the stupefying summer heat, the mysteriousness of the veiled woman, and the horror of the gruesome river scene through Omovo s eyes alone. In the omniscient (or all-knowing ) point of view, the person telling the story knows everything that s going on in the story. This omniscient narrator is outside the story, a godlike observer who can tell us what all the characters are thinking and feeling, as well as what is happening anywhere in the story. For example, in The Rocking-Horse Winner by D. H. Lawrence (Collection 13), the narrator enters into the thoughts and secrets of every character, revealing both the hard little place in the mother s heart and Paul s determination to compel her attention by being lucky. See also Narrator, Stream of Consciousness. POSTMODERNISM A trend in art and philosophy that reflects the late-twentieth-century distrust in the idea that there is a legitimate and true system of thought that can be used to understand the world and our place in it. Postmodernists, like the modernists, see contemporary life as fragmentary, but rather than regard the fragmentary condition of our world with horror, as for instance T. S. Eliot had done in The Hollow Men (Collection 12), postmodernists look upon the fragments as materials that can be plundered and combined in new ways to create works of art. Postmodern writing typically experiments with nontraditional forms and allows for multiple meanings. The lines between real and imaginary worlds are often blurred, as is the boundary between fiction and nonfiction. Other characteristics of postmodern literature are cultural diversity and an often playful self-consciousness; that is, an acknowledgment that literature is not a mirror that accurately reflects the world, but a created world unto itself. Gabriel García Márquez s One Hundred Years of Solitude, in which reality and fantasy are blended, is an exemplary postmodern novel. PROTAGONIST The main character in fiction, drama, or narrative poetry. The protagonist is the character we focus our attention on the person whose conflict sets the plot in motion. (The character or force that blocks the protagonist is called the antagonist.) In Beowulf (Collection 1), the title character is the protagonist and the monster Grendel his antagonist. Most protagonists are rounded, dynamic characters RESOURCE CENTER Handbook of Literary and Historical Terms Handbook of Literary and Historical Terms 1467

18 Handbook of Literary and Historical Terms RESOURCE CENTER who change in some important way by the end of the story. Whatever the protagonist s weaknesses, we still usually identify with his or her conflict and care about how it is resolved. PROVERB A short saying that expresses a common truth or experience, usually about human failings and the ways that people interact with one another. Proverbs often incorporate such literary elements as metaphor, alliteration, parallelism, and rhyme. See also Epigram, Maxim. PUN A play on the multiple meanings of a word or on two words that sound alike but have different meanings. Many jokes and riddles are based on puns. ( Why was Cleopatra so negative? Answer: Because she was the queen of denial. ) Shakespeare was one of the greatest punsters of all time. Dylan Thomas uses a pun in his poem, Do Not Go Gentle into That Good Night (Collection 12): Do not go gentle into that good night, Old age should burn and rave at the close of day; Rage, rage against the dying of the light. The casual farewell good night also means death. QUATRAIN A four-line stanza or poem or a group of four lines unified by a rhyme scheme. The quatrain is the most common verse unit in English poetry. This quatrain from John Donne s A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning (Collection 3) has the rhyme scheme abab: As virtuous men pass mildly away, And whisper to their souls, to go, Whilst some of their sad friends do say, The breath goes now, and some say, no: RATIONALISM A philosophy that advocates the idea that one should use reason rather than emotion when one is attempting to discover the truth. Rationalists believe that one must follow reason to determine what opinions are correct and what course of action one should take in any given situation. Opposed to rationalism is Romanticism, which places emphasis on the value of intuition and emotion in arriving at truth. REALISM In literature and art, the attempt to depict people and things as they really are, without idealization. Realism as a movement developed during the mid nineteenth century as a reaction against Romanticism. Realist writers believed that fiction should truthfully depict the harsh, gritty reality of everyday life without beautifying, sentimentalizing, or romanticizing it. The Norwegian playwright Henrik Ibsen was among the first to introduce realism to the stage. The English novelists Charles Dickens, George Eliot, Thomas Hardy, and Joseph Conrad are also considered realists. See also Romanticism. REFRAIN A repeated word, phrase, line, or group of lines. While refrains are most common in poetry and songs, they are sometimes used in prose, particularly speeches. Refrains are used to create rhythm, build suspense, or emphasize important words or ideas. REFORMATION The break from Catholicism and the authority of the pope that resulted in the establishment of the Protestant churches in the sixteenth century. Most scholars date the beginning of the Reformation to 1517, the year Martin Luther nailed his Ninety-five Theses to the door of a church in Wittenburg, Germany. The Theses criticized the Catholic Church s abuse of indulgences and called for reform. In response the Church leaders condemned Luther, and he was forced to break from the Catholic Church and begin his own religious movement. RENAISSANCE A French word meaning rebirth, used to designate the period in European history beginning in Italy in the fourteenth century and ending in the seventeenth century when scientific truths began to challenge long-accepted religious beliefs. The Renaissance was characterized by a renewal of interest in classical learning and a focus on the study of human life on earth, not only on God and eternity. RESOLUTION See Plot. RHYME The repetition of accented vowel sounds and all sounds following them in words that are close together in a poem. Park and bark rhyme, as do sorrow and borrow. The most common type of rhyme, end 1468 Handbook of Literary and Historical Terms

19 rhyme, occurs at the ends of lines. Internal rhyme occurs within lines. Both types are used throughout The Rime of the Ancient Mariner by Samuel Taylor Coleridge (Collection 7), contributing to the poem s bouncy, songlike rhythm: The fair breeze blew, the white foam flew, The furrow followed free; We were the first that ever burst Into that silent sea. When words sound similar but do not rhyme exactly, they are called approximate rhymes (or half rhymes, slant rhymes, or imperfect rhymes). The pattern of rhymed lines in a poem is called its rhyme scheme. A rhyme scheme is indicated by giving each new rhyme a new letter of the alphabet. For example, the rhyme scheme of Coleridge s lines is abcb. RHYTHM The alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables in language. Rhythm occurs naturally in all forms of spoken and written language. The most obvious kind of rhythm is produced by meter, the regular pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables found in some poetry. Writers can also create less structured rhythms by using rhyme, repetition, pauses, and variations in line length and by balancing long and short words or phrases. (Poetry that is written without any regular meter or rhyme scheme is called free verse.) See also Free Verse, Meter. ROMANCE Historically, a medieval verse narrative chronicling the adventures of a brave knight or other hero who must undertake a quest and overcome great danger for love of a noble lady or high ideal. Such a heroic character is bound by the code of chivalry, which emphasizes loyalty to his lord and ready service to the oppressed. He also must adhere to the philosophy of courtly love, an idealized view of the relationship between the sexes in which a knight performs brave deeds to win the approval of his lady. Today the term romance has come to mean any story that presents a world of wish-fulfillment, a world that is happier, more perfect, or more heroic than the real world. Characters in romances live happily ever after in a world where good always triumphs over evil. Many of today s most popular novels, movies, TV shows, and even cartoons are essentially romances. Sir Gawain and the Green Knight and Sir Thomas Malory s Le Morte d Arthur (Collection 2) are famous English romances. ROMANTICISM A literary, artistic, and philosophical movement that developed as a reaction against neoclassicism in the late eighteenth century and dominated the early nineteenth century. While classicism and neoclassicism emphasize reason, order, harmony, and restraint, Romanticism emphasizes emotion, imagination, intuition, freedom, personal experience, the beauty of nature, the primitive, the exotic, and even the grotesque. However, many critics feel that the traditional opposition between Romanticism and classicism is all too often forced and exaggerated. In English literature, William Blake, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, William Wordsworth, Percy Bysshe Shelley, John Keats, Lord Byron, Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley (Collections 7 and 8), and Sir Walter Scott are the leading Romantic writers. RUN-ON LINE A line of poetry that does not contain a pause or conclusion at the end, but rather continues on to the next line. Run-on lines force the reader on to the next line. Only with the next line do they form a grammatical unit and thus make complete sense. Such lines are said to exhibit enjambment (French for striding over ). The following lines from Margaret Atwood s Siren Song (Collection 13) are run-on lines: This is the one song everyone would like to learn: the song that is irresistible: See also End-stopped Line. SARCASM A kind of particularly cutting irony, in which praise is used tauntingly to indicate its opposite in meaning. The speaker s tone of voice can be an important clue in understanding this kind of irony. When a mud-soaked, windblown friend arrives for dinner, one might say sarcastically, Why, don t you look lovely! SATIRE A kind of writing that ridicules human weakness, vice, or folly in order to bring about social reform. Satires often try to persuade the reader to do or believe something by showing the opposite view RESOURCE CENTER Handbook of Literary and Historical Terms Handbook of Literary and Historical Terms 1469

20 Handbook of Literary and Historical Terms RESOURCE CENTER as absurd or even more forcefully vicious and inhumane. Among the most brilliant satirists in English literature are Geoffrey Chaucer, Alexander Pope, John Dryden, Jonathan Swift, Jane Austen, George Bernard Shaw, and Evelyn Waugh. SCANSION See Meter. SCOP An Anglo-Saxon minstrel or poet. Scops are the Anglo-Saxon equivalents to the ancient Celtic bards. SESTET A six-line stanza or poem or the last six lines of an Italian, or Petrarchan, sonnet. The usual rhyme scheme of the sestet in an Italian sonnet is cdecde or cdcdcd. It follows an eight-line octave with the rhyme scheme abbaabba. SETTING The time and place of a story or play. Usually the setting is established early in a story. It may be presented immediately through descriptive details, as in Anita Desai s Games at Twilight (Collection 13), or it may be revealed more gradually, as in Rudyard Kipling s The Mark of the Beast (Collection 10). Setting often contributes greatly to a story s emotional effect. The exotic setting of V. S. Naipaul s B. Wordsworth (Collection 13) sets the tone for its eccentric characters, while the green valley in William Wordsworth s Tintern Abbey (Collection 7) creates a contemplative calm. Setting may also play a role in a story s conflict, as the fortresslike suburban houses do in Nadine Gordimer s Once upon a Time (Collection 13). Two of the most important functions of setting are to reveal character and to suggest a theme, as the setting of blitzed London does in Graham Greene s The Destructors (Collection 11). See also Atmosphere. SHORT STORY A brief work of fiction. The short story generally has a simpler plot than a novel and often reveals character through significant moments, or epiphanies, rather than through the accretion of many incidents or detailed descriptions. SIMILE A figure of speech that makes a comparison between two seemingly unlike things by using a connective word such as like, than, or resembles. The following simile, from George Gordon, Lord Byron s She Walks in Beauty (Collection 8), is one of the most famous in English literary history: She walks in beauty, like the night Of cloudless climes and starry skies; An epic simile, also called a Homeric simile, is an extended simile in which many parallels are made between two dissimilar things. See also Figure of Speech, Metaphor. SOCIAL DARWINISM The notion that, in society, only the fittest will survive. This idea is an extension of Darwin s scientific theories of natural selection though Darwin was not involved in its development. Social Darwinism was used to justify rigid class distinctions, indifference to social ills, and doctrines of racial superiority. SOCIALISM A political movement that advocates the idea that the ownership and operation of the means of production and distribution should be owned by the community rather than by private individuals. This political movement is related to communism in that it seeks to eliminate class distinctions within society. SOLILOQUY A long speech in which a character who is usually alone onstage expresses his or her private thoughts or feelings. The soliloquy is an old dramatic convention that was particularly popular in Shakespeare s day. Perhaps the most famous soliloquy is the To be, or not to be speech in Shakespeare s play Hamlet. Another major soliloquy occurs in Macbeth, when Macbeth bewails his wife s death in the celebrated Tomorrow, and tomorrow, and tomorrow speech (Collection 4). See also Monologue. SONNET A fourteen-line lyric poem, usually written in iambic pentameter, that has one of several rhyme schemes. There are two major types of sonnets. The oldest sonnet form is the Italian sonnet, also called the Petrarchan sonnet (after the fourteenth-century Italian poet Petrarch, who popularized the form). The Petrarchan sonnet is divided into two parts: an eight-line octave with the rhyme scheme abbaabba and a six-line sestet with the rhyme scheme cdecde or 1470 Handbook of Literary and Historical Terms

21 cdcdcd. The octave usually presents a problem, poses a question, or expresses an idea, which the sestet then resolves, answers, or drives home. The transition from octave to sestet is known as the turn. Louise Labé s Sonnet 23, Elizabeth Barrett Browning s Sonnet 43 (Collection 9), and John Keats s On First Looking into Chapman s Homer (Collection 8) are written in the Petrarchan form. The other major sonnet form, which was widely used by Shakespeare, is called the Shakespearean sonnet, or the English sonnet (Collection 4). It has three four-line units, or quatrains, followed by a concluding two-line unit, or couplet. The organization of thought in the Shakespearean sonnet usually corresponds to this structure. The three quatrains often express related ideas or examples, while the couplet sums up the poet s conclusion or message found in the first three. The turn in the Shakespearean sonnet usually occurs during the transition from the third quatrain to the couplet. The rhyme scheme of the Shakespearean sonnet is abab cdcd efef gg. A third type of sonnet, the Spenserian sonnet, was developed by Edmund Spenser. Like the Shakespearean sonnet, the Spenserian sonnet is divided into three quatrains and a couplet, but it uses a rhyme scheme that links the quatrains: abab bcbc cdcd ee. A group of sonnets on a related theme is called a sonnet sequence or a sonnet cycle. SPEAKER The imaginary voice, or persona, assumed by the author of a poem. This voice is often not identified immediately or directly. Rather, the reader gradually comes to understand that a unique voice is speaking and that this speaker s characteristics must be interpreted as they are revealed. This process is an especially important part of reading a lyric poem. SPEECH A more or less formal address delivered to an audience or assembly or the written or printed copy of this address. The use of the word speech to designate an address to an audience seems to have entered into the English language in the sixteenth century. Speeches are most commonly delivered by politicians, political activists, and other public figures.. SPENSERIAN STANZA A nine-line stanza with the rhyme scheme ababbcbcc. The first eight lines of the stanza are in iambic pentameter, and the ninth line is an alexandrine that is, a line of iambic hexameter. The form was created by Edmund Spenser for his long poem The Faerie Queene. Several English Romantic poets have used the Spenserian stanza, including John Keats, Percy Bysshe Shelley, Lord Byron (all in Collection 8), and Robert Burns. SPRUNG RHYTHM A term coined by Gerard Manley Hopkins (Collection 9) to designate his unconventional use of poetic meter. Instead of the regular, musical meter of most poetry, Hopkins uses sounds that impede smooth reading and echo the sound of Anglo-Saxon poetry, which greatly influenced him. Sprung rhythm is based on the stressed syllables in a line without regard for the number of unstressed syllables; it also makes frequent use of alliteration and inverted syntax. STANZA A group of consecutive lines in a poem that form a single unit. A stanza in a poem is something like a paragraph in prose: It often expresses a unit of thought. A stanza may consist of only one line or of any number of lines beyond that. The word stanza is Italian for stopping place or place to rest. STREAM OF CONSCIOUSNESS A writing style that tries to depict the random flow of thoughts, emotions, memories, and associations running through a character s mind. The term interior monologue is often used interchangeably with stream of consciousness. James Joyce (Collection 13) and Virginia Woolf (Collection 11) were among the first to experiment with the stream-of-consciousness style in their novels. STYLE The manner in which writers or speakers say what they wish to say. An author s style simultaneously expresses his or her ideas and reveals his or her unique way of expressing them. Style is closely connected to diction, or word choice, and, depending on what the author wants to communicate, can be formal or casual, plain or ornate, abstract or concrete, as well as comic, poetic, forceful, journalistic, and so on. Sir Francis Bacon (Collection 3) and James Joyce (Collection 13) are both often studied for their styles. See also Diction. RESOURCE CENTER Handbook of Literary and Historical Terms Handbook of Literary and Historical Terms 1471

22 Handbook of Literary and Historical Terms RESOURCE CENTER SUSPENSE The uncertainty or anxiety we feel about what is going to happen next in a story. Writers often create suspense by dropping hints or clues that something especially something bad is going to happen. In The Demon Lover by Elizabeth Bowen (Collection 11), we begin to feel suspense when Mrs. Drover receives a mysterious letter that makes her lips go white ; our anxiety increases sharply when the flashback reveals that the letter writer is her old fiancé; and our suspense reaches a climax when she escapes into a taxi and we discover who the driver is. SYMBOL A person, place, thing, or event that stands both for itself and for something beyond itself. Many symbols have become widely recognized: A lion is a symbol of power; a dove is a symbol of peace. These established symbols are sometimes called public symbols. But writers often invent new, personal symbols whose meaning is revealed in their work. For example, the old house in Graham Greene s The Destructors (Collection 11) is a symbol of civilization and beauty. SYMBOLISM A literary movement that began in France during the late nineteenth century and advocated the use of highly personal symbols to suggest ideas, emotions, and moods. The French symbolists believed that emotions are fleeting, individual, and essentially inexpressible and that the poet is, therefore, forced to suggest meaning rather than directly express it. Many twentieth-century writers were influenced by the symbolists, including T. S. Eliot, William Butler Yeats, James Joyce, Dylan Thomas, and Virginia Woolf (Collections 11, 12, and 13). SYNECDOCHE (sih NEHK duh kee) A figure of speech in which a part represents the whole. The capital city of a nation, for example, is often spoken of as though it were the government: Washington is claiming popular support for its position. Another example is our daily bread meaning food. Synecdoche is closely related to metonymy. See also Metonymy. described as sound (a loud yellow), sound as taste (how sweet the sound), odor as tangible (a sharp smell), and so on. TANKA A traditional five-line form of Japanese poetry. The tanka follows a strict form: The first and third lines have five syllables each, and the second, fourth, and fifth lines have seven syllables each. TERCET A triplet, or stanza of three lines, in which each line ends with the same rhyme. It is also either of the two three-line groups forming the sestet of a sonnet. TERZA RIMA An interlocking, three-line stanza form with the rhyme scheme aba bcb cdc ded and so on. Terza rima is an Italian verse form originally devised by Dante for The Divine Comedy. Among the many English poems that borrowed the form, Shelley s Ode to the West Wind (Collection 8) is one of the most famous. THEME The central idea or insight about human experience revealed in a work of literature. A theme is not the same as the subject of a work, which can usually be expressed in a word or two: old age, ambition, love. The theme is the idea the writer wishes to convey about that subject the writer s view of the world or revelation about human nature. For example, one theme of James Joyce s Araby (Collection 13) might be stated this way: One of the painful aspects of growing up is that some of our dreams turn out to be illusions. A theme may also be different from a moral, which is a lesson or rule about how to live. The theme of Araby stated above, for example, would not make sense as a moral. While some stories, poems, and plays have themes that are directly stated, most themes are implied. It is up to the reader to piece together all the clues the writer has provided about the work s total meaning. SYNESTHESIA (sihn ehs THEE zhuh) In literature, a term used for descriptions of one kind of sensation in terms of another. For example, color may be TONE The attitude a writer takes toward the reader, a subject, or a character. Tone is conveyed through the writer s choice of words and details. For example, Jona Handbook of Literary and Historical Terms

23 than Swift s A Modest Proposal (Collection 5) is satiric in tone, while the tone of Pied Beauty by Gerard Manley Hopkins (Collection 9) might be described as awed. TOTALITARIANISM A system of government that advocates the rule of an absolute dictator or a single political party. Totalitarian governments forbid any opposition to the government party or ruler to emerge within the state. Consequently, free speech and other liberties guaranteed in democracies are denied to those living under a totalitarian government. George Orwell s Animal Farm explores the consequences of a totalitarian regime. TRAGEDY A play, novel, or other narrative depicting serious and important events, in which the main character comes to an unhappy end. In a tragedy, the main character is usually dignified, courageous, and often high ranking. This character s downfall may be caused by a tragic flaw an error in judgment or a character weakness or the downfall may result from forces beyond his or her control. The tragic hero usually wins some self-knowledge and wisdom, even though he or she suffers defeat, possibly even death. Tragedy is distinct from comedy, in which an ordinary character overcomes obstacles to get what he or she wants. Beowulf (Collection 1), Shakespeare s Macbeth (Collection 4), and John Milton s Paradise Lost (Collection 3) are all tragedies. See also Comedy. TURN See Sonnet. UNDERSTATEMENT A figure of speech that consists of saying less than what is really meant or saying something with less force than is appropriate. Understatement is the opposite of hyperbole and is a form of irony. You are using understatement if you come in from a torrential downpour and say, It s a bit wet out there, or if you describe a Great Dane as not exactly a small dog. Understatement can be used to create a kind of deadpan humor, but it can also function as a sustained ironic tone throughout a work, as in Wole Soyinka s Telephone Conversation (Collection 13). See also Hyperbole, Irony. VERNACULAR See Dialect. VILLANELLE A nineteen-line poem divided into five tercets (three-line stanzas), each with the rhyme scheme aba, and a final quatrain with the rhyme scheme abaa. Line 1 is repeated entirely to form lines 6, 12, and 18, while line 3 is repeated as lines 9, 15, and 19. Thus, there are only two rhymes in the poem, and the two lines used as refrains (lines 1 and 3) are paired as the final couplet. The villanelle was originally used in French pastoral poetry. Dylan Thomas s Do Not Go Gentle into That Good Night (Collection 12) is an example of a modern villanelle. WIT A quality of speech or writing that combines verbal cleverness with keen perception, especially of the incongruous. The definition of wit has undergone dramatic changes over the centuries. In the Middle Ages it meant common sense ; in the Renaissance it meant intelligence ; and in the seventeenth century it meant originality of thought. The modern meaning of wit began to develop during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries with the writings of John Dryden and Alexander Pope (Collection 6). In his Essay on Criticism, Pope said: True wit is Nature to advantage dressed: What oft was thought, but ne er so well expressed Perhaps the best examples of more modern wit can be found in the works of Oscar Wilde and George Bernard Shaw. RESOURCE CENTER Handbook of Literary and Historical Terms Handbook of Literary and Historical Terms 1473

24 The World of Work The ability to read critically and write effectively is your driver s license to navigating today s world. Without strong reading and writing skills, you will feel as frustrated and powerless as you do in a traffic jam. A future college student must be able to write application essays and understand scholarship guidelines. A mechanic must be able to read instruction manuals to use new equipment. A renter must understand a lease before getting an apartment. A supervisor must be able to write an effective memo to present ideas. In your life and in the world of work, you will rely on reading and writing skills to learn new information, communicate effectively, and get the results you want. Reading To avoid getting stranded in life and in the world of work, you will need to learn to read informative documents and persuasive documents. Informative Documents Informative documents are like road maps: They provide facts and information. They can also be good places to check when you want to verify or clarify information from other sources. If a friend writes down directions that you re uncertain about, you consult a map to verify the directions. Likewise, if you read on a Web site an angry customer s complaint about repairs on a computer you just bought, you could review the warranty to see if the information is valid. Two kinds of common informative documents are consumer documents and workplace documents. CONSUMER DOCUMENTS You ve probably already made thousands of buying decisions in your life. As you get older, however, buying decisions often carry bigger consequences. Should you sign a six- or a twelve-month apartment lease? Should you buy or lease a car? Being informed about the details of major purchases can help you avoid costly mistakes. This information can be found in consumer documents, such as warranties, contracts, product information, and instruction manuals. Warranties describe what happens if the product doesn t work properly or breaks down. Warranties note how long the product is covered for repair or replacement, which repairs the warranty does and does not cover, and how to receive repair service. The SureFocus digital camera is guaranteed to be free of defects in material or workmanship under normal use for a period of one (1) year from the date of purchase. Equipment covered by the warranty will be repaired by SureFocus Repair Members WITHOUT CHARGE, except for insurance, transportation, and handling charges. A copy of this warranty card and proof of purchase must be enclosed when returning equipment for warranty service. The warranty does not apply in the following cases: the camera has been damaged through abuse leaking batteries or other liquids have caused damage to the camera unauthorized repair technicians have attempted to service the camera 1474 The World of Work

25 Contracts give details about an agreement that a buyer enters into with a company. A lease for an apartment or a car is a contract that defines the terms of the lease, including how long it lasts, what the responsibilities of the customer also known as the lessee and the landlord or car company are, how to end the lease, and what the penalties for breaking the lease are. A lease always includes a space for the customer s signature, which signifies agreement with the terms of the contract. Below is a portion of a typical apartment lease. This apartment lease is entered into by Althea Brown, hereinafter Lessee, and Sun Valley Apartments. 1. Grant of Lease: Sun Valley Apartments does hereby lease unto Lessee Apartment #B-2, located at 101 Saguaro Drive, El Cajon, CA. 2. Term of Lease: This lease shall begin on the first day of August, 2008, and extend until the first day of August, 2009, after which the lessee can extend the lease month to month until terminated according to the terms described below. 3. Rental Payments: Lessee agrees to pay as rent the sum of $800 per month each month during the term of this lease before the fifth day of each month. RESOURCE CENTER The World of Work Product information describes the basic features and materials of a product. A suit label would tell whether the suit is 100 percent wool or a blend of materials and would give cleaning instructions. Product information on the box of a cordless telephone would tell the frequency, number of channels, and whether it has automatic redial, memory, caller ID, voic indicator light, and other features. Instruction manuals tell the owner how to set up, operate, and troubleshoot problems with a product. Instruction manuals also include safety precautions, diagrams, and descriptions of the product s features. WORKPLACE DOCUMENTS Two common workplace documents procedure manuals and memoranda can tell you how to do your job and how to stay informed so you are both knowledgeable and effective. Procedure manuals are the step-by-step directions that tell employees how to serve customers, operate machinery, report problems, request vacation, or do anything that the company wants performed in a certain way. Procedure manuals are often used to train new employees and to clarify procedures for existing employees. As you read a procedure manual, pay attention to the specific instructions so you know exactly how to carry out the procedures. Memoranda or memos are the standard form of communication in many businesses. Memos are concise messages, generally covering only one topic. For example, an employee might send a memo to a supervisor reporting on the status of a project, or a supervisor might send a brief summary of discussions and decisions made in a meeting. To read a memo effectively, first check the subject line at the top to learn the topic of the memo. As you read, notice the pattern of organization in the body of the memo. Headings or bullets may indicate the main ideas. Pay attention to the purpose of the memo to decide whether and how to respond. Is the memo summarizing information, requesting action, or providing facts, such as dates and prices? The World of Work 1475

26 The World of Work RESOURCE CENTER Persuasive Documents While informative documents are like road maps, persuasive documents are like travel brochures, trying to influence a reader s destination. Persuasive documents try to persuade readers to believe or act in a certain way. It s important for you to be able to distinguish between informative and persuasive public documents. For example, a policy statement from a county commission about recycling might quote facts, but its primary purpose is to influence citizens to support the commission s position. By critically reading persuasive public documents, you can evaluate whether you agree or disagree. Persuasive public documents include policy statements, political platforms, speeches, and debates. A policy statement outlines a person s or group s position on an issue and sometimes provides the rationale for that position. For example, the mayor might issue a policy statement explaining why she supports or opposes a tax increase for school construction. The policy statement gives the main points for the mayor s position and may provide facts or use rhetorical devices to support the position. A policy statement may also include a call to action, or a request for readers to take a specific action. Some organizations issue policy statements to endorse specific legislation, hoping to win the support of the voting public or of the lawmakers who can create the legislation. A political platform outlines a political candidate s position on a variety of issues so voters know where the candidate stands. It may also set forth the candidate s goals and describe the beliefs that guide his or her positions. The positions and goals are known as the planks of the platform. The audience for a political platform is usually friendly to the candidate, and the platform is intended to rouse support and to persuade undecided voters. Sometimes a platform will also address and rebut opposing viewpoints. Below is an excerpt from the political platform of a city council candidate about the issue of noise pollution. Rocky Mount is a quiet and peaceful place that does not need more intrusion from the local government to reduce noise levels. We are not close to a major airport, so we do not hear the regular drone of airplanes. Concertgoers hear Beethoven and Mozart, not the loud rock groups that play in larger cities. Noise pollution is an occasional, not regular or excessive, problem that can be handled without more city ordinances. Therefore, I do not support the development of laws to address the nonexistent issue of noise pollution. A persuasive speech is designed to change an audience s attitudes or beliefs or to move an audience to action. A speaker may make persuasive arguments and address audience counterclaims by using reasoning and rhetorical devices such as repetition. (For more on persuasive speaking, see page 692.) A debate involves two teams who take turns discussing a controversial topic. The topic under discussion is called the proposition. One side argues for the proposition, and the other side argues against it. Each side also refutes, or argues against, its opponent s case The World of Work

27 Critiquing Persuasive Documents Persuasive documents use logical, emotional, and ethical appeals to be convincing. Notice how these appeals are used to help you critique a document s validity and truthfulness. Logical appeals are based on reasons and supporting evidence. As you read, notice whether the evidence is based on reliable facts that can be confirmed through other, unbiased sources. If you are unsure, consult informative public documents, such as state laws, to verify the evidence. Notice whether the appeal makes sense and avoids fallacies, such as hasty generalizations or circular reasoning. A hasty generalization is a conclusion based on insufficient evidence. Circular reasoning occurs when the reason for an opinion is simply the opinion stated in different words. Emotional appeals rely on strong feelings to persuade readers. The writer may use examples that tug on heartstrings or arouse anger. Vivid language may make either positive or negative associations with the topic. Evaluate emotional appeals based on all of the evidence. If an argument is based primarily on emotion, the case may be weak. Watch out for signs of bias and stereotypes including words such as always and never that suggest the reasoning is unsound. Ethical appeals rely on the reader s sense of right and wrong. For example, a writer might persuade an audience to share a certain view by implying that the opposing position is unpatriotic or selfish. Critique a persuasive document by seeing how fairly the writer treats the topic. Does the writer use credible evidence? Does he or she know enough about the topic to be believed? Your Turn 1 Choose a persuasive public document, and critique its effectiveness and validity. Identify the appeals and the call to action, if any. Consult at least one informative public document to verify information presented in the persuasive document. Writing Writing is your passport to exciting places in life. A powerful résumé can win you the job of your dreams. A memo proposing cost-saving measures can earn you a promotion. A letter to your city council can lead to a new soccer field for a recreational league. Clear, effective writing is one of the best skills you can have as you enter the world of work. Job Applications and Résumés One of the first places you will use writing beyond school will be in a job application or résumé. To fill out a job application completely and accurately, first read the instructions carefully. Type or write neatly in blue or black ink. Include all information requested. If a question does not apply to you, write N/A or not applicable in the blank. Proofread your completed form and neatly correct any errors. Finally, submit the form to the correct person. A résumé summarizes your skills, education, achievements, and work experience. Prepare a résumé to use when you apply for a job or when you seek admission to a college or special program. Keep in mind that a résumé should be tailored to match the target audience. Select and highlight the skills and experiences that would most appeal to the employer or college reading the résumé. For a college or academic program, for example, you would highlight a strong GPA, successful class projects, and involvement in school clubs. The language would create a sophisticated, but not artificial, tone. For an employer, on the other hand, you would highlight work experience, both paid and volunteer, and the skills you learned on the job, using clear and direct language. Here are some more tips to help you create a résumé: Give complete information about work experience, including job title, dates of employment, company, and location. Do not use I; instead, use short, parallel phrases that describe duties and activities. Proofread carefully. Mistakes on a résumé make the writer seem careless not a positive quality for an employee. RESOURCE CENTER The World of Work The World of Work 1477

28 The World of Work RESOURCE CENTER Workplace Documents Memos are the standard form of communication in many businesses. To write a concise, easy-to-understand memo, you must first understand your main purpose for writing. Are you writing to provide information or to make a request? Memos should provide all essential information who, what, when, where, why, and how and get quickly to the point. If you are asking for action and information, include a deadline. Memos follow a standard format that includes the date, the recipient, the sender, and the subject at the top of the document. Notice how the following memo gets right to the point and communicates information clearly and directly. Date: February 25, 2008 To: Sophia Cervenka From: Cole Hurley Subject: Computer Training Training on the new software will begin Monday, March 10, Members of your department who are interested in receiving training should call me at extension 4390 by Friday, March 7, to sign up. Training will last from 8:00 A.M. 3:00 P.M. The next training session will be held on March 18. Word-Processing Features A clear message is essential in workplace communication, but the appearance of workplace documents also counts. Learn to use word-processing features to your advantage by making documents that are easy on both the eyes and the mind. Margins are the space that surrounds the text on a page. Most word-processing programs automatically set side and top margins. You can adjust these default margins to suit your purpose. A font is a complete set of characters (including letters, numbers, and punctuation marks) in a particular size and design. For most workplace documents, use a font that is businesslike and easy to read. (For more on fonts, see page 1489.) Line spacing is the white space between lines of text. Most letters and memos are single-spaced to conserve space, but longer reports are often double-spaced to allow room for handwritten edits and comments. INTEGRATING DATABASES, GRAPHICS, AND SPREADSHEETS Workplace documents often integrate databases, graphics, and spreadsheets into text. For example, a pie chart or a spreadsheet can show budget expenses, or a list of customers in a specific ZIP Code might be integrated from a database into a report. Add features such as these to communicate your ideas more effectively. Place a graphic close to the related text, and explain the graphic s context. For help in integrating visuals and other components into documents, consult the Help section of your word-processing program or ask your teacher to help you. RÉSUMÉ FORMAT Word-processing features can help you create an attractive format for your résumé. Here are some guidelines to remember: Make sure the résumé is not cluttered. Use wide margins for the top, bottom, and sides, and use double-spacing between sections to make the résumé easy to scan for information. Consider using a different font, boldface, and a larger point size for your name and for headings. Be sure all the fonts are easy to read The World of Work

29 The following résumé was written by a student interested in a sales job. He highlighted skills and experiences that show his interpersonal skills and initiative and used an attractive, easy-to-read format. MIGUEL GUERRERO 1902 Greig Street Santa Rosa, CA (707) [email protected] EDUCATION Senior, Forsythe High School Grade-point average: 3.3 (B) WORK EXPERIENCE Summer 2007 present Waiter, Starlite Restaurant Serve customers quickly and efficiently Train new employees in effective customer service Twice awarded Star Employee Summer 2006 Campaign Volunteer, Antonio Suarez Campaign for Mayor Assisted in door-to-door campaigns Collected and input data for mailing list Organized teen volunteers to distribute flyers SKILLS Communication: Telephone sales, oral presentations Computers: Word processing, Web design ACTIVITIES Debate team, soccer team, student government representative REFERENCES Janet Matteson, Owner David Cho, Principal Starlite Restaurant Forsythe High School (707) (707) RESOURCE CENTER The World of Work Your Turn 2 Create a résumé for your dream job. Think about what experiences and skills you have that would appeal to a potential employer. Present this information in a clear, concise, and eye-catching way. The World of Work 1479

30 Writer s Handbook The Writing Process Effective writing involves a process. The steps in this process, called a recursive process because you may repeat them several times, are like those of a spiral staircase you must travel around and around, yet with each revolution you ascend toward your goal. While each writer s process is slightly different, most effective writers follow the steps below. Stages of the Writing Process Prewriting Drafting Evaluating and Revising Proofreading and Publishing Identify your purpose and audience. Choose a topic and an appropriate form. Formulate your thesis, or main idea, about the topic. Gather information about the topic. Organize information in a preliminary plan. Draft an introduction that seizes your readers attention and provides necessary background information. State your thesis clearly and assertively. Develop body paragraphs that elaborate on key ideas. Follow an organizational plan. Draft a conclusion that restates your thesis and leaves readers with something to think about. Evaluate your draft. Revise to improve its content, organization, and style. Proofread your draft, and correct errors in spelling, punctuation, grammar, and usage. Share your final draft with readers. Reflect on your writing experience. Throughout the writing process, make sure you do the following: Keep your ideas coherent and focused. Keep your specific purpose in mind to help you present a tightly reasoned argument. Evaluate every idea to make sure it will focus your readers on your main point, and make that point clear in your thesis statement. Share your own perspective. You bring your own ideas to every piece you write. Share not only information you ve gathered but also your viewpoint on your topic. Let your natural voice shine through to readers Writer s Handbook

31 Keep your audience in mind. Consider your readers backgrounds and interests. If your form is not assigned, choose a form that will grab your readers, such as a song, editorial, screenplay, or letter. Plan to publish. Labor over every piece as though it will be published or shared with an audience. Enlist the help of a classmate when you proofread a finished piece, and use the questions in the chart below. The numbers in parentheses indicate the sections in the Language Handbook that contain instruction on each concept. Questions for Proofreading 1. Is every sentence complete, not a fragment or run-on? (8a, 9d e) 2. Are punctuation marks used correctly? (12a r, 13a o) 3. Are the first letters of sentences, proper nouns, and proper adjectives capitalized? (11a, c) 4. Does each verb agree in number with its subject? (2a) Are verb forms and tenses used correctly? (3b c) RESOURCE CENTER Writer s Handbook 5. Are subject and object forms of personal pronouns used correctly? (4a e) Does every pronoun agree with a clear antecedent in number and gender? (2j) When revising and proofreading, use the symbols below. Symbols for Revising and Proofreading Symbol Example Meaning of Symbol 805 Linden avenue Capitalize a lowercase letter. the First of May of one my friends onset at the beginning Give me a a number beleive Yes, she answered. Lowercase a capital letter. Insert a missing word, letter, or punctuation mark. Replace a word. Replace a word. Delete a word, letter, or punctuation mark. Change the order of letters. Begin a new paragraph. Writer s Handbook 1481

32 Writer s Handbook RESOURCE CENTER Tip Not every paragraph needs a clincher sentence. Use one for a strong or dramatic touch or for renewing a main idea in a lengthy or complicated paragraph. Paragraphs The Parts of a Paragraph Paragraphs can be as different as oak trees are from pines. Some paragraphs are a single word; others run several pages. Their uses differ, too: A paragraph may present a main idea, connect one idea to another, emphasize an idea, or simply give the reader s eyes a rest in a long passage. Many paragraphs in essays and other types of nonfiction, including workplace writing, develop one main idea. A main-idea paragraph is often built from a topic sentence, supporting sentences, and a clincher sentence. Parts of a Paragraph Topic Sentence Supporting Sentences Clincher Sentence is an explicit statement of the paragraph s main idea or central focus is often the first or second sentence in a paragraph, but may appear at the end to emphasize or summarize provide elaboration by supporting, building, or proving the main idea often include details of the following types: sensory details: information about sight, sound, taste, smell, and texture facts: details that can be proved true examples: specific instances that illustrate a general idea anecdotes: brief stories about people or events that illustrate a main idea analogies: comparisons between ideas familiar to readers and unfamiliar concepts being explained may restate the topic sentence, summarize supporting details, offer a final thought, or help readers refocus on the main idea of a long paragraph Tip Not every paragraph has, or needs, a topic sentence. In fiction, paragraphs rarely have topic sentences. Paragraphs presenting time sequences (how-to instructions or histories, for example) may also lack topic sentences the steps or events themselves focus the reader s mind. Finally, a paragraph may imply, or suggest, its main idea without directly stating it in a topic sentence. In your school writing, however, topic sentences are a help: They keep you focused on each paragraph s topic Writer s Handbook

33 PUTTING THE PARTS TOGETHER You can clearly see the parts of a paragraph in the following example. Notice that its topic sentence expresses the paragraph s main idea and that the clincher sentence re-emphasizes it. The arrival of printing in England was to be of far more importance than any of the changes of ruler during the Wars of the Roses. Up until this time books had been copied out by hand by scribes in monasteries or other workshops, a long and laborious process. As a result books were rare and very costly. Printing by machine meant that they could be cheap and plentiful. The knowledge books contained could also be spread far wider, reaching new audiences, as more people than ever before learned to read. When William Caxton set up his printing presses in the precincts of Westminster Abbey in 1476, it was to be a landmark in the history of the English language and literature, daily life, and culture. Sir Roy Strong, The Story of Britain Qualities of Paragraphs Think about trees again. Each type is so distinct: a pine with its needles and cones, a magnolia with its glossy leaves and huge blossoms. Yet, while different, each is a pleasing whole. Paragraphs achieve this wholeness, too, through two major qualities: unity and coherence. UNITY Unity means that all of a paragraph s supporting sentences really fit the main idea no pine cones should poke out among the magnolia blooms. In other words, all of the supporting sentences must work together and stay on the topic. Unity is achieved when all sentences relate to the paragraph s main idea whether it is stated in a topic sentence or implied, or all sentences relate to a sequence of events COHERENCE When a paragraph has coherence, the ideas are arranged in an order that makes sense so that the reader moves easily from one idea to another. The paragraph flows; it doesn t bounce readers around or befuddle them. You can create coherence in a paragraph by paying attention to the order you use to arrange ideas the connections you make between ideas to show readers how the ideas are related To create coherence through the arrangement of your ideas, choose the type of order that best fits your purpose. The chart below explains how to use the four main types of order. Topic Sentence Supporting Sentences Clincher Sentence RESOURCE CENTER Writer s Handbook Writer s Handbook 1483

34 Writer s Handbook RESOURCE CENTER Types of Order Order When to Use How It Works Chronological Spatial Order of Importance to tell a story or relate an event to explain a process to show cause and effect to describe individual features to create a complete visual picture to inform to persuade presents events in the order they happen shows how things change over time arranges details by location in space top to bottom, left to right, near to far, center to edge, and so on arranges ideas and details from most important to least, or vice versa places emphasis where the writer thinks it is most effective Logical to inform or to persuade, often by classifying: defining, dividing a subject into parts, or comparing and contrasting groups ideas or details together in ways that illustrate the relationships between them; for example, as parts of a whole Tip The types of order can overlap or can be used in combination. For example, to explain an effect, you might move chronologically through its causes, describing the first cause, which leads to the second cause, and so on. However, suppose that three simultaneous causes produce a single effect. You could discuss those causes in order of importance Writer s Handbook

35 Guide readers through your clearly arranged ideas by pointing out the connections among them. Show connections by using direct references (repetition of ideas), transitional expressions, and parallelism. The chart on the next page details how you can use these three types of connections to add to the coherence of your writing. Connecting Ideas Type of Connection Direct References, or Repetition of Ideas Transitional Expressions How to Use It Refer to a noun or pronoun used earlier in the paragraph. Repeat a word used earlier. Substitute synonyms for words used earlier. Compare ideas (also, and, another, in the same way, just, like, likewise, moreover, similarly, too). Contrast ideas (although, but, however, in spite of, instead, nevertheless, on the other hand, still, yet). Show cause and effect (accordingly, as a result, because, consequently, for, since, so, so that, therefore). Indicate time (after, at last, before, early, eventually, first, later, next, then, thereafter, until, when, while). Show place (above, across, adjacent, behind, beside, beyond, down, here, in, near, over, there). Show importance (first, last, less significant, mainly, more important, to begin with). RESOURCE CENTER Writer s Handbook Parallelism Use the same grammatical forms or structures to balance related ideas in a sentence. Sparingly, use the same sentence structures to show connections between related ideas in a paragraph or composition. Your Turn Develop two paragraphs on a single topic that interests you. First, choose two primary methods of organizing ideas on the topic (keeping in mind that you may use a combination of orders). Then, plan a topic sentence, a variety of supporting details, and a clincher sentence for each of your two paragraphs. Finally, draft your paragraphs, clearly organizing and connecting ideas and eliminating any ideas that detract from your focus. Writer s Handbook 1485

36 Writer s Handbook RESOURCE CENTER The Writer s Language Revising often focuses on a piece s content and organization. However, to communicate ideas effectively, you must work just as carefully to revise a piece s style how you express those ideas. When revising your style, finetune your writing s sound, word choice, and sentence variety, and use rhetorical devices to grab reader attention and make your ideas clear and interesting. A SOUND STYLE Keep your audience and purpose in mind to help you choose a suitable voice, tone, and level of formality for a piece of writing. Voice In writing, voice is your unique personality on paper. Just as you recognize a friend s spoken voice, you can recognize the work of favorite writers by the unique way they express ideas. To evaluate your own writing voice, read your work out loud. If your writing doesn t sound natural, revise it to bring your personality to life. Tone Tone reveals your attitude toward a topic and audience. Always use an appropriate tone for your audience and purpose. For example, if your purpose is to persuade readers to share your view on an important issue, your tone should be serious and respectful. Level of Formality You wouldn t don formal wear for a beach party, and neither should you use a casual, informal style for a serious essay on a subject about which you care deeply. Match the level of formality to your subject, your audience, and your purpose. Look at these examples. INFORMAL Some people shouldn t own pets. Period. FORMAL Certain people should not own pets under any circumstances. WORD CHOICE Make sure your words express the ideas you want them to express. Every word should help create a clear, vivid picture of what you mean and communicate the connotation you want. Precise Language Replace vague language in your writing with words that are distinct and strong. For example, you might describe a big boulder you saw on a hike as being as huge as a car or as mammoth as a double-decker bus. You could mention that the boulder rumbled down the hill or squatted by the path. Using precise verbs, nouns, and adjectives like these will make your writing clearer and more interesting. Connotations As you choose words, notice their connotations the emotional effects they create. For instance, the word cheap means economical, but it also has the negative connotation of being poor in quality. The word inexpensive expresses the same idea as cheap but in a more positive way. Choose words carefully by considering their effects Writer s Handbook

37 SENTENCE VARIETY Readers can become bored with writing that uses the same types of sentences over and over. Create variety by varying the beginnings of your sentences and mixing simple, compound, and complex sentences. RHETORICAL DEVICES To give your ideas a greater impact, use the rhetorical devices of parallelism, repetition, and analogy. Parallelism Just as a train stays on its tracks because they re parallel, readers will stay on track if your written ideas are grammatically parallel. NOT PARALLEL More lives are saved when drivers wear seat belts and motorcyclists are wearing helmets. PARALLEL More lives are saved when drivers wear seat belts and motorcyclists wear helmets. You can also use parallelism for effect by using similar sentence structures to express related ideas. Repetition Repeating important words or phrases can create an emotional response or underscore their significance. Use this technique sparingly to make your key ideas resonate with readers. Analogy An analogy illustrates an idea by comparing it to something with similar characteristics. For example, you could say, The politician worked the crowd as if he were selling the Fountain of Youth. A STYLISH MODEL Read the following passage, noting the writer s sound, word choice, sentence variety, and rhetorical devices. RESOURCE CENTER Writer s Handbook A Writer s Model Credit cards are a ticket to an unpleasant lesson for college freshmen. One in five college students will rack up $10,000 in credit card debt by graduation. That s right $10,000! Some people use credit as recklessly as play money. Unfortunately, the consequences for misusing credit cards are staggering. A $5,000 credit card debt can take up to 30 years and $15,000 to pay off three times the value of the items purchased. Credit cards only look good until the bill comes due. I encourage students to stand firm and refuse the temptations dangled before them by credit card companies. Voice/tone Repetition Analogy Connotation Precise verbs Your Turn Revise the paragraph below to improve its style. Add your own ideas as appropriate. I think students should be allowed to bring cell phones to school. What if we need to call someone? Students have rights too. I think the school staff should quit treating us like babies. This rule just isn t fair and should be changed. Writer s Handbook 1487

38 Writer s Handbook RESOURCE CENTER Designing Your Writing A document must be designed to convey information in a way that is easy to understand and remember. In other words, the text arrangement and appearance and any visuals must support the content. You can create effective design and visuals by hand, or you can use advanced publishing software and graphics programs to design pages and to integrate other features into your word-processed documents. Page Design LAY IT ON THE LINE If you want your documents to catch readers attention, you must design them to be visually appealing and easy to read. Use the following design elements to improve readability. Columns arrange text in separate sections printed vertically side by side. Text in reference books and newspapers usually appears in columns. A block is a rectangle of text shorter than a page. The text in advertisements is usually set in blocks so that it may be read quickly. Blocks and columns are separated from each other by white space. A bullet ( ) is a symbol used to highlight information in a text. Bullets separate information into lists like this one. Bullets attract attention and help readers remember information. A heading appears at the beginning of a section of text to tell readers what that section is about. A subheading indicates a smaller section within a heading. Headings and subheadings may be set off from other text in large, boldface, or italic type or in a different font. White space is any area on a page where there is little or no text or graphics. Usually, white space is limited to the margins and the spaces between words, lines, and columns. Advertisements usually have more white space than do books or articles. A caption appears under a photograph or illustration to explain its meaning and connect it to the text. Captions may appear in italics or in a smaller type size than the main text. Contrast refers to the balance of light and dark areas on a page. Dark areas contain blocks of text or graphics. Light areas have little type. A page with high contrast, or roughly balanced light and dark areas, is easier to read than a page with low contrast. Emphasis is how a page designer indicates to a reader which information on a page is most important. Because readers eyes are drawn naturally to color, large and bold print, and graphics, these elements are commonly used to create emphasis Writer s Handbook

39 Type LETTER PERFECT The basic material of your document is the type. Your choice of different cases and fonts can pull the reader into the text, provide emphasis, and make your document easy to read. Case The two cases of type are uppercase, or capital, letters and lowercase, or small, letters. You can vary case in these ways: Uppercase letters Text in all uppercase letters attracts readers attention and may be used in headings or titles. Because text in all capital letters can be difficult to read, use all capitals only for emphasis, not for large bodies of text. Small caps Small caps are uppercase letters that are reduced in size. They are used in abbreviations of time, such as 9:00 A.M. and A.D Small caps may be combined with capital letters for an artistic effect. Font A font is one complete set of characters (such as letters, numbers, and punctuation marks) of a given size and design. The three types of fonts are explained in the chart below. Categories of fonts RESOURCE CENTER Writer s Handbook Category Explanation Uses decorative, or script, fonts serif fonts sans serif fonts elaborately designed characters that convey a distinct mood or feeling characters with small strokes (serifs) at each end, such as the main type on this page characters such as these, formed of straight lines with no serifs Decorative fonts are difficult to read and should be used in small amounts for an artistic effect. Because the strokes on serif characters help guide the reader s eyes from letter to letter, serif type is often used for large bodies of type. Sans serif fonts are easy to read and are used as headings, subheadings, and captions. Font size The size of the type in a document is called the font size or point size. In general, newspapers and textbooks use type measured at 12 points. Type for headings and headlines is larger, while captions are usually smaller. Font style Most text is set in roman (not slanted) style. Italic, or slanted, style is used for captions or book titles. Underscored or boldface type can be used for emphasis. Writer s Handbook 1489

40 Writer s Handbook RESOURCE CENTER Tip Consider copying and pasting information from databases into your documents. For example, if you were writing a letter to your school administration proposing a senior class trip to a national park, you could paste information from a database comparing costs and available activities at several parks in your area. (Always give credit to your sources for such data.) Visuals SHOW, DON T TELL If you wanted to tell about the weekly expenses and income from your summer lawn-care business, it would be more effective to show the information in a table than to list it in a paragraph. Visuals, or graphics, such as this must be accurate and appropriate. You can create visuals by hand or by using technology, such as advanced computer software and graphics programs. You can also add to a document s impact by integrating a database or spreadsheet into it. Here are some useful visuals. Graphs present numeric information and can show trends or changes over time or how one thing changes in relation to another. A bar graph can also compare quantities at a glance, or note the parts of a whole. A line graph can compare trends or show how two or more variables interact, as in this example. Average number per month Wildlife Sightings in Ames State Forest Year wolf deer owl Tables use rows and columns to provide detailed information arranged in an accessible way. A spreadsheet is a special kind of table created on a computer. The cells of a spreadsheet are associated with mathematical equations. Spreadsheets are especially useful for budgets or schedules in which the numbers are variables in an equation. In the spreadsheet below, the last column of each row calculates the average of the figures to the left of it. First Quarter Grades Name Essay Test Speech Project Average Cooper, L Nguyen, H Torres, B Watt, K Writer s Handbook

41 Pictures, such as drawings and photographs, can show how something works, what something or someone looks like, or something new, unfamiliar, or indescribable. You can scan a copyright-free picture on the computer or paste it manually into your document. Place it near the reference in the text, and include a caption. Charts show relationships among ideas or data. A flowchart uses geometric shapes linked by arrows to show the sequence of events in a process. A pie chart is a circle divided into wedges. Each wedge represents a certain percentage of the total, as in this example. 17% How Energy Is Used Worldwide 16% 19% 28% 20% INDUSTRY OTHER ELECTRICITY GENERATION COMMERCIAL, PUBLIC, RESIDENTIAL TRANSPORTATION RESOURCE CENTER Writer s Handbook Time lines identify the events that have taken place over a given period of time. (For an example of a time line, see page 2.) Your Turn Choose and create the visual you think would most effectively communicate the following information using the guidelines in this section. The estimated expenses for the Sanger High senior class trip are as follows: bus rental, $1,000; gas, $200; hotel, ten rooms at $45 per room for five days, or $2,250; food, $30 a day per person (ten people for five days), or $1,500. The total trip cost is $4,950 Writer s Handbook 1491

42 Language Handbook 1. The Parts of Speech Part Of Speech Definition Examples NOUN PRONOUN Names person, place, thing, or idea Takes place of one or more nouns or pronouns Common: writer, family, country, poem Proper: Ben Okri, Anglo-Saxons, My Last Duchess, Romanticism, Wales Personal Reflexive Intensive Refers to one(s) speaking (first person), spoken to (second person), spoken about (third person) Refers to subject and directs action of verb back to subject Refers to and emphasizes noun or another pronoun I, me, my, mine, we, us, our, ours you, your, yours he, him, his, she, her, hers, it, its they, them, their, theirs myself, ourselves, yourself, yourselves, himself, herself, itself, themselves (See Reflexive.) Demonstrative Refers to specific one(s) of group this, that, these, those Interrogative Introduces question what, which, who, whom, whose Relative Introduces subordinate clause and refers to noun or pronoun outside that clause that, which, who, whom, whose Indefinite Refers to one(s) not specifically named all, any, anyone, both, each, either, everybody, many, none, nothing ADJECTIVE Modifies noun or pronoun by telling what kind, which one, how many, or how much a paperback book, an Anglo-Saxon law, this one, the seven brave warriors, less space VERB Shows action or state of being Action Expresses physical or mental activity describe, travel, fight, believe, consider, remember Linking Helping (Auxiliary) ADVERB Connects subject with word identifying or describing it Helps another verb express time, voice, or mood Modifies verb, adjective, or adverb by telling how, when, where, or to what extent appear, be, seem, become, feel, look, smell, sound, taste be, have, may, can, shall, must, would walks slowly, quite different, somewhat boldly, coming here soon 1492 Language Handbook

43 PREPOSITION Relates noun or pronoun to another word about, at, by, for, of, in, on, according to, along with, because of CONJUNCTION Coordinating Correlative Subordinating Joins words or word groups Joins words or word groups used in the same way A pair of conjunctions that join parallel words or word groups Begins a subordinate clause and connects it to independent clause and, but, for, nor, or, so, yet both... and, either... or, neither... nor, not only... but (also) although, as if, because, since, so that, unless, when, where, while INTERJECTION Expresses emotion ah, wow, ugh, whew Your Turn The use of precise nouns and descriptive adverbs makes writing accurate, specific, and more interesting. Rewrite the following paragraph about Jonathan Swift s Gulliver s Travels, replacing the vague nouns with precise nouns and weak adverbs with more descriptive adverbs. 1. The book written by an English author recounts the story of an English doctor. 2. After some troubles, the man leaves town. 3. Part One of the book describes the man s trip to a place of very little people. 4. These people capture the man and bind him up with very small strings. 5. The man eventually leaves this place and returns to his home, only to sail away again. RESOURCE CENTER Language Handbook 2. Agreement AGREEMENT OF SUBJECT AND VERB 2a. A verb should agree with its subject in number. Singular subjects take singular verbs. Plural subjects take plural verbs. SINGULAR He lives in Camelot. PLURAL They live in Camelot. 2b. The number of the subject is not changed by a phrase or a clause following the subject. The Lilliputians, tiny people from the nation of Lilliput, capture Gulliver. 2c. Indefinite pronouns may be singular, plural, or either. (1) The following indefinite pronouns are singular: anybody, anyone, anything, each, either, everybody, everyone, everything, neither, nobody, no one, nothing, one, somebody, someone, and something. One of the most beautiful places in England is the Lake District. (2) The following indefinite pronouns are plural: both, few, many, and several. Both of the epics were written by John Milton. Language Handbook 1493

44 Language Handbook RESOURCE CENTER (3) The indefinite pronouns all, any, most, none, and some are singular when they refer to singular words and are plural when they refer to plural words. SINGULAR None of the equipment was damaged. [None refers to equipment.] PLURAL None of the machines were damaged. [None refers to machines.] 2d. A compound subject may be singular, plural, or either. (1) Subjects joined by and usually take a plural verb. After rehearsal, Juan, Anita, and Marcus are going out to dinner. A compound subject that names only one person or thing takes a singular verb. His wife and partner in crime is Lady Macbeth. (2) Singular subjects joined by or or nor take a singular verb. Jill or Jorge plans to write a character analysis of Macduff. (3) When a singular subject and a plural subject are joined by or or nor, the verb agrees with the subject nearer the verb. Neither the dancers nor the choreographer was pleased with the routine. 2e. The verb agrees with its subject even when the verb precedes the subject, as in sentences beginning with here, there, or where. SINGULAR PLURAL Where is [or where s] Malcolm? Here are [not here s] Malcolm and his brother. 2f. A collective noun (such as audience, flock, or team) is singular in form but names a group of persons or things. A collective noun takes a singular verb when the noun refers to the group as a unit and takes a plural verb when the noun refers to the parts or members of the group. SINGULAR The tour group is on the bus. [The group as a unit is on the bus.] PLURAL The tour group was talking about their plans. [The members of the group are talking to one another.] 1494 Language Handbook 2g. An expression of an amount (a length of time, a statistic, or a fraction, for example) is singular when the amount is thought of as a unit or when it refers to a singular word and plural when the amount is thought of as many parts or when it refers to a plural word. SINGULAR Fifty years is how long Beowulf rules Geatland. [one unit] PLURAL One fourth of the seniors are working on a production of Macbeth. [The fraction refers to seniors.] Expressions of measurement (length, weight, capacity, area) are usually singular. Four and seven-tenths inches is the diameter of a compact disc. 2h. The title of a creative work (such as a book, song, film, or painting) or the name of an organization, a country, or a city (even if it is plural in form) takes a singular verb. Tears, Idle Tears was written by Alfred, Lord Tennyson. The United Nations was formed in Has the Netherlands been flooded recently? 2i. A verb agrees with its subject, not with its predicate nominative. SINGULAR The subject of the lecture was epic heroes. PLURAL Epic heroes were the subject of the lecture. AGREEMENT OF PRONOUN AND ANTECEDENT A pronoun usually refers to a noun or another pronoun. The word to which a pronoun refers is called its antecedent. 2j. A pronoun agrees with its antecedent in number and gender. Singular pronouns refer to singular antecedents. A few singular pronouns also indicate gender (feminine, masculine, or neuter). Plural pronouns refer to plural antecedents. William Wordsworth published The Prelude before he became poet laureate. [singular, masculine] Lady Macbeth helps her husband. [singular, feminine] The Lilliputians gave their captive food. [plural, neuter]

45 2k. Indefinite pronouns may be singular, plural, or either. (1) Singular pronouns are used to refer to the indefinite pronouns anybody, anyone, anything, each, other, everybody, everyone, everything, neither, nobody, no one, nothing, one, somebody, someone, and something. The gender of any of these pronouns is determined by the word or words that the pronoun refers to. Each of the boys has learned his part in Macbeth. One of the girls has injured herself. If the antecedent may be either masculine or feminine, use both the masculine and feminine pronouns to refer to it. Anyone who is going on the field trip needs to bring his or her lunch. (2) Plural pronouns are used to refer to the indefinite pronouns both, few, many, and several. Many of the spectators leapt from their seats and cheered. (3) Singular or plural pronouns may be used to refer to the indefinite pronouns all, any, most, none, and some. These indefinite pronouns are singular when they refer to singular words and are plural when they refer to plural words. SINGULAR None of the renovated theater matches its original beauty. [None refers to the singular noun theater.] PLURAL None of the geese have left on their annual migration. [None refers to the plural noun geese.] 2l. A plural pronoun is used to refer to two or more singular antecedents joined by and. Malcolm and Donalbain left Scotland soon after their father was killed. 2m. A singular pronoun is used to refer to two or more singular antecedents joined by or or nor. Neither Malcolm nor Donalbain felt he was safe. 2n. A collective noun (such as club or family) takes a singular pronoun when the noun refers to the group as a unit and takes a plural pronoun when the noun refers to the parts or members of the group. SINGULAR The jury reached its decision less than one hour later. [The jury decided as a unit.] PLURAL The jury disagreed on how much importance they should give to one of the defendant s statements. [The members of the jury disagree.] 2o. The title of a creative work (such as a book, song, film, or painting) or the name of an organization, a country, or a city (even if it is plural in form) takes a singular pronoun. I read Gulliver s Travels and wrote a report on it. The United Arab Emirates generates most of its revenue from the sale of oil. RESOURCE CENTER Language Handbook Your Turn Rewrite the following sentences to make sure the pronouns and their antecedents agree. 1. We recognize that each of the characters in Macbeth had his or her own motives. 2. With that in mind, each of the boys is carefully researching their part for the play. 3. So far not one of the girls has forgotten their lines. 4. Mrs. Talbott said that anyone who is in the play needs to provide his or her own props and costume. 5. Neither Joan nor Elizabeth has begun work on their costume yet. Language Handbook 1495

46 Language Handbook RESOURCE CENTER 3. Using Verbs THE PRINCIPAL PARTS OF VERBS Every verb has four basic forms called the principal parts: the base form, the present participle, the past, and the past participle. A verb is classified as regular or irregular depending on the way it forms its past and past participle. 3a. A regular verb forms the past and past participle by adding d or ed to the base form. An irregular verb forms the past and the past participle in some other way. Common Regular And Irregular Verbs The following examples include is and have in italics to show that helping verbs (forms of be and have) are used with the present participle and past participle forms. BASE FORM PRESENT PAST PARTICIPLE Regular PAST PARTICIPLE attack is attacking attacked have attacked drown is drowning drowned have drowned occur is occurring occurred have occurred risk is risking risked have risked try is trying tried have tried use is using used have used Irregular be is being was, were have been bring is bringing brought have brought burst is bursting burst have burst come is coming came have come eat is eating ate have eaten go is going went have gone lead is leading led have led pay is paying paid have paid see is seeing saw have seen sing is singing sang have sung steal is stealing stole have stolen take is taking took have taken throw is throwing threw have thrown If you are not sure about the principal parts of a verb, look in a dictionary. Entries for irregular verbs give the principal parts. If no principal parts are listed, the verb is a regular verb. TENSES AND THEIR USES 3b. The tense of a verb indicates the time of the action or state of being that is expressed by the verb. (1) The present tense is used mainly to express an action or a state of being that is occurring now. The article compares Beowulf with other epic heroes. The present tense is also used to show a customary or habitual action or state of being to convey a general truth something that is always true to make a historical event seem current (such use is called the historical present) to summarize the plot or subject matter of a literary work or to refer to an author s relationship to his or her work (such use is called the literary present) to express future time Every Friday, our teacher gives us a vocabulary quiz. [customary action] Reptiles are coldblooded. [general truth] The Greeks establish separate city-states, which war among themselves. [historical present] In the land of the Lilliputians, Gulliver appears gigantic. [literary present] The two-week seminar on Shakespeare begins on Monday. [future time] 1496 Language Handbook

47 (2) The past tense is used to express an action or state of being that occurred in the past but did not continue into the present. An expert on T. S. Eliot s poetry spoke to our class last Wednesday. (3) The future tense (will or shall + base form) is used to express an action or a state of being that will occur. Laura will play the part of Lady Macbeth. I will [or shall] serve as her understudy. Shall and will are both acceptable in forming the future tense. (4) The present perfect tense (have or has + past participle) is used to express an action or a state of being that occurred at some indefinite time in the past. Kenneth Branagh has played the roles of Henry V and of Iago. The present perfect tense is also used to express an action or a state of being that began in the past and continues into the present. Herot has stood empty and deserted for twelve years. (5) The past perfect tense (had + past participle) is used to express an action or state of being completed in the past before some other past occurrence. The kingdom had suffered greatly before Beowulf arrived. [The suffering occurred before the arriving.] Be sure to use the past perfect tense in if clauses that express the earlier of two past actions. If you had read [not read or would have read] the article for class, you would have learned about Sutton Hoo. (6) The future perfect tense (will have or shall have + past participle) is used to express an action or state of being that will be completed in the future before some other future occurrence. By this time tomorrow, I will [or shall] have memorized The Seafarer. 3c. Avoid unnecessary shifts in tense. INCONSISTENT CONSISTENT CNSISTENT Wiglaf discovered the dragon s treasure and then brings it to Beowulf. [shift from past to present tense] Wiglaf discovered the dragon s treasure and then brought it to Beowulf. [past tense] Wiglaf discovers the dragon s treasure and then brings it to Beowulf. [present tense] When describing events that occur at different times, use verbs in different tenses to show the order of events. She taught school for several years, but now she works for a publishing company. [Because she taught at a specific time in the past, the past tense taught is correct. Because she works at the present time, the present tense works is correct.] ACTIVE VOICE AND PASSIVE VOICE 3d. Voice is the form a transitive verb takes to indicate whether the subject of the verb performs or receives the action. A verb is in the active voice when its subject performs the action (its object receives the action). ACTIVE VOICE William Shakespeare wrote more than thirty-five plays. A verb is in the passive voice whenever its subject receives the action (the verb has no object). A passive verb is always a verb phrase that includes a form of be and the past participle of an action verb. PASSIVE VOICE More than thirty-five plays were written by William Shakespeare. 3e. Use the passive voice sparingly. In general, the passive voice is less direct and less forceful than the active voice. In some cases, the passive voice also may sound awkward. AWKWARD PASSIVE ACTIVE The sleeping grooms are smeared with King Duncan s blood by Lady Macbeth. Lady Macbeth smears the sleeping grooms with King Duncan s blood. RESOURCE CENTER Language Handbook Language Handbook 1497

48 Language Handbook RESOURCE CENTER Although you generally will want to use active voice rather than passive voice, the passive voice is not less correct than the active voice. In fact, the passive voice is useful in the following situations: 1. when you do not know the performer of the action The Globe was built in when you do not want to reveal the performer of the action The actor was criticized for his portrayal of Macbeth. 3. when you want to emphasize the receiver of the action King Duncan was murdered while he was asleep. Your Turn Read the following paragraph, and decide whether it should be rewritten in the present or past tense. Then, change the verb forms to make the verb tense consistent. 1. At first the Lilliputians fear Gulliver and bound him up. 2. Then they built a huge wagon upon which to transport him to their capital city. 3. There they presented him to their emperor, a handsome little man just slightly taller than his subjects. 4. The Lilliputians find that Gulliver s size can benefit them and used him in their war against Blefuscu. 5. Eventually Gulliver offended the Lilliputians, and he escapes to Blefuscu and avoided punishment. 4. Using Pronouns CASE Case is the form that a noun or a pronoun takes to indicate its use in a sentence. In English, there are three cases: nominative, objective, and possessive. Most personal pronouns have a different form for each case. THE NOMINATIVE CASE 4a. A subject of a verb is in the nominative case. They built the tower near the sea as he had requested. [They is the subject of the verb built. He is the subject of the verb had requested.] 4b. A predicate nominative is in the nominative case. The students who won the prize were she and Carlos. [She and Carlos are predicate nominatives that follow the linking verb were and identify the subject students.] FIRST PERSON SECOND PERSON THIRD PERSON FIRST PERSON SECOND PERSON THIRD PERSON PERSONAL PRONOUNS Singular NOMINATIVE OBJECTIVE POSSESSIVE I me my, mine you you your, yours he, she, it him, her, it his, her, hers, its Plural NOMINATIVE OBJECTIVE POSSESSIVE we us our, ours you you your, yours they them their, theirs 1498 Language Handbook

49 The form of a noun is the same for both the nominative case and the objective case. A noun changes its form for the possessive case, usually by adding an apostrophe and an s to most singular nouns and only an apostrophe to most plural nouns. The Objective Case 4c. An object of a verb is in the objective case. The knight s answer pleases her. [Her is a direct object that tells whom the answer pleases.] The Pardoner tells them a story. [Them is an indirect object that tells to whom the Pardoner tells a story.] 4d. An object of a preposition is in the objective case. Are the Lilliputians afraid of him? [Him is the object of the preposition of.] The Possessive Case 4e. A noun or a pronoun preceding a gerund is in the possessive case. We were all thrilled by Joetta s [or her] scoring in the top 5 percent. [Joetta s or her modifies scoring, a gerund used as the object of the preposition by.] Do not confuse a gerund with a present participle, which is a verb form that ends in ing and may function as an adjective. Macbeth found them [not their] standing around a caldron. [Them is modified by the participial phrase standing around a caldron.] SPECIAL PRONOUN PROBLEMS 4f. An appositive is in the same case as the noun or pronoun to which it refers. Duncan s sons, Malcolm and he, leave Scotland. [The compound appositive Malcolm and him refers to the subject, sons.] Macduff suspects both of them, Malcolm and him. [The compound appositive Malcolm and him refers to them, the object of the preposition of.] 4g. A pronoun following than or as in an elliptical construction is in the same case as it would be if the construction were completed. An elliptical construction is a clause from which words have been omitted. NOMINATIVE I see him more often than she. [I see him more often than she sees him. She is the subject in the elliptical construction.] OBJECTIVE I see him more often than her. [I see him more often than I see her. Her is the direct object in the elliptical construction.] 4h. A pronoun ending in self or selves should not be used in place of a personal pronoun. Everyone except John and me [not myself] has read Don Juan. 4i. The pronoun who (whoever) is in the nominative case. The pronoun whom (whomever) is in the objective case. Who wrote Ozymandias? [Who is the subject of the verb wrote.] With whom did Wordsworth write Lyrical Ballads? [Whom is the object of the preposition with.] CLEAR PRONOUN REFERENCE The word that a pronoun stands for or refers to is called the antecedent of the pronoun. 4j. A pronoun should always refer clearly to its antecedent. Avoid an ambiguous, a general, a weak, or an indefinite reference by 1. rephrasing the sentence, 2. replacing the pronoun with an appropriate noun, 3. giving the pronoun a clear antecedent. AMBIGUOUS When the Green Knight was talking to Sir Gawain, he was holding his head in his head. [The antecedent of he and his is unclear. Was the Green Knight holding Sir Gawain s head or his own?] CLEAR The Green Knight was holding his head in his hand when he was talking to Sir Gawain. GENERAL Macbeth will become king. This is one of the witches prophecies. [This has no specific antecedent.] CLEAR That Macbeth will become king is one of the witches prophecies. RESOURCE CENTER Language Handbook Language Handbook 1499

50 Language Handbook RESOURCE CENTER WEAK CLEAR INDEFINITE CLEAR Our dog Hank is jealous of my new baby sister. To help him get over it, I try to give him extra attention. [The antecedents of it is not expressed.] To help our dog Hank get over his jealousy of my new baby sister, I try to give him extra attention. In this book it includes pictures of artifacts from the Sutton Hoo ship burial. [It is not necessary to the meaning of the sentence.] This book includes pictures of artifacts from the Sutton Hoo ship burial. Your Turn Rewrite the following sentences using the correct pronoun case. If a pronoun is used correctly, leave it as is. 1. Last night Mark and me studied the play together. 2. In class today our teacher asked all of we to take parts and read they out loud. 3. When Jose stood up to read the part of Lady Macbeth, the other boys laughed at he. 4. Them teased him unmercifully for the rest of the day. 5. Our teacher, whom is the world s kindest person, explained to him that him shouldn t feel embarrassed. 5. Using Modifiers A modifier is a word or group of words that limits the meaning of another word or group of words. The two kinds of modifiers are adjectives and adverbs. 5a. Use an adjective to limit the meaning of a noun or a pronoun. Use an adverb to limit the meaning of a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. COMPARISON OF MODIFIERS 5b. Comparison refers to the change in the form of an adjective or an adverb to show increasing or decreasing degrees in the quality the modifier expresses. The three degrees of comparison are positive, comparative, and superlative. 1. Most one-syllable modifiers form the comparative and superlative degrees by adding er and est. 2. Some two-syllable modifiers form the comparative and superlative degrees by adding er and est. Other two-syllable modifiers form the comparative and superlative degrees by using more and most. 3. Modifiers of more than two syllables form the comparative and superlative degrees by using more and most. 4. To show a decrease in the qualities they express, all modifiers form the comparative by using less and the superlative by using least. Positive Comparative Superlative soft softer softest thirsty thirstier thirstiest slowly more slowly most slowly skillfully less skillfully least skillfully 5. Some modifiers form the comparative and superlative degrees in other ways. Positive Comparative Superlative bad (ill) worse worst far farther (further) farthest (furthest) good (well) better best little less least many (much) more most 1500 Language Handbook

51 5c. Use the comparative degree when comparing two things. Use the superlative degree when comparing more than two. COMPARATIVE After reading King Lear and the Winter s Tale, I can understand why King Lear is the more popular play. [comparison of two plays] SUPERLATIVE Of the three plays I saw, I think Macbeth was the most powerful. [comparison of three plays] 5d. Avoid a double comparison or a double negative. A double comparison is the use of two comparative forms (usually er and more or less) or two superlative forms (usually est and most or least) to modify the same word. A double negative is the use of two negative words when one is enough. Who is the noblest [not most noblest] of King Arthur s knights? I know nothing [not don t know nothing] about the Wars of the Roses. 5e. Include the word other or else when comparing one member of a group with the rest of the group. ILLOGICAL Wiglaf is bolder than any of Beowulf s followers. [Wiglaf is one of Beowulf s followers. Logically, Wiglaf cannot be bolder than himself.] LOGICAL Wiglaf is bolder than any of Beowulf s other followers. 5f. Avoid comparing items that cannot logically be compared. ILLOGICAL I think Olivier s portrayal of Hamlet is more compelling than any other actor. [The sentence makes an illogical comparison between a portrayal and an actor.] LOGICAL I think Olivier s portrayal of Hamlet is more compelling than any other actor s [portrayal]. [The sentence makes a logical comparison between portrayals.] PLACEMENT OF MODIFIERS 5g. Avoid using a misplaced modifier a modifying word, phrase, or clause that sounds awkward because it modifies the wrong word or group of words. To correct a misplaced modifier, place the word, phrase, or clause as close as possible to the word or words you intend it to modify. MISPLACED CLEAR MISPLACED CLEAR The old man told the three young rioters under a tree they would find Death. [What occurred under a tree: the telling or the finding?] The old man told the three young rioters they would find Death under a tree. The anxious hunter watched the raging lion come charging at him as he readied his bow and arrow. As he readied his bow and arrow, the anxious hunter watched the raging lion come charging at him. 5h. Avoid using a dangling modifier a modifying word, phrase, or clause that does not sensibly modify any word or words in a sentence. You may correct a dangling modifier by adding a word or words that the dangling word, phrase, or clause can sensibly refer to adding a word or words to the dangling word, phrase, or clause rewording the sentence DANGLING After becoming poet laureate, The Charge of the Light Brigade was written. [Who became poet laureate?] CLEAR CLEAR After becoming poet laureate, Alfred, Lord Tennyson wrote The Charge of the Light Brigade. Alfred, Lord Tennyson wrote The Charge of the Light Brigade after he became poet laureate. Your Turn For each of the following sentences, correct the error in comparison or placement of modifiers. 1. In the play Macbeth, it s hard to determine who was the more despicable character. 2. One could argue that of all the noblemen Macbeth was the more ambitious. 3. Surely, however, Lady Macbeth was the more ruthless and powerful woman in the land. 4. With metaphorical blood on her hands, the stain of murder cannot be removed. 5. Having gained the throne through treachery, guilt and fear consume Macbeth and his wife. RESOURCE CENTER Language Handbook Language Handbook 1501

52 Language Handbook RESOURCE CENTER 6. Phrases WHAT IS A PHRASE? 6a. A phrase is a group of related words that is used as a single part of speech and that does not contain both a verb and its subject. The Rime of the Ancient Mariner, Coleridge s best-known poem, was published in [Coleridge s best-known poem functions as a noun, was published is a verb, and in 1798 functions as an adverb.] THE PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE 6b. A prepositional phrase begins with a preposition and ends with the object of the preposition, a word or word group that functions as a noun. From the rafters of Herot hung one of Grendel s arms. [The noun rafters is the object of the preposition from. The noun Herot is the object of the preposition of. The noun arms is the object of the preposition of.] An object of a preposition may be compound. The three men ignored the warnings of the tavernknave and the publican. [Both tavern-knave and publican are objects of the preposition of.] (1) An adjective phrase is a prepositional phrase that modifies a noun or a pronoun. An adjective phrase tells what kind or which one. The three rioters found eight bushels of gold coins. [Of gold coins modifies the noun bushels.] An adjective phrase usually follows the word it modifies. That word may be the object of another preposition. They told stories on their journey to Canterbury. [To Canterbury modifies journey, the object of the preposition on.] More than one adjective phrase may modify the same word. Chaucer s trips to Italy on important diplomatic missions broadened his knowledge. [The phrases to Italy and on important diplomatic missions modify the noun trips.] (2) An adverb phrase is a prepositional phrase that modifies a verb, an adjective, or an adverb. An adverb phrase tells how, when, where, why, or to what extent (how long or how far). As you can see in the example below, more than one adverb phrase can modify the same word. The example also shows that an adverb phrase, unlike an adjective phrase, can precede the word it modifies. In 1799, Wordsworth returned with his sister to the Lake District. [Each phrase modifies the verb returned. In 1799 tells when, with his sister tells how, and to the Lake District tells where.] VERBALS AND VERBAL PHRASES A verbal is a form of a verb used as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. A verbal phrase consists of a verbal and its modifiers and complements. Participles and Participial Phrases 6c. A participle is a verb form that is used as an adjective. A participial phrase consists of a participle and all the words related to the participle. The two kinds of participles are the present participle and the past participle. (1) Present participles end in ing. Sir Gawain heard the Green Knight sharpening his ax. [The participial phrase modifies the noun Green Knight. The noun ax is the direct object of the present participle sharpening.] (2) Most past participles end in d or ed. Others are irregularly formed. Tormented by her guilt, Lady Macbeth lost her sanity. [The participial phrase modifies the noun Lady Macbeth. The adverb phrase by her guilt modifies the past participle tormented.] Gerunds and Gerund Phrases 6d. A gerund is a verb form ending in -ing that is used as a noun. A gerund phrase consists of a gerund and all the words related to the gerund. For Gulliver, living in Brobdingnag is quite different from living in Lilliput. [Living in Brobdingnag is the subject of the verb is. Living in 1502 Language Handbook

53 Lilliput is the object of the preposition from. The adverb phrases in Brobdingnag and in Lilliput modify the gerund living.] The Miller enjoys playing the bagpipes. [Playing the bagpipes is the direct object of the verb enjoy. Bagpipes is the direct object of the gerund playing.] Infinitives and Infinitive Phrases 6e. An infinitive is a verb form that can be used as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. An infinitive usually begins with to. An infinitive phrase consists of an infinitive and all the words related to the infinitive. The three rioters vow to kill Death. [The infinitive phrase acts as a noun and is the direct object of the verb vow. Death is the direct object of the infinitive to kill.] She had a great desire to visit Stratford-on-Avon. [The infinitive phrase acts as an adjective and modifies the noun desire. Stratford-on-Avon is the direct object of the infinitive to visit.] Macbeth goes to the witches haunt to talk to them. [The infinitive phrase acts as an adverb and modifies the verb goes. The adverb phrase to them modifies the infinitive to talk.] Lady Macbeth helps her husband become king. [The sign of the infinitive, to, is omitted. The infinitive has a subject, husband, making the entire construction an infinitive clause. The infinitive clause acts as a noun and is the direct object of the verb helps.] APPOSITIVES AND APPOSITIVE PHRASES 6f. An appositive is a noun or a pronoun placed beside another noun or pronoun to identify or explain it. An appositive phrase consists of an appositive and its modifiers. An appositive or appositive phrase usually follows the word it identifies or explains. Have you read Coleridge s poem Kubla Khan? [The appositive Kubla Khan identifies the noun poem.] Shakespeare was born in Stratford-on-Avon, a market town about eighty miles from London. [The entire appositive phrase a market town about eighty miles from London identifies the noun Stratford-on-Avon.] For emphasis, however, an appositive or appositive phrase may precede the word that it explains or identifies. A riot of colorful sights, intriguing aromas, and surprising noises, a Cairo bazaar is great fun to visit. [The appositive phrase explains why a Cairo bazaar is fun to visit.] RESOURCE CENTER Language Handbook Your Turn For each of the following items, use phrases to combine the short, choppy sentences into one smooth sentence. 1. King Arthur was a fabled Brython (ancient Briton) leader. He figures prominently in Britain s literary and legendary history. 2. The Arthurian legend was widely popular throughout Britain and elsewhere. It probably had its source in oral history. 3. The earliest literary reference to Arthur is found in Welsh poetry. He is mentioned briefly in several 6th century Welsh poems. 4. In the 12th century, Geoffrey of Monmouth wrote an account of Arthur s reign. It was the first narrative account. 5. Tennyson s poem about King Arthur was first published in the second half of the 19th century. It was called Idylls of the King. Language Handbook 1503

54 Language Handbook RESOURCE CENTER 7. Clauses 7a. A clause is a group of words that contains a verb and its subject and that is used as part of a sentence. There are two kinds of clauses: the independent clause and the subordinate clause. THE INDEPENDENT CLAUSE 7b. An independent (or main) clause expresses a complete thought and can stand by itself as a sentence. subject verb William Shakespeare wrote more than 150 sonnets. [one independent clause] THE SUBORDINATE CLAUSE 7c. A subordinate (or dependent) clause does not express a complete thought and cannot stand alone as a sentence. subject verb that Lord Byron swam across the Hellespont The thought expressed by a subordinate clause becomes complete when the clause is combined with an independent clause to create a complete sentence. I read that Lord Byron swam across the Hellespont. The Adjective Clause 7d. An adjective clause is a subordinate clause that modifies a noun or a pronoun. An adjective clause always follows the word or words that it modifies. Usually, an adjective clause begins with a relative pronoun (such as that, which, who, whom, whose). A relative pronoun both relates an adjective clause to the word or words the clause modifies and performs a function within its own clause by serving as a subject, an object of a verb, an object of a preposition, or a modifier. Mary Shelley, who wrote Frankenstein, liked reading ghost stories with her friends. [The relative pronoun who relates the adjective clause to the noun Mary Shelley and serves as the subject of the verb wrote.] The knight for whom Sir Gawain is searching is the Knight of the Green Chapel. [The relative pronoun whom relates the adjective clause to the noun knight and serves as the object of the preposition for.] An adjective clause may begin with a relative adverb, such as when or where. My uncle Robert told us about the time when he backpacked across the island of Luzon. [The adjective clause modifies the noun time.] Malcolm flees to England, where he raises an army to attack Macbeth. [The adjective clause modifies the noun England.] The Noun Clause 7e. A noun clause is a subordinate clause that may be used as a subject, a predicate nominative, a direct object, an indirect object, or an object of a preposition. Words that are commonly used to introduce noun clauses include how, that, what, whether, who, whoever, and why. That Fleance escapes the murderers troubles Macbeth. [subject] Power is what Macbeth desires. [predicate nominative] Banquo suspected that Macbeth had murdered Duncan. [direct object] The teacher will give whoever can recite the soliloquy ten points. [indirect object] The teacher will give ten points to whoever can recite the soliloquy. [object of a preposition] The word that introduces a noun clause may or may not have another function in the clause. The witches predict that Macbeth will become king. [The word that introduces the noun clause but does not have any function within the clause.] The Adverb Clause 7f. An adverb clause is a subordinate clause that modifies a verb, an adjective, or an adverb. An adverb clause, which may come before or after the word or words it modifies, tells how, when, where, why, to what extent, or under what condition. An adverb clause is introduced by a subordinating conjunction a word or word group that relates the adverb clause to the word or words the clause modifies Language Handbook

55 He acted as though he had seen a ghost. [The adverb clause modifies the verb acted, telling how he acted.] Jane is taller than her grandmother is. [The adverb clause modifies the adverb taller, telling to what extent Jane is tall.] They stayed longer than they thought they would. [The adverb clause modifies the adverb longer, telling to what extent their stay was lnger.] The Elliptical Clause 7g. Part of a clause may be left out when the meaning can be understood from the context of the sentence. Such a clause is called an elliptical clause. While [he was] painting, Rembrandt concentrated completely on his work. Ken may ride with us if he wants to [ride with us]. This job took longer than the last one. [took] Your Turn In most cases, the decision of where to place an adverb clause is a matter of style, not correctness. Each of the following sentences contains an adverb clause. Decide whether each clause is placed where it reads best in context. If the adverb clause it could be better placed, revise the sentence. 1. When he was just ten years old, George Gordon Byron assumed the barony in George Gordon Byron, who was better known as Lord Byron, began writing Don Juan in Byron would be remembered as a great poet even if he had not written Don Juan. 4. Byron traveled throughout southern Europe with a friend after he left Cambridge. 5. Byron, while he traveled in Greece, continued to work on his autobiographical poem, Childe Harold. RESOURCE CENTER Language Handbook 8. Sentence Structure SENTENCE OR FRAGMENT? 8a. A sentence is a group of words that has a subject and a verb and expresses a complete thought. My Last Duchess is an example of a dramatic monologue. For how many years was Winston Churchill the prime minister of Britain? What an ambitious man Macbeth was! Only a sentence should begin with a capital letter and end with a period, a question mark, or an exclamation point. Do not be misled by a group of words that looks like a sentence but that either does not have a subject and a verb or does not express a complete thought. Such a word group is called a sentence fragment. FRAGMENT Awakens and finds himself surrounded by people six inches tall. SENTENCE Gulliver awakens and finds himself surrounded by people six inches tall. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE 8b. A sentence consists of two parts: a subject and a predicate. A subject tells whom or what the sentence is about. A predicate tells something about the subject. In the following examples, all the words labeled subject make up the complete subject, and all the words labeled predicate make up the complete predicate. subject predicate My sister and I enjoyed Gulliver s Travels. predicate subject predicate For fifty years Beowulf ruled Geatland. The Simple Subject 8c. A simple subject is the main word or group of word that tells whom or what the sentence is about. The first leader of the Wormsley Common gang was Blackie. [The complete subject is the first leader of the Wormsley Common gang.] Language Handbook 1505

56 Language Handbook RESOURCE CENTER The Simple Predicate 8d. A simple predicate is a verb or verb phrase that tells something about the subject. Have you read The Seafarer? [The complete predicate is have read The Seafarer. ] The Compound Subject and the Compound Verb 8e. A compound subject consists of two or more subjects that are joined by a conjunction usually and or or and that have the same verb. A nun and three priests accompany the Prioress on the Canterbury pilgrimage. 8f. A compound verb consists of two or more verbs that are joined by a conjunction usually and, but, or or and that have the same subject. Truth enlightens the mind, frees the spirit, and strengthens the soul. How to Find the Subject of a Sentence 8g. To find the subject of a sentence, ask Who? or What? before the verb. (1) The subject of a sentence is never within a prepositional phrase. A group of pilgrims gathered at the Tabard. [Who gathered? Group gathered. Pilgrims is the object of the preposition of.] Out of the stillness came the loud sound of laughter. [What came? Sound came. Stillness is the object of the preposition out of. Laughter is the object of the preposition of.] (2) The subject of a sentence expressing a command or a request is always understood to be you, although you may not appear in the sentence. COMMAND Name the pilgrim accompanying the Plowman. [Who is being told to name? You is understood.] The subject of a command or a request is you even when a sentence contains a noun of direct address a word that names or identifies the one or ones spoken to. REQUEST Maria, [you] please read the first stanza of To a Skylark. (3) The subject of a sentence expressing a question usually follows the verb or a part of the verb phrase. Turning the question into a statement will often help you find the subject. QUESTION Have you read Lord Byron s poem She Walks in Beauty? STATEMENT You have read Lord Byron s poem She Walks in Beauty. [Who has read? You have read.] QUESTION Were Shakespeare s plays popular during his own lifetime? STATEMENT Shakespeare s plays were popular during his own lifetime. [What were popular? Plays were popular.] (4) The word there or here is never the subject of a sentence. There is Canterbury Cathedral. [What is there? Canterbury Cathedral is there.] COMPLEMENTS 8h. A complement is a word or a group of words that completes the meaning of a verb or a verbal. The four main kinds of complements are direct object, indirect object, objective complement, and subject complement. The Direct Object and the Indirect Object 8i. A direct object is a noun, pronoun, or a word group that functions as a noun and tells who or what receives the action of a transitive verb. Banquo definitely suspected him. [Suspected whom? him] Beethoven s composed sonatas and symphonies. [Composed what? sonatas and symphonies] 8j. An indirect object is a word or word group that comes between a transitive verb and a direct object, An indirect object, which may be a noun, a pronoun, or a word group that functions as a noun, tells to whom, to what, for whom, or for what the action of the verb is done. The Wife of Bath told the other pilgrims an interesting story. [Told to whom? pilgrims] We should give practicing for the concert our full attention. [Should give our full attention to what? practicing for the concert] 1506 Language Handbook

57 The Objective Complement 8k. An objective complement is a word or word group that helps complete the meaning of a transitive verb by identifying or modifying the direct object. An objective complement, which may be a noun, a pronoun, an adjective, or a word group that functions as a noun or adjective, almost always follows the direct object. Macduff called Malcolm king. [The noun king identifies the direct object Malcolm.] He believed the money his. [The pronoun his modifies the direct object money.] Everyone considered him chivalrous. [The adjective chivalrous modifies the direct object him.] A transitive verb is an action verb that takes an object, which tells who or what receives the action. The Subject Complement 8l. A subject complement is a word or word group that completes the meaning of a linking verb or a verbal and that identifies or modifies the subject. The two kinds of subject complements are predicate nominatives and predicate adjectives. (1) A predicate nominative is the word or group of words that follows a linking verb and refers to the same person, place, thing, or idea as the subject of the verb. A predicate nominative may be a noun, a pronoun, or a word group that functions as a noun. Of these three poets, Wordsworth was the most inspired one. [The pronoun one refers to the subject Wordsworth.] The main characters are Paul and his mother. [The two nouns Paul and mother are a compound predicate nominative that refers to the subject characters.] (2) A predicate adjective is an adjective that follows a linking verb and modifies the subject of the verb. Did King Hrothgar feel powerless? [The adjective powerless modifies the subject King Hrothgar.] Iago is sly and scheming. [The two adjectives sly and scheming are a compound predicate adjective that modifies the subject Iago.] SENTENCES CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO STRUCTURE 8m. According to structure, sentences are classified as simple, compound, complex, or compound-complex. (1) A simple sentence has one independent clause and no subordinate clauses. Not Waving but Drowning is one of my favorite poems. (2) A compound sentence has two or more independent clauses but no subordinate clauses. Othello is a great man, but his character is flawed. Agatha Christie was a prolific writer; she wrote more than eighty books in less than sixty years. (3) A complex sentence has one independent clause and at least one subordinate clause. The poet who wrote Ode on a Grecian Urn is John Keats. [The independent clause is the poet is John Keats. The subordinate clause is who wrote Ode on a Grecian Urn. ] (4) A compound-complex sentence contains two or more independent clauses and at least one subordinate clause. After Macbeth killed their father, Malcolm fled to England, and Donalbain escaped to Ireland. [The two independent clauses are Malcolm fled to England and Donalbain escaped to Ireland. The subordinate clause is after Macbeth killed their father.] SENTENCES CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO PURPOSE 8n. According to their purpose, sentences are classified as declarative, interrogative, imperative, and exclamatory. (1) A declarative sentence makes a statement. It is followed by a period. The lock on the front door is broken. (2) An interrogative sentence asks a question. It is followed by a question mark. Have you read Dylan Thomas s Fern Hill? RESOURCE CENTER Language Handbook Language Handbook 1507

58 Language Handbook RESOURCE CENTER (3) An imperative sentence makes a request or gives a command. It is usually followed by a period. A very strong command, however, is followed by an exclamation point. Please return this book to the library. Give me the name of the warrior who succeeds Beowulf. Stop making that noise! (4) An exclamatory sentence expresses strong feeling or shows excitement. It is followed by an exclamation point. What a talented writer she was! We won! Your Turn Read each of the following items that contain short sentences. Decide what type of sentence structure (simple, compound, complex, compound-complex) would best express the ideas in each item. Then, rewrite each item. 1. William Shakespeare was born in His birthplace was Stratford, a town in central England. 2. The famous dramatist and poet prospered financially. He was able to buy the largest house in Stratford. 3. Lord Byron was a major poet of the Romantic Period. Byron s friend Percy Bysshe Shelley was also a major poet of the period. 4. Wordsworth said we perceive the world around us. He also argued that we in part create it. 5. The Romantics asserted the importance of the individual. They also emphasized the imagination. 9. Sentence Style WAYS TO ACHIEVE CLARITY Coordinating Ideas 9a. To coordinate two or more ideas, or to give them equal emphasis, link them with a connecting word, an appropriate mark of punctuation, or both. I read the novel Frankenstein, and then I saw the film. Subordinating Ideas 9b. To subordinate an idea, or to show that one idea is related to but less important than another, use an adverb clause or an adjective clause. Sir Gawain accepts the magic sash because he wants it to protect him from the Green Knight. [adverb clause] Hrunting is the name of the sword that Unferth gives Beowulf. [adjective clause] Using Parallel Structure 9c. Use the same grammatical form (parallel structure) to express ideas of equal weight. (1) Use parallel structure when you link coordinate ideas. In the winter I usually like to ski and to skate. [infinitive paired with infinitive] (2) Use parallel structure when you compare or contrast ideas. Einstein liked mathematical research more than laboratory supervision. [noun contrasted with noun] (3) Use parallel structure when you link ideas with correlative conjunctions (such as both... and, either... or, neither... nor, or not only... but also). Virginia Woolf was not only a novelist but also an essayist. [Note that the correlative conjunctions come directly before the parallel terms.] 1508 Language Handbook

59 When you revise for parallel structure, you may need to add an article, a preposition, or a pronoun before each of the parallel terms. UNCLEAR I admire the poems of Byron more than Wordsworth. CLEAR I admire the poems of Byron more than those of Wordsworth. OBSTACLES TO CLARIFY Sentence Fragments 9d. Avoid using a sentence fragment a word or word group that either does not contain a subject and a verb or does not express a complete thought. Here are two common ways to correct a sentence fragment. 1. Add words to make the thought complete. FRAGEMENT Twelve Geats around Beowulf s tower. [The verb is missing.] SENTENCE Twelve Geats rode around Beowulf s tower. 2. Attach the fragment to the sentence that comes before or after it. FRAGEMENT A doctor and a gentlewoman see Lady Macbeth. Walking in her sleep. [participial phrase] SENTENCE A doctor and a gentlewoman see Lady Macbeth walking in her sleep. Sentence fragments can be effective when used in expressive and creative writing and in informal writing. Run-On Sentences 9e. Avoid using a run-on sentence two or more complete thoughts that run together as if they were one complete thought. The two kinds of run-on sentences are fused sentences and comma splices. A fused sentence has no punctuation or connecting word at all between the complete thoughts. A comma splice has just a comma between the complete thoughts. FUSED SENTENCE Wiglaf helps Beowulf the other warriors retreat in fear. COMMA SPLICE Wiglaf helps Beowulf, the other warriors retreat in fear. You can correct run-on sentences in several ways. 1. Make two sentences. Wiglaf helps Beowulf. The other warriors retreat in fear. 2. Use a comma and a coordinating conjunction. Wiglaf helps Beowulf, but the other warriors retreat in fear. 3. Change one of the independent clauses to a subordinate clause. Wiglaf helps Beowulf, while the other warriors retreat in fear. 4. Use a semicolon. Wiglaf helps Beowulf; the other warriors retreat in fear. 5. Use a semicolon and a conjunctive adverb. Wiglaf helps Beowulf; however, the other warriors retreat in fear. Unnecessary Shifts in Sentences 9f. Avoid making unnecessary shifts in subject, in verb tense, and in voice. AWKWARD Grandma goes to the farmers market, where the freshest produce is. [shift in subject] BETTER AWKWARD BETTER AWKWARD BETTER Grandma goes to the farmers market, where she finds the freshest produce. Macbeth sees Banquo s ghost, but no one else did. [shift in tense] Macbeth sees Banquo s ghost, but no one else does. Lyle spent four hours at the library, but no books on his research topic were found. [shift in voice] Lyle spent four hours at the library, but he found no books on his topic. REVISING FOR VARIETY 9g. Use a variety of sentence beginnings. Putting the subject first in a declarative sentence is not wrong, but starting every sentence with the subject can make your writing boring. To add variety to your sentences, rearrange sentence parts to vary the beginnings. The following examples show how a writer can RESOURCE CENTER Language Handbook Language Handbook 1509

60 Language Handbook RESOURCE CENTER revise sentences to avoid beginning with the subject every time. SUBJECT FIRST Lady Macbeth is cunning and ruthless and goads her husband into committing murder. SINGLE-WORD Cunning and ruthless, Lady MODIFIERS FIRST Macbeth goads her husband into committing murder. SUBJECT FIRST In Memoriam, which was published in 1850, is Alfred, Lord Tennyson s elegy for his friend Arthur Hallam. PARTICIPIAL Published in 1850, In PHRASE FIRST Memoriam is Alfred, Lord Tennyson s elegy for his friend Arthur Hallam. APPOSITIVE PHRASE FIRST An elegy for Alfred, Lord Tennyson s friend Arthur Hallam, In Memoriam was published in Varying Sentence Structure 9h. Use a mix of simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex sentences in your writing. The three weird sisters greet Macbeth and Banquo with prophecies. [simple] According to the witches, Macbeth will become king, but Banquo will not, though his descendants will. [compound-complex] When Macbeth asks the witches to tell him more, they vanish. [complex] The subsequent conversation between Banquo and Macbeth lends insight into each man s character. [simple] That is, Banquo is skeptical of the witches prophecies; however, Macbeth believes in them. [compound] Revising to Reduce Wordiness 9i. Avoid using unnecessary words in your writing. The following guidelines suggest some ways to revise wordy sentences. 1. Take out a whole group of unnecessary words. WORDY Grendel s mother carried Beowulf to her home where she lived. BETTER Grendel s mother carried Beowulf to her home. 2. Replace pretentious words and expressions with straightforward ones. WORDY In Lord of the Flies, a group of males, all of whom are under thirteen years of age, is stranded on a land mass surrounded by water and totally free of inhabitants. BETTER In Lord of the Flies, a group of young boys is stranded on an uninhabited island. 3. Reduce a clause to a phrase. WORDY Sir Lancelot falls in love with Queen Guinevere, who is the wife of King Arthur. BETTER Sir Lancelot falls in love with Queen Guinevere, King Arthur s wife. 4. Reduce a phrase or a clause to one word. WORDY BETTER At that point in time, Mr. Thomas returns. Then, Mr. Thomas returns. Your Turn Revise the following sentences by varying sentence beginnings and sentence structure and by eliminating wordiness. 1. A mariner stopped three young men who were on their way to a wedding; the mariner was grizzled and old with a glittering eye. 2. The ancient mariner grabbed the young man s arm with his bony hand and insisted on telling him a story. 3. The mariner s ship was caught in a powerful storm, the old man said, and was driven in a southward direction into a desolate land of ice and sounds that were fearful. 4. The situation seemed hopeless and bleak because they were trapped in barren place that they could not escape, and then a great seabird, an albatross, came through the hazy fog and broke the terrible spell. 5. The great bird was shot with a cross-bow by the ancient mariner bringing doom upon the hapless ship and all its crew who manned the ship; his reasons were unclear Language Handbook

61 10. Sentence Combining COMBINING BY INSERTING WORDS AND PHRASES 10a. Combine related sentences by taking a key word (or using another form of the key word) from one sentence and inserting it into another. ORIGINAL The famous magician Harry Houdini performed impossible escapes. The escapes only seemed impossible. COMBINED The famous magician Harry Houdini performed seemingly impossible escapes. [The verb seemed becomes the adverb seemingly.] 10b. Combine related sentences by taking (or creating) a phrase from one sentence and inserting it into another. ORIGINAL Has your class read the poem The Hollow Men? It was written by T. S. Eliot. COMBINED Has your class read the poem The Hollow Men by T. S. Eliot? [prepositional phrase] COMBINING BY COORDINATING IDEAS 10c. Combine related sentences whose ideas are equally important by using coordinating conjunctions (and, but, or nor, for, so, yet) or correlative conjunctions (both... and, either... or, neither... nor, not only... but also). The relationship of the ideas determines which connective will work best. When joined, the coordinate ideas form compound elements. ORIGINAL COMBINED Paradise Lost was written by John Milton. Paradise Regained was also written by him. Paradise Lost and Paradise Regained were written by John Milton. [compound subject] ORIGINAL COMBINED Adonais is one of Shelley s bestknown poems. Many critics think that Prometheus Unbound is his true masterpiece. Adonais is one of Shelley s best-known poems, but many critics think that Prometheus Unbound is his true masterpiece. [compound sentence] Another way to form a compound sentence is to link independent clauses with a semicolon or with a semicolon and a conjunctive adverb (such as however, likewise, or therefore) followed by a comma. Kathleen was willing to compromise; Jean Paul was not. The McCambridge family moved to Northampton shire; however, they stayed there only a few months before returning to Rutland. COMBINING BY SUBORDINATING IDEAS 10d. Combine related sentences whose ideas are not equally important by placing the less important idea in a subordinate clause (adjective clause, adverb clause, or noun clause). ORIGINAL My friend and I read about the life of Queen Victoria. She ruled Great Britain from 1837 to COMBINED My friend and I read about the life of Queen Victoria, who ruled Great Britain from 1837 to [adjective clause] or COMBINED Queen Victoria, whose life my friend and I read about, ruled Great Britain from 1837 to [adjective clause] RESOURCE CENTER Language Handbook Language Handbook 1511

62 Language Handbook RESOURCE CENTER ORIGINAL COMBINED ORIGINAL COMBINED Grendel s mother attacks Herot. King Hrothgar once again asks Beowulf for his help. When Grendel s mother attacks Herot, King Hrothgar once again asks Beowulf for his help. [adverb clause] They will find Death under an oak tree. An old man tells the three rioters that this will happen. An old man tells the three rioters that they will find Death under an oak tree. [noun clause] Your Turn Combine each pair of related sentences by inserting words or phrases, coordinating ideas, or subordinating ideas. 1. The popularity of the legendary hero Arthur waned during the Middle Ages. It experienced a revival during the 19th century. 2. The Romantics created their own literary types. Among the types created by the Romantics was the hero-artist, or poetic speaker. 3. Have you read the poems When I Have Fears and Ode to a Nightingale? They were written by John Keats. 4. The young man demanded that the ancient mariner let go of him. The old seafarer dropped his hold. 5. The young man could not get away. He was trapped by the old man s glittering stare. 11. Capitalization 11a. Capitalize the first word in every sentence. The warrior who succeeds Beowulf as king is Wiglaf. (1) Capitalize the first word of a sentence following a colon. Mrs. Kelley asked me this question: How old is Beowulf when he fights Grendel? (2) Capitalize the first word of a direct quotation. After winning, Brian said, We couldn t have done it without the support of the good people of Raleigh. When quoting from another writer s work, capitalize the first word of the quotation only if the writer has capitalized it in the original work. After winning, Brian acknowledged the support of the good people of Raleigh. (3) Traditionally, the first word of a line of poetry is capitalized. If all the world and love were young, And truth in every shepherd s tongue, These pretty pleasures might me move To live with thee and be thy love. Sir Walter Raleigh, The Nymph s Reply to the Shepherd You will notice that some writers do not follow this rule. Whenever you quote from a writer s work, always use capital letters exactly as the writer uses them. 11b. Capitalize the first word in the salutation and the closing of a letter. Dear John, Dear Sir or Madam: Sincerely, 11c. Capitalize proper nouns and proper adjectives. A common noun is a general name for a person, a place, a thing, or an idea. A proper noun names a 1512 Language Handbook

63 particular person, place, thing, or idea. A proper adjective is formed from a proper noun. Common nouns are capitalized only if they begin a sentence (also, in most cases, a line of poetry), begin a direct quotation, or are part of a title. Common Nouns Proper Nouns Proper Adjectives dramatist Shakespeare Shakespearean performer country Russia Russia diplomat mountains the Alps Alpine flora In most proper nouns made up of two or more words, do not capitalize articles (a, an, the), short prepositions (those with fewer than five letters, such as at, of, for, to, with), the mark of the infinitive (to), and coordinating conjunctions (and, but, for, nor, or, so, yet). Speaker of the House of Representatives American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals When you re not sure whether to capitalize a word, check a dictionary. (1) Capitalize the names of most persons and animals. GIVEN NAMES Virginia Geoffrey SURNAMES Woolf Chaucer ANIMALS Lassie Rocinante (4) Capitalize geographical names. Type of Name Towns, Cities Counties, Townships States, Territories Regions Countries Continents Islands Mountains Other Landforms and Features Bodies of Water Parks Roads, Highways, Streets Examples Stratford-on-Avon, Dublin, Rio de Janeiro, South Bend Marion County, Alexandria Township, Brooklyn Borough, Lafayette Parish Oklahoma, North Carolina, Yucatán, Yukon Territory the Middle East, the Lake District Western Hemisphere, the Southwest England, Costa Rica South America, Europe Long Island, British Isles Himalayas, Mount Rainier Pikes Peak, Sierra Nevada Cape of Good Hope, Black Forest Death Valley, Isthmus of Corinth Indian Ocean, Red Sea Bering Strait, San Francisco Bay Hawaii Volcanoes National Park, Point Reyes National Seashore Route 42, King Avenue, Interstate 75, Thirty-fourth Street RESOURCE CENTER Language Handbook Some names contain more than one capital letter. Usage varies in the capitalization of van, von, du, de la, and other parts of many multiword names. Always verify the spelling of a name with the person, or check the name in a reference source. La Fontaine O Connor al-khansa McEwen Van Doren Ibn Ezra van Gogh de Vega (2) Capitalize the names of nationalities, races, and peoples. Japanese Caucasian Hispanic Celt (3) Capitalize brand names. Notice that the noun that follows a brand name is not capitalized. Sealtest milk Wonder bread Crest toothpaste Words such as city, state, and county are often capitalized in official documents such as proclamations. In general usage, however, these words are not capitalized. OFFICIAL USAGE the State of Iowa GENERAL USAGE the state of Iowa Words such as north, western, and southeast are not capitalized when they indicate direction. north of London heading southwest The second word in a hyphenated number begins with a lowercase letter. Forty-second Street Language Handbook 1513

64 Language Handbook RESOURCE CENTER (5) Capitalize the names of organizations, teams, business firms, institutions, buildings and other structures, and government bodies. Type of Name Organizations Teams Business Firms Institutions Buildings and Other Structures Government Bodies Examples Disabled American Veterans, Professional Photographers of America River City Eastside Bombers, Harlem Globetrotters Aaron s Carpets, National Broadcasting Corporation Oxford University, Southern Christian Leadership Conference Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts, the Great Wall of China United States Congress, House of Commons Do not capitalize words such as democratic, republican, and socialist when they refer to principles or forms of government. Capitalize such words only when they refer to specific political parties. The citizens demanded democratic reforms. Who will be the Republican nominee for governor? Do not capitalize words such as building, hospital, theater, high school, and post office unless they are part of a proper noun. (6) Capitalize the names of historical events and periods, special events, holidays and other calendar items, and time zones. Do not capitalize the name of a season unless it is being personified or used as part of a proper noun. We moved here last fall. This month Fall begins painting the leaves in brilliant hues. The Fall Festival is next week. (7) Capitalize the names of ships, trains, aircraft, spacecraft, monuments, awards, planets and other heavenly bodies, and any other particular places and things. Type of Name Ships Trains Aircraft Spacecraft Monuments Awards Planets and Other Heavenly Bodies Other Particular Places and Things Examples Merrimac, U.S.S. Nautilus Zephyr, Hill Country Flyer Enola Gay, Spruce Goose Columbia, Magellan Mount Rushmore, National Monument, Effigy Mounds National Monument Nobel Prizem, Medal of Freedom Neptune, Polaris, Big Dipper, Cassiopeia Hurricane Alma, Silk Route Marshall Plan, Union Jack Do not capitalize the words sun and moon. Do not capitalize the word earth unless it is used along with the proper names of other places, things, or events. Type of Name Historical Events and Periods Special Events Holidays and Other Calendar Items Time Zones Examples Middle Ages, Reign of Terror Super Bowl, Pan-American Games Monday, Memorial Day, November, National Book Week Eastern Daylight Time (EDT), Central Mountain Time (CMT) 11d. Do not capitalize the names of school subjects, except names of languages and course names followed by a number. French art Algebra I 11e. Capitalize titles. (1) Capitalize a title belonging to a particular person when it comes before the person s name. General Patton Dr. Sanchez President Lincoln In general, do not capitalize a title used alone or following a name. Some titles, however, are by tradition capitalized. If you are unsure about capitalizing a title, check in a dictionary. Who is the prime minister of Britain? 1514 Language Handbook

65 When was Ann Richards governor of Texas? The Prince of Wales vistited our school. A title is usually capitalized when it is used alone in direct address. Good afternoon, Sir [or sir], may I help you? (2) Capitalize a word showing a family relationship when the word is used before or in place of a person s name, unless a possessive comes before the word. I asked Mom if Uncle Bob is named after her uncle Roberto. (3) Capitalize the first and last words and all important words in titles of books, periodicals, poems, stories, essays, speeches, plays, historical documents, movies, radio and television programs, works of art, musical compositions, and cartoons. NOTE Unimportant words in a title include articles (a, an, the), short prepositions (those with fewer than five letters, such as of, to, in, for, from, with), and coordinating conjunctions (and, but, for, nor, or, so, yet). 11f. Capitalize the names of religions and their followers, holy days and celebrations, holy writings, and specific deities and venerated beings. Type of Name Religions and Followers Holy Days and Celebrations Holy Writings Specific Deities and Venerated Beings Examples Christianity, Buddhist, Muslim, Judaism Easter, Ramadan, Passover, Holy Week Bible, Koran, Talmud, I Ching Allah, God, Dalai Lama, Jehovah The words god and goddess are not capitalized when they refer to mythological deities. The names of specific mythological deities are capitalized, however. The Greek god of the sea was Poseidon. RESOURCE CENTER Language Handbook Type of Name Books Periodicals Poems Stories Essays and Speeches Plays Historical Documents Movies Radio and TV Programs Works of Art Musical Compositions Cartoons or Comic Strips Examples A Tale of Two Cities, Gulliver s Travels National Geography, Time She Walks in Beauty, To His Coy Mistress The Rocking-Horse Winner, Games at Twilight A Modest Proposal, the Gettysburg Address The Tragedy of Macbeth, Pygmalion Magna Carta, Treaty of Versailles Lawrence of Arabia, Clueless The World, Nova The Kiss, March of Humanity War Requiem, Tears in Heaven For Better or Worse, Jump Start Your Turn Have students correct the errors in capitalization in the following letter. [1] october 11 [2] dear laura, [3] thank you so much for the illustrated edition of alfred, lord tennyson s best loved poems. [4] please also send a copy of the Book to our President, mr. jeffrey sampras, at 235 east seventy-third street, new york, ny [5] sincerely yours, Language Handbook 1515

66 Language Handbook RESOURCE CENTER 12. Punctuation END MARKS 12a. A statement (or declarative sentence) is followed by a period. The Ancient Mariner told an amazing tale. 12b. A question (or interrogative sentence) is followed by a question mark. Do you know who played the leading role in the first movie version of Hamlet? 12c. A request or command (or imperative sentence) is followed by either a period or an exclamation point. Turn the music down, please. [request] Name the poet who wrote The Lady of Shalott. [mild command] Watch out! [strong command] 12d. An exclamation (or exclamatory sentence) is followed by an exclamation point. What an interesting story, My Oedipus Complex is! 12e. An abbreviation is usually followed by a period. If an abbreviation with a period ends a sentence, do not add another period. However, do add a question mark or an exclamation point if one is needed. The store opens at 10 a.m. Does the store open at 10 a.m.? Some abbreviations, including those for most units of measure, are written without periods. AM/FM, CIA, CNN, PC, NASA, SOS cc, ft, lb, kw, ml, psi, rpm [but in. for inch] Type of Abbreviation Personal Names Organizations, Companies Titles Used with Names Times of Day Examples Howard G. Chua-Eoan W. H. Auden Co. Inc. Ltd. Ms. Sr. Dr. A.M. (or a.m.), P.M. (or p.m.) Years B.C. (written after the date) A.D. (written before the date) Addresses St. Blvd. P.O. Box States S.C. Calif. Use a two-letter state code when the ZIP Code is included. Two-letter state codes are not followed by periods, and no comma is placed between the state code and the ZIP Code. Lexington, KY COMMAS 12f. Use commas to separate items in a series. Virginia Woolf, James Joyce, and D. H. Lawrence are among the writers we are studying. If all the items in a series are linked by and, or, or nor, do not use commas to separate them. Byron and Shelley and Keats were contemporaries. 12g. Use a comma to separate two or more adjectives preceding a noun. Gawain is the most gallant, honorable knight. When the last adjective before a noun is thought of as part of the noun, the comma before the it is omitted. I ve finally found a decent, affordable used car. [Used car is thought of as one unit.] 12h. Use a comma before and, but, or, nor, for, so, and yet when they join independent clauses. I read Seamus Heaney s The Grauballe Man, and now I want to read more of his poems. You may omit the comma before and, but, or, or nor if the clauses are very short and there is no chance of misunderstanding. 12i. Use commas to set off nonessential clauses and nonessential participial phrases. A nonessential clause or phrase is one that can be left out without changing the meaning of the sentence. NONESSENTIAL W. H. Auden, who was born CLAUSE in York, England, became an American citizen in Language Handbook

67 NONESSENTIAL PHRASE The little blue sports car, leaving all the others far behind, forged into the lead. An essential clause or phrase is one that cannot be left out without changing the meaning of the sentence. Essential clauses and phrases are not set off by commas. ESSENTIAL CLAUSE ESSENTIAL PHRASE The writer who received the Nobel Prize in literature in 1923 was William Butler Yeats. The pilgrims riding along with the Knight are the Squire and the Yeoman. 12j. Use a comma after certain introductory elements. (1) Use a comma after a one-word such as first, next, yes, or no and after any mild exclamation such as well or why at the beginning of a sentence. Yes, I have read Don Juan. (2) Use a comma after an introductory participial phrase. Looking calm, Jill walked to the podium. (3) Use a comma after two or more introductory prepositional phrases or after a single long one. With the help of Wiglaf, he killed the dragon. (4) Use a comma after an introductory adverb clause. After I had locked the car door, I remembered that the keys were still in the ignition. 12k. Use commas to set off elements that interrupt a sentence. (1) Appositives and appositive phrases are usually set off by commas. George Bernard Shaw s first play, Widowers Houses, was published in Is that she, the one holding the sunflowers? Sometimes an appositive is so closely related to the word or words near it that it should not be set off by commas. Such an appositive is called a restrictive appositive. The poet Edmund Spenser died suddenly in (2) Words used in direct address are set off by commas. Your research paper, Dylan, is quite interesting. (3) Parenthetical expressions are set off by commas. Parenthetical expressions are remarks that add incidental information or that relate ideas to each other. Some common parenthetical expressions are for example, I think, moreover, and on the other hand. Macbeth is superstitious and sensitive; Lady Macbeth, on the other hand, is logical and bold. A contrasting expression introduced by not, rather than, or a similar term is parenthetical. Set it off by commas. Percy Bysshe Shelley, not John Keats, wrote Ode to the West Wind. 12l. Use a comma in certain conventional situations. (1) Use a comma to separate items in dates and addresses. On April, 1994, William Shakespeare died. My grandparents address is 505 King Street, Austin, TX (2) Use a comma after the salutation of a personal letter and after the closing of any letter. Dear Alicia, Yours truly, (3) Use a comma to set off an abbreviation such as Jr., Sr., RN, M.D., Ltd., or Inc. Is Jorge Rivera, Jr., in your class? She is the owner of Flowers by Arthurine, Inc. SEMICOLONS 12m. Use a semicolon between independent clauses that are closely related in thought and are not joined by and, but, for, nor, or, so, or yet. The rain had finally stopped; a few rays of sunshine were pushing through breaks in the clouds. 12n. Use a semicolon between independent clauses joined by a conjunctive adverb or a transitional expression. A conjunctive adverb such as furthermore, however, or nevertheless or a transitional expression such as for instance, in fact, or that is indicates the relationship of the independent clauses that it joins. The snow made traveling difficult; nevertheless, we arrived home safely. RESOURCE CENTER Language Handbook Language Handbook 1517

68 Language Handbook RESOURCE CENTER 12o. Use a semicolon (rather than a comma) before a coordinating conjunction to join independent clauses that contain commas. During the seventeenth century the era of such distinguished prose writers as Sir Thomas Browne, John Donne, and Jeremy Taylor the balanced compound sentence using commas and semicolons reached a high degree of perfection and popularity; but the tendency today is to use a fast-moving style with shorter sentences, fewer commas, and fewer semicolons. [commas within the clauses] 12p. Use a semicolon between items in a series if the items contain commas. The summer reading list includes Jude the Obscure, by Thomas Hardy; Lord Jim, by Joseph Conrad; and Lord of Flies, by William Golding. COLONS 12q. Use a colon to mean note what follows. (1) Use a colon before a list of items, especially after expressions such as follows and the following. That collection includes poems by the following authors: Robert Burns, William Blake, William Wordsworth, and Samuel Taylor Coleridge. Do not use a colon before a list that directly follows a verb or a preposition. Collection 8 includes poems by Robert Burns, William Blake, William Wordsworth, and Samuel Taylor Coleridge. [The list directly follows the preposition by.] (2) Use a colon before a quotation that lacks a speaker tag such as he said or she remarked. His father s response surprised him: I m proud of you, son. (3) Use a colon before a long, formal statement or quotation. When he awoke, Gulliver found himself tied down: I could only look upward; the sun began to grow hot, and the light offended my eyes. I heard a confused noise about me, but in the posture I lay, could see nothing except the sky. 12r. Use a colon in certain conventional situations. 12:01 p.m. [between the hour and the minute] Mark 3:10 [between chapter and verse in referring to passages from the Bible] To Whom It May Concern: [after the salutation of a business letter] A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning [between a title and a subtitle] Your Turn Correct the following sentences by adding or deleting punctuation as needed. 1. George Gordon Byron, was born on January, 22, 1788, in London, England; and died on April, 19, 1824, in Missoloughi, Greece. 2. Lord Bryan s major works include: Childe Harold s Pilgrimage and Don Juan, Byron was afflicted by a clubfoot; a constant source of embarrassment for him. 4. After year s of treatments from a quack, named Lavender, Byron, finally, received a special brace, prescribed by a reputable doctor. 5. Byrons cousin, Mary, whom he idolized, cruelly referred to him as that lameboy Language Handbook

69 13. Punctuation ITALICS Italics are printed characters that slant to the right like this. To indicate italics in handwritten or typewritten work, use underlining. 13a. Use italics (underlining) for words, letters, and symbols referred to as such and for foreign words that have not been adopted into English. The words hiss and clang are examples of onomatopoeia. You typed ie instead of ei. The motto e pluribus unum appears on all United States coins. 13b. Use italics (underlining) for titles of books, plays, long poems, periodicals, newspapers, works of art, films, television series, long musical compositions, recordings, comic strips, court cases, trains, ships, aircraft, and spacecraft. Type of Title Books Plays Long Poems Periodicals Newspapers Works of Art Films TV Series Long Musical Compositions Recordings Comic Strips Court Cases Trains, Aircraft, Ships, and Spacecraft Examples The Canterbury Tales The Taming of the Shrew The Rime of the Ancient Mariner Sports Illustrated The Boston Globe The Persistence of Memory It s a Wonderful Life American Playhouse The Planets, The Magic Flute The Genius of Ray Charles Doonesbury Marbury v. Madison Orient Express, Enola Gay, Queen Elizabeth 2, Apollo 13 NOTE The article the before the title of a book, periodical, or newspaper is not italicized or capitalized unless it is part of the official title. The official title of a book appears on the title page. The official title of a periodi cal or newspaper is the name on its masthead, usually found on the editorial page. What role does fate play in The Seafarer? I found this information in The New York Times. My mom looks through the Sun-Times every morning. QUOTATION MARKS 13c. Use quotation marks to enclose a direct quotation a person s exact words. (1) A direct quotation usually begins with a capital letter. Sir Francis Bacon Wrote, Knowledge is power. However, when the quotation is only part of a sentence, do not begin it with a capital letter. In Act I, Scene 5, Lady Macbeth describes her husband s nature as too full o th milk of human kindness. Do not use quotation marks to enclose an indirect quotation (a rewording of a direct quotation). DIRECT QUOTATION INDIRECT QUOTATION Al said, I m going fishing today. Al said that he is going fishing today. (2) When the expression identifying the speaker divides a quoted sentence, the second part begins with a lowercase letter. All good moral philosophy, according to Sir Francis Bacon, is but the handmaid to religion. [Notice that each part of a divided quotation is enclosed in quotation marks.] When the second part of a divided quotation is a new sentence, the first word begins with a capital letter. On his first voyage, Gulliver finds himself in Lilliput, explained Ms. Chávez. The people there are only six inches tall. (3) When used with quotation marks, other marks of punctuation are placed according to the following rules. Commas and periods are always placed inside the closing quotation marks. Read these lines, he said, and tell me what you think they mean. RESOURCE CENTER Language Handbook Language Handbook 1519

70 Language Handbook RESOURCE CENTER Semicolons and colons are always placed outside the closing quotation marks. Gloria promised, I ll go to the dance with you ; however, she said that several weeks ago. Find examples of the following figures of speech in Wordsworth s poem I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud : personification, metaphor, and simile. Question marks and exclamation points are placed inside the closing quotation marks if the quotation itself is a question or an exclamation. Otherwise, they are placed outside. Did Keats write Ode on a Grecian Urn? What an imagination you have! exclaimed Beth. (4) When quoting a passage that consists of more than one paragraph, put quotation marks at the beginning of each paragraph and at the end of only the last paragraph. At Mr. Bowyers s, a great deal of company; some I knew, others I did not. Here we stayed upon the leads and below till it was late, expecting to see the fireworks; but they were not performed tonight. Only, the City had a light like a glory round about it, with bonfires. At last I went to King Street; and there sent Crockford to my father s and my house to tell them I could not come home tonight, because of the dirt and a coach could not be had. Samuel Pepys, The Diary of Samuel Pepys (5) Use single quotation marks to enclose a quotation within a quotation. Ms. Markham asked us, What do you think John Donne meant when he said, No man is an island, entire of itself? (6) When writing dialogue (a conversation), begin a new paragraph every time the speaker changes, and enclose each speaker s words in quotation marks. This frightened the fellow that attended about the work; but after some pause John Hayward, recovering himself, said, Lord, bless us! There s somebody in the cart not quite dead! So another called to him and said, Who are you? The fellow answered, I am the poor piper. Where am I? Where are you? says Hayward. Why, you are in the dead-cart, and we are going to bury you. Daniel Defoe, A Journal of the Plague Year 13d. Use quotation marks to enclose titles of short works, such as short stories, poems, essays, articles, songs, episodes of television series, and chapters and other parts of books. Type of Name Short Stories Poems Essays Articles Songs TV Episodes Chapters and Parts of Books Examples The Doll s House, Games at Twilight Ode to a Nightingale, Thoughts of Hanoi Shakespeare s Sister, The Myth of Sisyphus How to Improve Your Grades Wind Beneath My Wings, Frankie and Johnny Tony s Surprise Party, Inside the Earth The Age of Reform, How Ecosystems Change Neither italics nor quotation marks are used for titles of major religions works or titles of legal or historical documents. the Bible Code of Hammurabi Bill of Rights Monroe Doctrine ELLIPSIS POINTS 13e. Use three spaced periods called ellipsis points (...) to mark omissions from quoted material and pauses in a written passage. ORIGINAL At last she spoke to me. When she addressed the first words to me I was so confused that I did not know what to answer. She asked me was I going to Araby. I forget whether I answered yes or no. It would be a splendid bazaar, she said; she would love to go. James Joyce, Araby (1) If the quoted material that comes before the ellipsis points is not a complete sentence, use three ellipsis points with a space before the first point. Of his conversation with Mangan s sister, the narrator says, When she addressed the first words to me... I did not know what to answer Language Handbook

71 (2) If the quoted material that comes before the ellipsis points is a complete sentence, use an end mark before the ellipsis points. According to Mangan s sister, It would be a splendid bazaar.... (3) If one sentence or more is omitted, ellipsis points follow any end mark that precedes the omitted material. The narrator recalls his encounter with Mangan s sister: At last she spoke to me.... She asked me was I going to Araby. (4) To show that a full line or more of poetry has been omitted, use a line of spaced periods that is as long as the line of poetry above it. ORIGINAL It fell about the Martinmas time, And a gay time it was then, When our goodwife got puddings to make, And she s boild them in the pan. Traditional, Get Up and Bar the Door ONE LINE It fell about the Martinmas time, OMITTED When our goodwife got puddings to make, And she s boild them in the pan. APOSTROPHES Possessive Case 13f. The possessive case of a noun or a pronoun indicates ownership or relationship. Use an apostrophe in forming the possessive case of nouns and indefinite pronouns. (1) To form the possessive of a singular noun, add an apostrophe and an s. Beowulf s shield the principal s office When forming the possessive of a singular noun ending in an s sound, add only an apostrophe if the addition of s will make the noun awkward to pronounce. Otherwise, add s. Ms. Rodgers class the witness s testimony (2) To form the possessive of a plural noun ending in s, add only the apostrophe. the players uniforms the volunteers efforts (3) Form the possessive of only the last word in a compound word, in the name of an organization or business firm, or in a word group showing joint possession. brother-in-law s car Ralph Merrill and Company s products Macbeth and Lady Macbeth s plan When a possessive pronoun is part of a word group showing joint possession, each noun in the word group is also possessive. Chen s, Ramona s, and my project (4) Form the possessive of each noun in a word group showing individual possession of similar items. Byron s, Shelley s, and Keats s poems (5) Possessive forms of words indicating time, such as minute, day, month, and year, and words indicating amounts in cents or dollars require apostrophes. four weeks vacation a dollar s worth (6) To form the poss essive of an indefinite pronoun, add an apostrophe and an s. no one s fault somebody else s jacket Contractions 13g. Use an apostrophe to show where letters, words, or numbers have been omitted in a contraction. let us let s she would she d you will you ll The word not can be shortened to n t and added to a verb, usually without changing the spelling of the verb. do not don t should not shouldn t EXCEPTION: will not won t Plurals 13h. Use an apostrophe and an s to form the plurals of all lowercase letters, some uppercase letters, numerals, and some words referred to as words. There are two c s and two m s in accommodate. Try not to use so many I s in your cover letter. [Without the apostrophe, the plural of the pronoun I would spell Is.] RESOURCE CENTER Language Handbook Language Handbook 1521

72 Language Handbook RESOURCE CENTER You may add only an s to form the plurals of words, numerals, and capital letters if the plural forms will not cause misreading. However, it is never wrong to use an apostrophe in such cases. James I ruled England during the early 1600s [or 1600 s]. HYPHENS 13i. Use a hyphen to divide a word at the end of a line. Do not divide a one-syllable word. Did the Green Knight know that Sir Gawain had kissed [not kis-sed] his wife? Divide a word only between syllables. First, Macbeth was killed; then he was decapitated [not decapita-ted]. Divide an already hyphenated word at the hyphen. Queen Elizabeth I was ruler of England for fortyfive [not for-ty five] years. Do not divide a word so that one letter stands alone. Paradise Lost by John Milton is a famous English epic [not e-pic]. 13j. Use a hyphen with compound numbers from twenty-one to ninety-nine and with fractions used as modifiers. thirty-seven a three-fourths majority [but three fourths of the voters] DASHES 13k. Use dashes to set off abrupt breaks in thoughts. The playwright handles her material I should say lack of material quite well. 13l. Use dashes to set off appositives or parenthetical expressions that contain commas. Several of the Romantic poets Keats, Shelley, and Byron, for example led fascinating lives. 13m. Use a dash to set off an introductory list or group of examples. Alliteration, caesuras, and kennings these are features of Anglo-Saxon poetry. PARENTHESES 13n. Use parentheses to enclose informative or explanatory material of minor importance. A roman à clef (literally, novel with a key ) is a novel about real people to whom the novelist has assigned fictitious names. The Globe (see the drawing on page 428) was built in [The s in see is lowercase because the parenthetical sentence is within a complete sentence.] The Globe was built in (See the drawing on page 428.) [The S in See is capitalized and a period follows page 428 because the parenthetical sentence is not within another sen tence but instead stands on its own.] BRACKETS 13o. Use brackets to enclose an explanation within quoted or parenthetical material. The newspaper article stated that at the time of that Democratic National Convention [in Chicago in 1968] there were many protest groups operating in the United States. Your Turn In the following dialogue, (1) insert end marks, commas, and quotation marks; (2) correct any errors in capitalization; and (3) add new paragraphs as necessary. [1] Didn t you study shakespeare in class this year Benjamin asked [2] Yes we read several of his tragedies, including Hamlet and Macbeth answered Elaine [3] Hamlet s soliloquy from act three is my favorite exclaimed Carl [4] Is that the one that begins to be, or not to be Elaine inquired [5] Benjamin nodded and said yes, that s it! 1522 Language Handbook

73 14. Spelling UNDERSTANDING WORD STRUCTURE Many English words are made up of words and affixes (prefixes and suffixes). Roots The root of a word is the part that carries the word s core meaning. Root Meaning Examples fin end, limit final, infinite gram write, writing grammar, epigram tract pull, draw tractor, extract vit life vitamin, vital SPELLING RULES The best way to be sure you have spelled a word correctly is to look the word up in a dictionary. ie and ei 14a. Write ie when the sound is long e, except after c. relieve chief field conceit deceive EXCEPTIONS either leisure neither seize protein 14b. Write ei when the sound is not long e. reign foreign their sovereign weight EXCEPTIONS ancient view friend mischief conscience NOTE Rules 14a and 14b apply only when the i and the e are in the same syllable. RESOURCE CENTER Language Handbook Prefixes A prefix is one or more letters or syllables added to the beginning of a word or word part to create a new word. Prefix Meaning Examples contra against contradict, contrast inter between, among interstate, interact mis not, wrongly misfire, misspell re back, again reflect, refinance cede, ceed, and sede 14c. The only English word ending in sede is supersede. The only words ending in ceed are exceed, proceed, and succeed. Most other words with this sound end in cede. concede precede recede secede Adding Prefixes 14d. When adding a prefix, do not change the spelling of the original word. over + run = overrun mis + spell = misspell Suffixes A suffix is one or more letters or syllables added to the end of a word or word part to create a new word. Suffix Meaning Examples fy make, cause verify, pacify ish suggesting, like smallish, childish ist doer, believer artist, humanist ty quality, state cruelty, certainty Adding Suffixes 14e. When adding the suffix ness or ly, do not change the spelling of the original word. gentle + ness = gentleness final + ly = finally EXCEPTIONS For most words ending in y, change the y to i before adding ness or ly. heavy + ness = heaviness ready + ly = readily NOTE One-syllable adjectives ending in y generally follow rule 14h. shy + ness = shyness sly + ly = slyly Language Handbook 1523

74 Language Handbook RESOURCE CENTER 14f. Drop the final silent e before a suffix beginning with a vowel. awake + en = awaken race + ing= racing EXCEPTIONS Keep the final silent e in a word ending in ce or ge before a suffix beginning with a or o. peaceable courageous in dye and in singe before ing. dyeing singeing in mile before age. mileage NOTE When adding ing to words that end in ie, drop the e and change the i to y. die + ing = dying lie + ing = lying 14g. Keep the final silent e before a suffix beginning with a consonant. care + less = careless sure + ty = surety EXCEPTIONS nine + th = ninth true + ly = truly judge + ment = judgment wise + dom = wisdom 14h. For words ending in y preceded by a consonant, change the y to i before any suffix that does not begin with i. heavy + est = heaviest accompany + ment = accompaniment verify + ing = verifying 14i. For words ending in y preceded by a vowel, keep the y when adding a suffix. enjoy + ing = enjoying EXCEPTIONS day + ly = daily pay + ed = paid lay + ly = laid play + ed = played say + ed = said 14j. Double the final consonant before a suffix that begins with a vowel if the word both (1) has only one syllable or has the accent on the last syllable and (2) ends in a single consonant preceded by a single vowel. rap + ing = rapping refer + ed = referred EXCEPTIONS For words ending in w or x, do not double the final consonant. bow + ed = bowed tax + able = taxable For words ending in c, add k before the suffix instead of doubling the c. picnic + k + ing = picnicking FORMING THE PLURALS OF NOUNS 14K. Remembering the following rules will help you spell the plural forms of nouns. (1) For most nouns, add s. beagles senators taxis Saxons (2) For nouns ending in s, x, z, ch, or sh, add es. glasses waltzes brushes Perezes (3) For nouns ending in y preceded by a vowel, add s. monkeys decoys Saturdays Kelleys (4) For nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant, change the y to i and add es. comedies cavities theories skies EXCEPTIONS For proper nouns, add s Gregorys Kimberlys (5) For some nouns ending in f or fe, add s. For others, change the f or fe to v and add es. beliefs loaves giraffes wives EXCEPTIONS For proper nouns, add s. DeGroffs Rolfes (6) For nouns ending in o preceded by a vowel, add s. radios cameos shampoos Matsuos (7) For nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant, add es. torpedoes echoes heroes potatoes For some common nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant, especially those referring to music, and for proper nouns, add only an s. photos hairdos solos Spiros (8) The plurals of a few nouns are formed in irregular ways. geese men children mice teeth 1524 Language Handbook

75 (9) For a few nouns, the singular and the plural forms are the same. deer series Chinese aircraft (10) For most compound nouns, form the plural of only the last word of the compound. courthouses seat belts four-year-olds (11) For compound nouns in which one of the words is modified by the other word or words, form the plural of the noun modified. sons-in-law passersby mountain goats (12) For some nouns borrowed from other languages, the plural is formed as in the original languages. In a few cases, two plural forms are acceptable. analysis analyses phenomenon phenomena or phenomenons (13) To form the plurals of figures, most uppercase letters, signs, and words used as words, add an s or both an apostrophe and an s. 1500s or 1500 s Bs or B s $s or $ s ands or and s To avoid confusion, add both an apostrophe and an s to form the plural of all lowercase letters, certain uppercase letters, and some words used as words. The word fictitious contains three i s. [Without an apostrophe, the plural of i could be confused with the word is.] Sebastian usually makes straight A s. [without an apostrophe, the plural of A could be confused with the word As.] Because I mistakenly thought Evelyn Waugh was a woman, I used her s instead of his s in my paragraph. [Without an apostrophe, the plural of her would look like the possessive pronoun hers, and the plural of his would look like the word hiss.] In names, diacritical marks (marks that show pronunciation) and capitalization are as essential to correct spelling as the letters themselves. If you re not sure about the spelling of a name, check with the person whose name it is, or consult a reference source. François Lagerlöf Van Doren van Gogh Márquez Marín de Vega al-khansa Your Turn Each of the following sentences contains two misspelled words. Correct each misspelling. 1. Nobody in our class has recieved thier books. 2. To sucede in debate, your arguements must be well thought out. 3. Lonelyness is a recuring theme in many literary works. 4. Saddly the bishop sat in judgement against him. 5. His acheivements exceded her expectations. RESOURCE CENTER Language Handbook Language Handbook 1525

76 Language Handbook RESOURCE CENTER 15. Glossary Of Usage The Glossary of Usage is an alphabetical list of expressions with definitions, explanations, and examples. Some of the examples are labeled standard, nonstandard, formal, or informal. The label standard or formal identifies usage that is appropriate in serious writing and speaking (such as in compositions and speeches). The label informal indicates standard English that is generally used in conversation and in everyday writing such as personal letters. The label nonstandard identifies usage that does not follow the guidelines of standard English usage. accept, except Accept is a verb meaning to receive. Except may be a verb meaning to leave out or a preposition meaning excluding. Does Sir Gawain accept the challenge from the Green Knight? [verb] Certain states except teachers from jury duty. [verb] I have read all of Macbeth except the last act. [preposition] affect, effect Affect is a verb meaning to influence. Effect may be either a verb meaning to bring about or to accomplish or a noun meaning the result [of an action]. How did the murder of King Duncan affect Lady Macbeth? [verb] In this dispute, management and labor should be able to effect a compromise. [verb] What far-reaching effects did the Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka decision have? [noun] all ready, already All ready means all prepared. Already means previously. Are you all ready for the audition? We have already read The Seafarer. all right All right means satisfactory, unhurt; safe, correct, or, in reply to a question or to preface a remark, yes. Alright is a misspelling. Does this look all right [not alright]? Oh, all right [not alright], you can go. all the farther, all the faster Avoid using these expressions in formal situations. Use as far as or as fast as. Is that as fast [not all the faster] Chris can run? all together, altogether All together means everyone in the same place. Altogether means entirely. The knights were all together for the celebration. Sir Gawain was not altogether honest with the Green Knight. allusion, illusion An allusion is an indirect reference to something. An illusion is a mistaken idea or a misleading appearance. The speaker made an allusion to Emily Brontë s Wuthering Heights. Before selecting a career, he had to abandon some of his illusions about his own abilities. The director chose certain colors to create an illusion of depth on the small stage. a lot Avoid this expression in formal situations by using many or much. Many [not a lot] of my friends work part time. already altogether among See all ready, already. See all together, altogether. See between, among. and etc. Etc. stands for the Latin words et cetera, meaning and others or and so forth. Always avoid using and before etc. In general, avoid using etc. in formal situations. Use one of its meanings instead. We are comparing the main female characters in Shakespeare s tragedies: Lady Macbeth, Cleopatra, Juliet, and others [or etc., but not and etc.]. any one, anyone The expression any one specifies one member of a group. Anyone means one person, no matter which. Any one of you could win the poetry contest. Anyone who finishes the test early may leave. as as if See like, as. See like, as if. at Avoid using at after a construction beginning with where. NONSTANDARD Where was Beowulf at when Grendel s mother attacked? STANDARD Where was Beowulf when Grendel s mother attacked? 1526 Language Handbook

77 a while, awhile A while means a period of time. A while means for a short time. Herot remained empty for quite a while. They stayed there awhile. bad, badly Bad is an adjective. Badly is an adverb. In standard English, bad should follow a sense verb, such as feel, look, sound, taste, or smell, or other linking verb. The prospects for fair weather look bad [not badly]. because In formal situations, do not use the construction reason... because. Instead, use reason... that. The reason Sir Gawain accepts the green sash is that [not because] he thinks it will protect him from the Green Knight. being as, being that Avoid using either of these expressions for since or because. Because [not being as or being that] Sir Gawain is a knight, we expect him to behave chivalrously. beside, besides Beside means by the side of or next to. Besides means in addition to or other than or moreover. The Geats built Beowulf s tomb beside the sea. No one besides Wiglaf helped Beowulf battle the dragon. I have decided that I do not want to take journalism; besides, I cannot fit it into my schedule. between, among Use between to refer to only two items or to more than two when comparing each item individually to each of the others. The reward money will be divided between Chang and Marta. Sasha explained the difference between assonance, consonance, and alliteration. [Each item is compared individually to each of the others.] Use among to refer to more than two items when you are not considering each item in relation to each other item individually. The reward money will be divided among the four girls. bring, take Bring means to come carrying something. Take means to go carrying something. I ll bring my copy of Gulliver s Travels when I come over to your house. Please take the model of the Globe Theater to the school library. bust, busted Avoid using these words as verbs. Instead, use a form of break or burst, depending on the meaning. The window is broken [not busted]. The water main has burst [not busted] open. can, may Use can to express ability. Use may to express possibility. Can you play the guitar? It may rain later. cannot (can t) help but Avoid using but and the infinitive form of a verb after the expression cannot (can t) help. Instead, use a gerund alone. NONSTANDARD STANDARD I can t help but laugh when I look at that photograph. I can t help laughing when I look at that photograph. compare, contrast Used with to, compare means to look for similarities between. Used with with, compare means to look for similarities and differences between. Contrast is used to point out differences. The simile at the end of the poem compares the eagle s fall to a thunderbolt. We compared Shakespeare s style with that of Christopher Marlowe. The tour guide also contrasted the two castles provisions for defense. could of See of. double subject Do not use an unnecessary pronoun after the subject of a sentence. George Bernard Shaw [not George Bernard Shaw he] wrote Pygmalion. due to Avoid using due to for because of or owing to. All schools were closed because of [not due to] inclement weather. effect See affect, effect. either, neither Either usually means one or the other of two. In referring to more than two, use any one or any instead. Neither usually means not one or the other of two. In referring to more than two use none instead. Either of the two quotations would be appropriate to use at the beginning of your speech. RESOURCE CENTER Language Handbook Language Handbook 1527

78 Language Handbook RESOURCE CENTER You should be able to find ample information about any one of those four poets. Neither of the Perez twins is in school today. None of the seniors have voted yet. etc. See and etc. every day, everyday Every day means each day. Everyday means daily or usual. Every day presents its own challenges. The party will be casual; wear everyday clothes. every one, everyone Every one specifies every person or thing of those named. Everyone means every person, all of the people named. Elizabeth Bowen wrote every one of these stories. Did everyone read The Demon Lover? except See accept, except. farther, further Use farther to express physical distance. Use further to express abstract relationships of degree or quantity. Your house is farther from school than mine is. The United Nations members decided that further debate was unnecessary. fewer, less Use fewer to modify a plural noun and less to modify a singular noun. Fewer students are going out for football this year. Now I spend less time watching TV. good, well Avoid using the adjective good to modify an action verb. Instead, use the adverb well, meaning capably or satisfactorily. We did well [not good] on the exam. Used as an adjective, well means in good health or satisfactory in appearance or condition. I feel well. It s eight o clock, and all is well. had of See of. had ought, hadn t ought with ought. Do not use had or hadn t Your application ought [not had ought] to have been sent in earlier She ought not [not hadn t ought] to swim so soon after eating lunch. illusion See allusion, illusion. imply, infer Imply means to suggest indirectly. Infer means to interpret or to draw a conclusion. The speaker of To a Skylark implies that the skylark is a divine being. I inferred from her speech that she would support a statewide testing program. in, in to, into In generally shows location. In the construction in to, in is an adverb followed by the preposition to. Into generally shows direction. Rudyard Kipling was born in Bombay. He found the treasure and turned it in to his king. Sir Gawain rode into the wilderness to find the Green Knight. infer See imply, infer. irregardless, regardless Use regardless instead. Irregardless is nonstandard. Regardless [not irregardless] of the danger, he continued his journey. its, it s Its is the possessive form of it. It s is the contraction of it is or it has. The community is proud of its school system. It s [it is] a symbol of peace. It s [it has] been cooler today. kind of, sort of In formal situations, avoid using these terms for the adverb somewhat or rather. INFORMAL FORMAL kind of a(n), sort of a(n) the a(n). INFORMAL FORMAL Macbeth appeared to be kind of worried. Macbeth appeared to be rather [or somewhat] worried. In formal situations, omit What kind of a poem is The Passionate Shepherd to His Love? What kind of poem is The Passionate Shepherd to His Love? kind(s), sort(s), type(s) With the singular form of each of these nouns, use this or that. With the plural form, use these or those. less This type of engine performs more economically than any of those types. See fewer, less. lie, lay The verb lie means to rest or to stay, to recline, or to remain in a certain state or position. Its principal parts are lie, lying, lay, and lain. Lie never takes 1528 Language Handbook

79 an object. The verb lay means to put [something] in a place. Its principal parts are lay, laying, laid, and laid. Lay usually takes an object. Gulliver was lying on his back and could hardly move. [no object] The Lilliputians laid baskets of food near Gulliver s mouth. [Baskets is the object of laid.] like, as In formal situations, do not use like for as to introduce a subordinate clause. INFORMAL John looks like his father looked twenty years ago. FORMAL John looks as his father looked twenty years ago. like, as if In formal situations, avoid using the preposition like for the compound conjunction as if or as though to introduce a subordinate clause. INFORMAL FORMAL might of, must of neither nor The heavy footsteps sounded like they were coming nearer. The heavy footsteps sounded as if [or as though] they were coming nearer. See of. See either, neither. See or, nor. of Of is a preposition. Do not use of in place of have after verbs such as could, should, would, might, must, and ought [to]. Also, do not use had of for had. If I had [not had of] know about the shortcut, I would have [not would of] been here sooner. Avoid using of after other prepositions such as inside, off, and outside. Flimnap fell off [not off of] the tightrope. off, off of Do not use off or off of for from. You can get a program from [not off of] the usher. on to, onto In the expression on to, on is an adverb and to is a preposition. Onto is a preposition. The lecturer moved on to her next main idea. She walked onto the stage. or, nor Use or with either; use nor with neither. The list of authors does not include either James Joyce or [not nor] D. H. Lawrence. Neither James Joyce nor D. H. Lawrence is on the list of authors. ought See had ought, hadn t ought. ought to of raise See of. See rise, raise. reason... because See because. refer back Since the prefix re in refer means back, adding back is generally unnecessary. The writer is referring [not referring back] to the years when he lived in Ireland. rise, raise The verb rise means to go up or to get up. Its principal parts are rise, rising, rose, and risen. Rise never takes an object. The verb raise means to cause [something] to rise or to lift up. Its principal parts are raise, raising, raised, and raised. Raise usually takes an object. Her blood pressure rose as she waited. [no object] The Green Knight raised the ax above his head. [Ax is the object of raised.] should of See of. sit, set The verb sit means to rest in an upright, seated position. Its principal parts are sit, sitting, sat, and sat. Sit seldom takes an object. The verb set means to put [something] in a place. Its principal parts are set, setting, set, and set. Set usually takes an object. Banquo s ghost sits in Macbeth s place. [no object] Please set the groceries on the table. [Groceries is the object of set.] some, somewhat In formal situations, avoid using some to mean to some extent. Use somewhat. The Wedding Guest was somewhat shaken [not shaken some] by the Ancient Mariner s gaze and appearance. sort(s) See kind(s), sort(s), type(s) and kind of a(n), sort of a(n). sort of take See kind of, sort of. See bring, take. than, then Than is a conjunction used in comparisons. Then is an adverb meaning at that time or next. Is King Macbeth more superstitious than Lady Macbeth? First, we will read The Lamb ; then, we will read The Tyger. that See who, which, that. their, there, they re Their is a possessive form of they. As an adverb, there means at that place. There can RESOURCE CENTER Language Handbook Language Handbook 1529

80 Language Handbook RESOURCE CENTER also be used to begin a sentence. They re is the contraction of they are. They built a tomb for their fallen leader. Macduff was not there at the time. There is very little time left. They re waiting for Banquo. theirs, there s Theirs is a possessive form of the pronoun they. There s is the contraction for there is. The treasure is theirs now. There s an allusion to the Bible in the poem. them Do not use them as an adjective. Use those. Have you seen those [not them] murals by Judith Baca at the art museum? then there there s they re See than, then. See their, there, they re. See theirs, there s. See their, there, they re. this here, that there this or that. Avoid using here or there after This [not this here] poem was written by Robert Browning. try and, try to Use try to, not try and. I will try to [not try and] finish reading The Diary of Samuel Pepys tonight. type, type of Avoid using the noun type as an adjective. Add of after type. What type of [not type] character is the knight in The Wife of Bath s Tale? type(s) ways well See kind(s), sort(s), type(s). Use way, not ways, when referring to distance. Is Canterbury a long way [not ways] from the Tabard Inn? See good, well. when, where definition. Avoid using when or where to begin a NONSTANDARD A caesura is where you break or pause in a line of poetry. STANDARD A caesura is a break or pause in a line of poetry. where Avoid using where for that. I read that [not where] you won a scholarship. where... at See at. who, which, that Who refers to persons only. Which refers to things only. That may refer to either persons or things. Sir Gawain was the knight who [or that] accepted the Green Knight s challenge. The Globe, which was built in 1599, burned down in Is this the only poem that Sir Walter Raleigh ever wrote? who s, whose Who s is the contraction of who is or who has. Whose is the possessive form of who. Well, look who s [who is] here! Who s [who has] read all of the play? Whose treasure is it? would of See of. your, you re Your is a possessive form of you. You re is the contraction of you are. Is that your car? I can see that you re tired. Your Turn Revise the following sentences according to the rules of Standard English. 1. The reason they had to be quiet was because the performance was in progress. 2. The prompter helped the cast rehearse they re lines. 3. She was much more convincing in that role then the others. 4. In the orchestra pit, the conductor took his place, paused a moment, and than lifted his baton. 5. Percy Bysshe Shelley he wrote Prometheus Unbound Language Handbook

81 Glossary The glossary that follows is an alphabetical list of words found in the selections in this book. Use this glossary just as you would use a dictionary - to find out the meaning of unfamiliar words. (Some technical, foreign, and more obscure words in this book are not listed here but instead are defined for you in the footnotes that accompany many of the selections.) Many words in the English language have more than one meaning. This glossary gives the meanings that apply to the words as they are used in the selections in this book. Words closely related in form and meaning are usually listed together in one entry (for instance, cower and cowered), and the definition is given for the first form. The following abbreviations are used: adj. adjective adv. adverb n. noun v. verb Each word s pronunciation is given in parentheses. For more information about the words in this glossary or for information about words not listed here, consult a dictionary. A abated (uh BAYT ihd) v. used as adj. lessened. abides (uh BYDZ) v. endures. abominable (uh BAHM uh nuh buhl) adj. disgusting; hateful. abstain (ab STAYN) v. refrain. accommodate (uh KAHM uh dayt) v. provide room for. advance (ad VANS) v. promote; accelerate growth or progress of. adversary (AD vuhr sehr ee) n. enemy; opponent. aesthetics (ehs THEHT ihks) n. principles of beauty. affectation (af ehk TAY shuhn) n. artificial behavior designed to impress others. affinity (uh FIHN uh tee) n. kinship; bond. affliction (uh FLIHK shuhn) n. suffering; something that causes pain or distress. aggrieved (uh GREEVD) v. used as adj. offended. albeit (awl BEE iht) conj. although it is. altruistic (al tru IHS tihk) adj. unselfish. ambitious (am BIHSH uhs) adj. aiming at a goal that is hard to reach. anarchy (AN uhr kee) n. disorder and confusion. animosities (an ih MAHS uh teez) n. pl. hostilities; violent hatreds or resentments. annals (AN uhlz) n. records, organized by year, that tell someone or something s history. annihilate (uh NY uh layt) v. destroy; make nonexistent. annotated (AN uh tayt id) adj. marked with explanations in the form of notes. annulled (uh NUHLD) v. erased; canceled. antique (an TEEK) adj. ancient. apathy (AP uh thee ) n. lack of interest. apertures (AP uhr churz) n. openings. appalled (uh PAWLD) v. used as adj. dismayed. apprehensive (ap rih HEHN sihv) adj. feeling anxious, worried. arable (AR uh buhl) adj. fit to be farmed or cultivated. ardent (AHR duhnt) adj. eager; enthusiastic. arrested (uh REHST ihd) v. used as adj. checked or stopped in motion. artifice (AHR tuh fihs) n. human skill or craft, as opposed to what is natural; trickery; deception. ascended (uh SEHND ihd) v. went up. aspire (uh SPYR) v. reach upward to a goal. assent (uh SEHNT) n. acceptance. asserted (uh SURT ihd) v. declared. assuage (uh SWAYJ) v. ease; calm. audaciously (aw DAY shuhs lee) adv. boldly. austere (aw STIHR) adj. spare; very plain. avarice (AV uhr ihs) n. an uncontrolled desire for wealth. B bawling (BAWL ihng) v. used as adj. crying loudly. benign (bih NYN) adj. kind; gracious. bequest (bih KWEHST) n. a gift left through a will. bibliophile (BIHB lee uh fyl) n. one who loves books. bid (bihd) v. demanded; asked. blanched (blancht) v. used as adj. made white or pale. blithe (blyth) adj. happy and cheerful. botanical (buh TAN uh kuhl) adj. of plants or plant life; relating to the science of botany. boundless (BOWND lihs) adj. limitless. brandishing (BRAN dihsh ihng) v. used as adj. shaking in a threatening way. brazen (BRAY zuhn) adj. made of brass. buoyancy (BOY uhn see) n. lightness of spirit; Glossary 1531

82 Glossary RESOURCE CENTER cheerfulness. burnished (BUR nihsht) v. used as adj. made bright and smooth. C cadence (KAY duhns) n. the beat of a repetitive motion; a sound that rises and falls. candor (KAN duhr) n. honesty; directness, openness. caprice (kuh PREES) n. sudden notion or desire. carefree (KAIR free) adj. without worry; happy. caste (kast) n. social class. celestial (suh LEHS chuhl) adj. heavenly. censure (SEHN shuhr) v. to express disapproval of. certitude (SUR tuh tood) n. a feeling of sureness. chaste (chayst) adj. pure, decent, or modest in nature and behavior. clambered (KLAM buhrd) v. climbed clumsily. clamorous (KLAM uhr uhs) adj. loud and noisy. clinical (KLIHN uh kuhl) adj. objective; without emotion. coarse (kawrs) adj. of low quality; rough. coherently (koh HIHR uhnt lee) adv. clearly and logically. colossal (kuh LAHS uhl) adj. magnificently huge. combustible (kuhm BUHS tuh buhl) adj. easy to set on fire; fast-burning. commendable (kuh MEHN duh buhl) adj. deserving of admiration. commiserate (kuh MIHZ uh rayt) v. feel sorrow or pity for; sympathize. compatible (kuhm PAT uh buhl) adj. able to exist or work together. compulsive (kuhm PUHL sihv) adj. driven by an irresistible impulse. compulsory (kuhm PUHL suhr ee) adj. required; enforced. concealed (kunh SEELD) v. used as adj. hidden. conceding (kuhn SEED ihng) v. admitting as true. conception (kuhn SEHP shuhn) n. the originating of something. concocted (kahn KAHKT ihd) v. prepared (food or drink) by mixing a variety of ingredients. condemned (kuhn DEHMD) v. doomed. condolences (kuhn DOH luhns ihz) n. pl. expressions of sympathy offered to a grieving person. confounded (kahn FOWN dihd) v. used as adj. confused. congealed (kuhn JEELD) v. used as adj. thickened. conjectured (kuhn JEHK chuhrd) v. reasoned; guessed. connoisseur (kahn uh SUR) n. person with highly informed and refined taste. consecrate (KAHN suh krayt) v. make honorable and sacred. consequently (KAHN suh kwehnt lee) adv. as a result of something. conspicuous (kuhn SPIHK yoo uhs) adj. attracting attention. constancy (KAHN stuhn see) n. faithfulness; loyalty. contemplation (kahn tuhm PLAY shuhn) n. deep thought; meditation. contemptuous (kuhn TEHMP choo uhs) adj. showing strong dislike; scornful. contention (kuhn TEHN shuhn) n. struggle. contortion (kuhn TAWR shuhn) n. twisted shape or motion. convey (kuhn VAY) v. communicate; express. conviction (kuhn VIHK shuhn) n. firm belief or certainty. copious (KOH pee uhs) adj. plentiful; abundant. copyright (KAHP ee ryt) n. the legal right to use, sell or distribute any material, such as books, songs, and characters, that can be printed or published. corporeal (kawr PAWR ee uhl) adj. of the body. cosmopolitan (kahz muh PAHL uh tuhn) adj. worldly; sophisticated. countenance (KOWN tuh nuhns) n. facial appearance. countenances (KOWN tuh nuhns ehz) v. extends approval to; favors. courtiers (KAWR tee uhrz) n. palace attendants. covetousness (KUHV uh tuhs nihs) n. desire for what belongs to others. credible (KREHD uh buhl) adj. believable. creed (kreed) n. the essential points of religious belief. cultivate (KUHL tuh vayt) v. develop; promote. cursory (KUR suhr ee) adj. hasty; superficial. D daunted (DAWNT ihd) v. used as adj. made to lose courage; intimidated. decay (dih KAY) n. wasting away; rotting; decline in quality. decreed (dih KREED) v. ordered; commanded. defiant (dih FY uhnt) adj. rebellious; disobedient. defiled (dih FYLD) v. made unclean. deities (DEE uh teez) n. pl. gods and goddesses. delusion (dih LOO zhuhn) n. false belief. demeanor (dih MEE nuhr) n. the way in which a person behaves. demolition (dehm uh LIHSH uhn) n. destruction. derives (dih RYVZ) v. comes from a certain source. desolate (DEHS uh liht) adj. uninhabited; barren; dreary. desolation (dehs uh LAY shuhn) n. grief; loneliness Glossary

83 desperate (DEHS puhr iht) adj. driven by hopelessness; moved to use extreme means to try to escape frustration and loss. deviate (DEE vee ayt) v. turn aside from a way, norm, or truth. diabolic (dy uh BAHL ihk) adj. of or having to do with evil or the devil. diffusive (dih FYOO sihv) adj. spread out; not concentrated in one place. digressed (dy GREHSD) v. wandered away from the subject. diligence (DIHL uh juhns) n. carefulness. diminishes (duh MIHN ihsh ehz) v. makes smaller; lessens; reduces. discerning (dih SURN ihng) v. used as adj. displaying good judgment; perceptive. discomfiture (dihs KUHM fih chuhr) n. frustration; embarrassment. disconcerted (dihs kuhn SUR tihd) v. used as adj confused. discord (DIHS kawrd) n. conflict. discourse (DIHS kawrs) n. conversation or speech. disillusionment (dihs ih LOO zhehn muhnt) n. being disenchanted, or freed from a false idea. dismal (DIHZ muhl) adj. gloomy. dismayed (dihs MAYD) v. upset; alarmed. disparaged (dihs PAR ihjd) v. belittled; spoke negatively of. dispassionately (dihs PASH uh niht lee) adv. without emotion; impartially. disperses (dihs PURS ihz) v. breaks up and scatters. displaced (dihs PLAYST) v. moved from its usual location. disposition (dihs puh ZIHSH uhn) n. natural qualities of personality. dissuade (dih SWAYD) v. to advise against. distend (dihs TEHND) v. expand; swell. distill (dihs TIHL) v. draw out the essence of. distorting (dihs TAWRT ihng) v. used as adj. misshaping; deforming. distraught (dihs TRAWT) adj. extremely agitated. divine (dih VYN) adj. of or like God or a god; given or inspired by God. doctrine (DAHK truhn) n. teachings of the church. dogged (DAWG ihd) adj. stubbornly persistent. domain (doh MAYN) n. a sphere of influence due to ownership, expertise, or responsibility. dread (drehd) adj. inspiring fear and awe. dreadful (DREHD fuhl) adj. terrible; causing fear. dregs (drehgz) n. pl. sediment. E ecstatic (ehk STAT ihk) adj. extremely joyful; showing great pleasure. efficacious (ehf uh KAY shuhs) adj. effective or useful. efficacy (EHF uh kuh see) n. ability to produce a desired effect. elation (ih LAY shuhn) n. high spirits; jubilation. emanated (EHM uh nayt id) v. flowed; came forth. embers (EHM buhrz) n. pl. glowing remains of a fire. embrace (ehm BRAYS) v. accept readily; take up or adopt. embroidered (ehm BROY duhrd) v. used as adj. ornamented with needlework or as if with needlework. eminence (EHM uh nuhns) n. high rank or position. eminent (EHM uh nuhnt) adj. great; high-standing. endowed (ehn DOWD) v. used as adj. provided with. endure (ehn DOOR) v. undergo; bear. endured (ehn DOORD) v. suffered, put up with. engagements (ehn GAYJ muhnts) n. military battles. enmity (EHN muh tee) n. hostility. enticing (ehn TYS ihng) adj. attracting by arousing hopes or desires; tempting. epilogue (EHP uh lawg) n. short section at the end of a literary work that often tells what happened after the end of the story. epithet (EHP uh theht) n. descriptive expression. erect (ih REHKT) adj. upright. erupted (ih RUHPT ihd) v. burst forth. eternal (ih TUR nuhl) adj. forever; everlasting. ethereal (ih THIHR ee uhl) adj. light and delicate; unearthly. exhilaration (ehg zihl uh RAY shuhn) n. excitement; high spirits. expedient (ehk SPEE dee uhnt) n. way of getting something; a means for achieving an end. expire (ehk SPYR) v. die; come to an end. exploit (EHKS ployt) n. daring act. extolled (ehk STOHLD) v. praised. F fancy (FAN see) n. a liking for something or someone. fastidious (fas TIHD ee uhs) adj. picky; overly fussy. fawning (FAWN ihng) v. used as adj. cringing and pleading. fervor (FUR vuhr) n. intense emotion. feverishly (FEE vuhr ihsh lee) adv. in an agitated manner. fickleness (FIHK uhl nuhs) n. changeableness. RESOURCE CENTER Glossary Glossary 1533

84 Glossary RESOURCE CENTER fidelity (fy DEHL uh tee) n. loyalty; faithfulness. flaccid (FLAS ihd) adj. limp; flabby. flagged (flagd) v. declined; lost strength or interest. flinging (FLIHNG ihng) v. used as adj. throwing forcefully. foliage (FOH lihj) n. leafy plants. folly (FAHL ee) n. foolishness. forlorn (fawr LAWRN) adj. hopeless; wretched. formidable (FAWR muh duh buhl) adj. hard to surmount. forsaken (fawr SAY kuhn) adj. forlorn; abandoned. fragrant (FRAY gruhnt) adj. sweet-smelling. frame (fraym) v. shape. frivolous (FRIHV uh luhs) adj. silly or unimportant. frugal (FROO guhl) adj. thrifty; careful with money. G gallant (GAL uhnt) adj. noble; brave. garrulous (GAR uh luhs) adj. talkative. gaudy (GAW dee) adj. overly bright or colorful. genial (JEEN yuhl) adj. friendly. ghastly (GAST lee) adj. dreadful; ghostly. girdled (GUR duhld) v. used as adj. enclosed or circled around. glade (glayd) n. small open space in a forest. gleaned (gleend) v. gathered little by little or gradually. glimmer (GLIHM uhr) n. faint, unsteady light. gloat (gloht) v. feel or express great, often malicious, self-satisfaction or pleasure. goblet (GAHB liht) n. drinking vessel, often ornate. gourd (gawrd) n. a vegetable with a hard rind that can be dried, hollowed out, and used as a bowl. grievous (GREE vuhs) adj. outrageous; horrible. groveling (GRAHV uhl ihng) v. used as adj. crawling; begging; humiliating oneself. guile (gyl) n. sly dealings; skill in deceiving. H habitual (huh BIHCH oo uhl) adj. regular; steady. haggled (HAG uhld) v. argued about a price. heedless (HEED lihs) adj. careless; thoughtless. hefty (HEHF tee) adj. heavy, considerable. hoard (hawrd) v. save or store, often in secret. hoarding (HAWR dihng) v. storing; accumulating. hulking (HUHLK ihng) adj. big and clumsy. I idyll (YD uhl) n. short work of prose or poetry about an idealized country scene. ignoble (ihg NOH buhl) adj. shameful; degrading. ignominy (IHG nuh mihn ee) n. shame; disgrace. immobility (ihm oh BIHL uh tee) n. lack of movement. impaired (ihm PAIRD) v. marred; weakened. impassively (ihm PAS ihv lee) adv. calmly; indifferently. impediment (im PEHD uh muhnt) n. obstacle; obstruction. impels (ihm PEHLZ) v. forces; causes to move. impersonality (ihm pur suh NAL uh tee) n. lack of human connection. imperturbable (ihm puhr TUR buh buhl) adj. calm, impassive. impetuous (ihm PEHCH u uhs) adj. forceful; violent. impinge (ihm PIHNJ) v. strike; touch. implacable (ihm PLAK uh buhl) adj. impossible to please, satisfy, or change; unyielding. impotence (IHM puh tuhns) n. helplessness. improvised (IHM pruh vyzd) v. used as adj. made for the occasion with whatever is handy. impute (ihm PYOOT) v. attribute to someone or something, usually negatively. incapacitated (ihn kuh PAS uh tayt ihd) v. disabled; deprived of power. incessant (ihn SEHS uhnt) adj. constant; never ending. incoherent (ihn koh HIHR uhnt) adj. confused; rambling. inconstancy (ihn KAHN stuhn see) n. changeability or changeableness, specifically, a shift in loyalties ; variability. incurred (ihn KURD) v. brought upon oneself. indiscriminately (ihn dihs KRIHM uh niht lee) adv. without making careful distinctions; randomly. indivisible (ihn duh VIHZ uh buhl) adj. unable to be divided or separated. industrious (ihn DUHS tree uhs) adj. hardworking. infallible (ihn FAL uh buhl) adj. unable to fail or be wrong. infect (ihn FEHKT) v. spread a disease to. infernal (ihn FUR nuhl) adj. hellish; fiendish. ingenuity (ihn juh NOO uh tee) n. cleverness, inventiveness. ingrained (ihn GRAYND) adj. deeply and firmly fixed in one s nature or being. ingratiate (ihn GRAY shee ayt) v. try to gain another s favor or goodwill. innumerable (ih NOO muhr uh buhl) adj. too many to count. inspiration (ihn spuh RAY shuhn) n. influence of thought and strong feelings on actions, especially good actions. insufficient (ihn suh FIHSH uhnt) adj. not enough. intensity (ihn TEHN suh tee) n. great vigor Glossary

85 intermittent (ihn tuhr MIHT uhnt) adj. starting and stopping; periodic. intoxicating (ihn TAHK suh kay tihng) v. used as adj. causing wild excitement, often beyond the point of self-control. intrudes (ihn TROODZ) v. pushes in; interrupts. iridescent (ihr ih DEHS uhnt) adj. showing rainbowlike colors. itinerant (y TIHN uhr uhnt) adj. migratory K keenly (KEEN lee) adv. strongly and clearly. L lament (luh MEHNT) v. mourn or grieve for. lamentable (luh MEHN tuh buhl) adj. deserving of or inspiring sorrow; regrettable; unfortunate. languor (LANG guhr) n. lack of interest or enthusiasm. lechery (LEHCH uhr ee) n. indulgence in lust. leisurely (LEE zhuhr lee) adv. without hurry; taking plenty of time. lethal (LEE thuhl) adj. deadly. lilting (LIHLT inhg) v. used as adj. singing or speaking with a gentle rhythm. linger (LIHNG guhr) v. stay a long while. livid (LIHV ihd ) adj pale; grayish. loath (lohth) adj. unwilling or reluctant. loathsome (LOHTH suhm) adj. very hateful; disgusting. lugubrious (loo GOO bree uhs) adj. solemn or mournful, especially in an excessive way. M majesty (MAJ uh stee) n. grandeur. malice (MAL ihs) n. active ill will; spite. maniacal (muh NY uh kuhl) adj. crazed; wildly enthusiastic. manifest (MAN uh fehst) adj. evident; obvious. martyrdom (MAHR tuhr duhm) n. death of a martyr, someone who dies for his or her beliefs. meandering (mee AN duhr ihng) v. used as adj. wandering with no clear direction. melancholy (MEHL uhn KAHL ee) adj. sad or causing sadness. melodious (muh LOH dee uhs) adj. producing pleasant sounds; tuneful.. mingle (MIHNG guhl) v. mix. minuscule (mih NUHS kyool) adj. extremely small. misanthropy (mih SAN thruh pee) n. hatred for humankind. misery (MIHZ uh ree) n. wretchedness; suffering momentum (moh MEHN tuhm) n. the force with which an object moves. monotonous (muh NAHT uh nuhs) adj. unvarying. moorline (MUR lyn) n. edge of a heath or wasteland. multitudes (MUHL tuh toodz) n. pl. crowds; great numbers. munificence (myoo NIHF uh suhns) n. generosity. murmurous (MUR muhr uhs) adj. making consistent soft, low sounds. mute (myoot) adj. not speaking; silent. N native (NAY tihv) adj. belonging to a person because of birth. nestled (NEHS uhld) v. snugly settled, as in a nest. nocturnal (nahk TUR nuhl) adj. occurring at night. notorious (noh TAWR ee uhs) adj. well known because of something bad; having a bad reputation; noxious (NAHK shuhs) adj. very harmful, often poisonous. O object (AHB jihkt) n. goal or purpose. oblivious (uh BLIHV ee uhs) adj. unaware or paying no attention to. obscure (uhb SKYUR) adj. little known. obstinate (AHB stuh niht) adj. unreasonably stubborn. obtained (uhb TAYND) v. got; acquired. odious (OH dee uhs) adj. hateful; offensive. officious (uh FIHSH uhs) adj. eager to give unwanted help. oppressive (uh PREHS ihv) adj. hard to bear. overwrought (oh vuhr RAWT) adj. overly excited. P pagan (PAY guhn) n. a person who believes in many gods or no god. painstaking (PAYNZ tay kihng) adj. using great care. pallor (PAL uhr) n. paleness. parallel (PAR uh lehl) adv. in line with, but without meeting. passion (PASH uhn) n. strong emotion. pastoral (PAS tuhr uhl) adj. of simple or peaceful rural life. pathos (PAY thahs) n. a feeling of sadness or melancholy often brought on by a work of art. patronize (PAY truh nyz) v. be a customer of. pedantic (peh DAN tihk) adj. showing an exaggerated concern for books, learning, and rules. pensive (PEHN sihv) adj. reflective; thoughtful. perfunctory (puhr FUHNGK tuhr ee) adj. halfhearted; RESOURCE CENTER Glossary Glossary 1535

86 Glossary RESOURCE CENTER disinterested. perfunctorily adv. perpetual (purh PEHCH oo uhl) adj. lasting forever. perplexed (pehr PLEHKSD) v. troubled with doubt; puzzled. perplexes (pehr PLEHKS uhz) v. confuses. perplexing (puhr PLEHK sihng) v. used as adj. confusing. persevered (pur suh VIHRD) v. persisted despite difficulty or opposition. pervades (puhr VAYDZ) v. spreads throughout. perversely (puhr VURS lee) adv. disagreeably; contrarily. pestilence (PEHS tuh luhns) n. plague. piety (PY uh tee) n. devotion to religion; holiness. pilgrimage (PIHL gruh mihj) n. a journey, especially to a sacred place. piqued (peekt) v. used as adj. provoked; resentful. piteous (PIHT ee uhs) adj. deserving of pity. plagued (playgd) v. used as adj. afflicted. pledge (plehj) n. promise or vow. pledge (plehj) v. solemnly promise; drink a toast to. plight (plyt) n. unpromising condition or situation. posthumous (PAHS choo muhs) adj. happening after death. potency (POH tuhn see) n. strength; power. precautions (prih KAW shuhnz) n. care taken in advance; safeguards. precipitately (prih SIHP uh tiht lee) adv. suddenly. predominant (prih DAHM uh nuhnt) adj. having superior influence; prevailing. prescribe (prih SKRYB) v. limit by rules or laws; order. presumptuous (prih ZUHMP choo uhs) adj. going beyond the proper bounds. pretense (prih TEHNS) n. weakly supported claim. pretext (PREE tehkst) n. excuse. prevailed (prih VAYLD) v. gained the desired effect. prodding (PRAHD ihng) v. poking; jabbing. prodigious (proh DIHJ uhs) adj. huge; very great. pprofane (proh FAYN) adj. irreverent; not associated with religious matters. profuse (pruh FYOOS) adj. very abundant. propensity (pruh PEHN suh tee) n. natural inclination. propitious (pruh PIHSH uhs) adj. favorable. proportion (pruh POHR shuhn) n. ratio; relative amount. prosaic (proh ZAY ihk) adj. ordinary; dull. prosperity (prahs PEHR uh tee) n. wealth or good fortune. prostrate (PRAHS trayt) adj. lying flat. protracted (proh TRAK tihd) v. used as adj. drawn out over time. prowess (PROW ihs) n. outstanding ability. prudence (PROO duhns) n. cautious management. punctiliousness (puhngk TIHL ee uhs nuhs) n. care for following rules and traditions exactly. punctual (PUHNGK choo uhl) adj. prompt; on time. Q quarantine (KWAWR uhn teen) n. enforced isolation of ill people so they do not spread their illness to others. quell (kwehl) v. bring under control by subduing. quench (kwehnch) v. put out; extinguish. R radiant (RAY dee uhnt) adj. shining with beams of light. rapture (RAP chuhr) n. bliss; profound joy. rash (rash) adj. foolhardy. ravenous (RAV uh nuhs) adj. very hungry. realms (rehlmz) n. pl. kingdoms. rebuffed (rih BUHFD) v. rejected with disdain. reckon (REHK uhn) v. estimate; consider; judge. reckoning (REHK uh nihng) n. calculation, accounting. recompense (REHK uhm pehns) n. payment or compensation in return for something lost. redress (REE drehs) n. payment or action that serves to remedy an injustice or injury. reed (reed) n. a kind of tall grass with a hollow, jointed stalk that grows in wet places. reeks (reeks) v. has a strong, bad smell. reiterate (ree IHT uh rayt) v. repeat. relentlessly (rih LEHNT lihs lee) adv. unyielding; without pity. remonstrated (rih MAHN strayt ihd) v. protested. rendered (REHN duhrd) v. made; caused to be. rendering (REHN duh rihng) v. causing to be or become; making. renounce (rih NOWNS) v. formally give up; reject. renown (rih NOWN) n. fame; celebrity. reparation (rehp uh RAY shuhn) n. payment to make up for a wrong or injury. replenish (rih PLEHN ihsh) v. to fill again; to renew. reprisal (rih PRY zuhl) n. punishment in return for an injury. reproachfully (rih PROHCH fuhl ee) adv. accusingly. reputation (rehp yoo TAY shuhn) n. people s opinion of a person. respite (REHS piht) n. postponement; reprieve. resume (rih ZOOM) v. begin again. revelation (rehv uh LAY shuhn) n. act of making known; something revealed Glossary

87 reverence (REHV uhr uhns) n. feeling of great respect and awe. reverently (REHV uhr uhnt lee) adv. with great respect or awe, as for something sacred. righteous (RY chuhs) adj. morally right. rigor (RIHG uhr) n. severity. rite (ryt) n. formal ceremony. ritualistic (rihch yoo uh LIHS tihk) adj. relating to a formal ceremony. S sanguine (SANG gwihn) adj. reddish in color; redfaced from effort. satiety (suh TY uh tee) n. feeling of disgust or weariness caused by excess. schism (SKIHZ uhm) n. division. scorn (skawrn) v. refuse; reject by showing contempt. scourge (skurj) n. to punish severely, usually with a whip. scrupulous (SKROO pyoo luhs) adj. extremely careful in deciding what is right or wrong. scurry (SKUR ee) v. run away quickly. secular (SEHK yuh luhr) adj. not belonging to a religious order; worldly. sensual (SEHN shoo uhl) adj. appealing to bodily senses rather than to the mind. sepulchral (suh PUHL kruhl) adj. deep and gloomy. sequestered (sih KWEHS tuhrd) v. used as adj. set apart from; isolated. serenely (suh REEN lee) adv. calmly; peacefully. serrated (SEHR ay tihd) v. used as adj. marked along the edge with jagged, sawlike notches. servile (SUR vuhl) adj. like a slave; submissive. shied (shyd) vb. shrank or flinched away. sinews (SIHN yooz) n. powerful, tough connective tissues. singularities (sihng gyoo LAR uh teez) n. pl. characteristics that make a person unique. singularly (SIHNG gyuh luhr lee) adv. extraordinarily; unusually. sinuous (SIHN yu uhs) adj. winding; twisted. sloth (slawth) n. laziness; idleness. slovenly (SLUHV uhn lee) adj. untidy. sneer (snihr) n. proud, unkind facial expression. somber (SAHM buhr) adj. gloomy. sordid (SAWR dihd) adj. filthy; foul. specious (SPEE shuhs) adj. showy but false. splendor (SPLEHN duhr) n. great brightness; brilliant light. spontaneous (spahn TAY nee uhs) adj. caused by natural impulse; not forced. squalid (SKWAHL ihd) adj. foul; dirty. squall (skwawl) n. brief, violent storm. stealthy (STEHL thee) adj. secret; sly. stratagems (STRAT uh juhmz) n. pl. clever plans to achieve a goal. stridently (STRY duhnt lee) adv. harshly; sharply. sublime (suh BLYM) adj. awe inspiring due to majesty or nobility. successive (suhk SEHS ihv) adj. following in consecutive order. succor (SUHK uhr) v. to help in time of distress. summon (SUHM uhn) v. call. superciliously (soo puhr SIHL ee uhs lee) adv. disdainfully, scornfully. supplant (suh PLANT ) v. replace; displace. supplement (SUHP luh muhnt) n. something added to make complete or to enrich. supplication (suhp luh KAY shuhn) n. humble plea. suppressed (suh PREHST) v. used as adj. kept from being known. surly (SUR lee) adj. bad-tempered; unfriendly. surreptitiously (sur uhp TIHSH uhs lee) adv. in a secret or sneaky manner. sustenance (SUHS tuh nuhns) n. food or provisions needed to support life. T taciturn (TAS uh turn ) adj. not talkative. teeming (TEEM ihng) v. used as adj. full of; alive with; fruitful. temerity (tuh MEHR uh tee) n. reckless boldness. temperate (TEHM puhr iht) adj. moderate. temporal (TEHM puhr uhl) adj. limited to this world; not spiritual. thatched (thacht) v. used as adj. covered with straw, leaves, or similar materials. thermal (THUR muhl) adj. relating to heat. torment (TAWR mehnt) n. great pain. tortuous (TAWR choo uhs) adj. characterized by twists and turns. traditions (truh DIHSH uhnz) n. pl. customs, values, or ideas handed down from generation to generation. transgress (trans GREHS) v. sin against; violate a limit. transitory (TRAN suh tawr ee) adj. not permanent. treachery (TREHCH uhr ee) n. a breaking of faith; betrayal of trust. tremulous (TREHM yuh luhs) adj. quivering; wavering. RESOURCE CENTER Glossary Glossary 1537

88 Glossary RESOURCE CENTER tribulation (trihb yuh LAY shuhn) n. great trouble or misery. tribute (TRIHB yoot) n. something done to show respect. tumult (TOO muhlt) n. great noise; agitation. tuneful (TOON fuhl) adj. musical; melodious. turbid (TUR bihd) adj. cloudy; confused. turmoil (TUR moyl) n. state of agitation or commotion. tyrannous (TIHR uh nuhs) adj. harsh; oppressive. U uncanny (uhn KAN ee) adj. strange; eerie; weird. uncouth (uhn KOOTH) adj. unsophisticated; awkward. underfoot (uhn duhr FUT) adv. between the feet and the ground. undeterminable (uhn dih TUR muh nuh buhl) adj. not able to be measured or decided. unendurable (uhn ehn DOOR uh buhl) adj more than can be tolerated. unpremeditated (uhn pree MEHD uh tay tihd) adj. not planned in advance. unpretentious (uhn prih TEHN shuhs) adj. modest. V vain (vayn) adj. of no use; producing no good result. valiant (VAL yuhnt) adj. brave; courageous. vanquish (VANG kwihsh) v. defeat in battle or conflict. vehemently (VEE uh muhnt lee) adv. with strong feeling; passionately. veneer (vuh NIHR) n. a surface appearance or show. vexed (vehkst) v. troubled or disturbed. vie (vy) v. compete. vile (vyl) adj. evil, disgusting. virtuous (VUR choo uhs) adj. moral; righteous. vivacity (vy VAS uh tee) n. liveliness; energetic spirit. W wan (wahn) adj. faint or weak in a way suggesting sadness, sickness, or weariness. waning (WAYN ihng) v. fading gradually. welded (WEHLD ihd) v. used as adj. joined; sealed. whetting (HWEHT ihng) v. used as adj. act of sharpening a blade on a stone made for the purpose. whimsical (HWIHM zuh kuhl) adj. fanciful. withered (WIHTH uhrd) v. used as adj. dried up. withers (WIHTH uhrz) v. fades; dries up. wrenched (rehncht) v. used as adj. anguished; griefstricken. wretched (REHCH ihd) adj. miserable; unhappy. writhing (RY thihng) v. used as adj. twisting and turning, as in pain. Z zeal (zeel) n. eager enthusiasm. zealously (ZEHL uhs lee) adv. fervently; devotedly. zenith (ZEE nihth) n. the highest point Glossary

89 Spanish Glossary A abarrotar v. llenar con algo. abatido adj. desalentado; afligido. abolir v. anular; cancelar. abominable adj. desagradable; odioso. aborrecible adj. detestable; ofensivo. abrazar v. aceptar gustosamente; adoptar. absolver v. perdonar; librar de culpas. abstener v. no hacer algo. acaparar v. guardar o almacenar, a menudo en secreto. acongojado v. abatir. acopiar v. amontonar; acumular. admitir v. reconocer que algo es cierto. adular v. arrastrarse y suplicar. adversario sust. enemigo; oponente. afectación sust. comportamiento artificial planeado para impresionar a otras personas. afilar v. hacer más filosa una cuchilla usando una piedra que sirve para esa función. afinidad sust. similitud; lazo. aflicción sust. sufrimiento; algo que causa dolor o preocupación. agraviado adj. sentirse herido o maltratado. ajeno adj. que no es conciente o no presta atención a algo. alojar v. dar lugar. altaneramente adv. con desprecio. altruista adj. que no es egoísta. amainar v. disminuir. ambicioso adj. que aspira a un objetivo muy difícil de alcanzar. amilanar v. intimidar. anales sust. pl. registros, organizados por año, que cuentan la historia de alguien o algo. anarquía sust. desorden y confusión. anidar v. ubicarse cómodamente, como en un nido. animosidad sust. hostilidad; resentimiento u odio violento. aniquilar v. destruir; hacer que algo deje de existir. anotado adj. que tiene notas escritas con explicaciones. antiguo adj. viejo. apatía sust. falta de interés. apertura sust. abertura. apesadumbrado adj. angustiado; afligido. aplacar v. controlar. aprensivo adj. ansioso y preocupado. apuro sust. condición o situación poco prometedora. arable adj. que puede cultivarse. ardiente adj. entusiasta. ardor sust. emoción intensa. armónico adj. musical; melodioso. arraigado adj. firmemente establecido en uno mismo o en la propia naturaleza. artificio sust. destreza u oficio humano, opuesto a lo natural. artificio sust. trampa; engaño. ascender v. subir. ascua sust. restos de una fogata que está por extinguirse. aséptico adj. objetivo; sin sentimiento. aspirar v. tratar de alcanzar un objetivo. astucia sust. uso de métodos maliciosos; habilidad para engañar. atribular v. afligir. atroz adj. espantoso; terrible. atroz adj. terrible; horrible. aturdido adj. confundido. aturdido v. used as adj. confundido. audazmente adv. con atrevimiento. aunque conj. si bien. austero adj. sobrio; muy sencillo. avaricia sust. deseo incontrolable de riquezas. azotar v. castigar violentamente, en general con un látigo. B bajo los pies loc. adv. entre los pies y el piso. benigno adj. amable; gentil. berrear v. llorar en voz muy alta. bibliófilo sust. persona a la que le encantan los libros. blandir v. sacudir de modo amenazante. blanquear v. hacer que algo se vuelva blanco o pálido. bordado adj. decorado con aplicaciones de hilo o como si tuviera aplicaciones de hilo. botánico adj. relativo a las plantas o la flora; que tiene que ver con la ciencia botánica. bruñir v. hacer que algo luzca brillante y liso. burdo adj. poco sofisticado; ordinario. Spanish Glossary 1539

90 Spanish Glossary RESOURCE CENTER C cadencia sust. ritmo de un movimiento repetitivo; sonido que se eleva y cae. cadencioso adj. caracterizado por un ritmo moderado. cáliz sust. recipiente para beber, a menudo ornamentado. candor sust. honestidad; sinceridad. candor sust. honestidad; sinceridad. capricho sust. idea o deseo repentino. casta sust. clase social. casto adj. puro, decente o modesto de carácter y comportamiento. celestial adj. relativo al cielo. celosamente adv. fervientemente; devotamente. cenit sust. el punto más alto. censurar v. expresar desaprobación. certeza sust. sentimiento de seguridad. charlatán adj. conversador. chillón adj. demasiado brillante o colorido. circundar v. rodear o cercar. cisma sust. división. claro sust. pequeño espacio abierto en un bosque. codicia sust. deseo de tener lo que pertenece a otros. coherentemente adv. clara y lógicamente. colosal adj. extraordinariamente grande. combate sust. batalla militar. combinar v. mezclar. combustible adj. que arde con facilidad. compadecer v. sentir pena o dolor por algo o alguien. compatible adj. que puede existir o funcionar con otra cosa. compromiso sust. promesa o juramento. compulsivo adj. causado por un impulso irresistible. cómputo sust. cálculo, cuenta. concepción sust. el origen de algo. condenar v. sentenciar. condolencia sust. expresión de simpatía que se ofrece a una persona apenada. conducta sust. forma en la que se comporta una persona. congraciar v. intentar obtener el favor o la aprobación de otra persona. conjeturar v. razonar; adivinar. conmoción sust. estado de agitación o alteración. consagrar v. hacer honorable y sagrado. consecuentemente adv. como resultado de algo. consentimiento sust. aceptacón. conspicuo adj. que llama la atención. consternado adj. extremadamente agitado. contienda sust. lucha. contorsión sust. movimiento o forma retorcido. conturbar v. preocupar; alarmar. convertir v. hacer que algo sea de determinada manera. convertir v. causar; hacer que algo o alguien sea otra cosa. convicción sust. seguridad o creencia firme. convicción sust. creencia firme. convocar v. llamar. copioso adj. abundante; cuantioso. copioso adj. abundante; cuantioso. corpóreo adj. relativo al cuerpo. corromper v. hacer que algo sea impuro. cortesano sust. miembro del séquito de un palacio. cosmopolita adj. de mucho mundo; sofisticado. credo sust. puntos esenciales de una creencia religiosa. cuarentena sust. aislamiento forzado de una persona enferma para que no contagie su enfermedad a otros. cultivar v. desarrollar; promover. D deambular v. caminar sin rumbo definido. decretar v. ordenar; mandar. deidad sust. dios. demandar v. ordenar; pedir. demolición sust. destrucción. denigrar v. arrastrarse; suplicar; humillarse. deplorable adj. que inspira pena. deplorable adj. lamentable; desafortunado. derecho de autor sust. derecho legal a usar, vender o distribuir cualquier material que se pueda imprimir o publicar, como libros, canciones y caracteres. derivar v. provenir de determinada fuente. derrotar v. ganarle a alguien en una batalla o conflicto. desafiante adj. rebelde; desobediente. desaliñado adj. desordenado. desapasionadamente adv. sin emoción; imparcialmente. descomunal adj. grande y torpe. desconcertar v. preocupar con dudas; confundir. desconcertar v. confundir. desconcertar v. confundir. desdén sust. expresión orgullosa y poco amable. desdicha sust. desgracia; sufrimiento. desencanto sust. desilusión o abandono una idea falsa. desesperado adj. dominado por la desesperanza; 1540 Spanish Glossary

91 impulsado a emplear medios extremos para intentar escapar a la frustración y la pérdida. desestimar v. rechazar con desdén. desierto adj. abandonado. desolación sust. tristeza; soledad. desolación sust. desdicha absoluta; soledad extrema. desolado adj. inhabitado; árido; deprimente. desorientar v. confundir. despectivo adj. despreciativo. despectivo adj. que muestra gran disgusto o es muy irrespetuoso. desplazar v. mover de su ubicación habitual. despreciar v. no aceptar; rechazar con desdén. despreocupado adj. sin preocupaciones; feliz. destilar v. extraer la esencia de algo. desventurado adj. desgraciado; infeliz. desventurado adj infeliz. desviar v. apartar de un camino, norma o verdad. deterioro sust. consumición, podredumbre; disminución de la calidad. diabólico adj. relacionado con el mal o el demonio. difuso adj. esparcido; que no está concentrado en un solo lugar. dilatar v. expandir; hinchar. diligencia sust. cuidado. discordia sust. conflicto. discurso sust. conversación o habla. disminuir v. hacer más pequeño; rebajar; reducir. disparar v. correr muy rápido. dispersar v. separar y desparramar. distorsionar v. deformar. disuadir v. aconsejar en contra de algo. divagar v. alejarse del asunto que se trata. divino adj. similar a Dios o a un dios, o relativo a él; brindado o inspirado por Dios. doctrina sust. enseñanzas de la iglesia. dominio sust. territorio que pertenece a alguien, ya sea por propiedad, habilidad o responsabilidad. dotar v. equipar con algo. E eficacia sust. capacidad de producir el efecto deseado. eficaz adj. efectivo o útil. elaborar v. preparar (comida o bebida) mezclando una variedad de ingredientes. emanar v. fluir; aparecer. embelesar v. causar gran excitación, a menudo más allá del autocontrol. eminencia sust. alto rango o posición. eminente adj. excelente, grandioso. empajar v. cubrir con paja, hojas o materiales similares. enchapado adj. que tiene una capa de algo en la superficie. encomiar v. alabar. enemistad sust. hostilidad. engaño sust. falsa creencia. engañoso adj. que parece cierto pero es falso. engarabitar v. trepar con torpeza. entendido sust. persona de gusto muy refinado que sabe mucho sobre un tema. epílogo sust. sección corta al final de una obra literaria que a menudo cuenta qué pasó después del final del relato. epíteto sust. expresión descriptiva. erecto adj. derecho. escandaloso adj. famoso por algo negativo; que tiene mala reputación. escandaloso adj. famoso por su mala reputación. escrupuloso adj. extremadamente cuidadoso en decidir qué está bien y qué está mal. espantoso adj. terrible; que causa temor. esplendor sust. brillo fuerte; luz brillante. espontáneo adj. causado por un impulso natural; que no es forzado. estallar v. explotar. estética sust. conjunto de principios de la belleza. estimar v. considerar; juzgar. estratagema sust. plan inteligente para alcanzar un objetivo. estrepitoso adj. ruidoso. estridentemente adv. con severidad; con dureza. etéreo adj. suave y delicado; de otro mundo. euforia n. excitación; alegría. exaltado adj. demasiado agitado. excepcionalmente adv. particularmente; extraordinariamente. expediente sust. modo de obtener algo; medio para alcanzar un objetivo. expirar verbo. morir; terminar. extasiado adj. extremadamente alegre; que demuestra gran placer. éxtasis sust. alegría; felicidad absoluta. extravagante adj. fuera de lo normal sin razón aparente. F famélico adj. que tiene mucha hambre. fascinación sust. atracción por algo o por alguien. febrilmente adv. con agitación o excitación. fervor sust. entusiasmo y ansiedad. RESOURCE CENTER Spanish Glossary Spanish Glossary 1541

92 Spanish Glossary RESOURCE CENTER fidelidad sust. lealtad. flácido adj. flojo; blando. flaquear v. disminuir; perder fuerza o interés. follaje sust. plantas con muchas hojas. formidable adj. difícil de manejar o soportar. fragante adj. que tiene un aroma agradable. frecuentar v. aquí, ser cliente de alguien. frenar v. detener el movimiento. frívolo adj. superficial o poco importante. frívolo adj. superficial; que no tiene seriedad. furtivo adj. secreto; disimulado. G gallardo adj. noble; valiente. genial adj. simpático, agradable. güira sust. fruto de cáscara dura que puede ser secado, ahuecado y usado como recipiente. H habitual adj. frecuente, constante. hastío sust. sensación de disgusto o cansancio provocada por un exceso. heder v. tener mal olor. hosco adj. malhumorado; poco amable. hosco adj. grosero o poco amistoso. I idilio sust. texto corto en prosa o verso sobre una escena ideal relacionada con el campo. impávidamente adv. calmadamente; indiferentemente. impedimento sust. obstáculo; dificultad. impedimento sust. obstáculo; estorbo. impeler v. incitar; estimular. impersonalidad sust. falta de relación con los pensamientos, sentimientos, etc. de una persona. impertinente adj. que sobrepasa los límites de lo correcto. imperturbable adj. calmo, sereno. impetuoso adj. enérgico; violento. implacable adj. imposible de complacer, satisfacer o cambiar; que no cede. importunar v. molestar; interrumpir. impotencia sust. desesperanza. improvisar v. no planificar. improvisar v. hacer en el momento, con lo que se tiene a mano. imprudente adj. insensato. impulso sust. fuerza por la cual se mueve un objeto. imputar v. atribuir algo a alguien. incapacitar sust. inhabilitar, quitar el poder. incesante adj. constante; que nunca termina. incoherente adj. confuso; ilógico. inconstancia sust. cambio o transformación, especialmente un cambio en la lealtad hacia otra persona; variabilidad. incurrir v. atraer algo sobre uno mismo. indemnización sust. pago en compensación por un mal o un daño hecho. indeterminable adj. que no se puede medir o determinar. indiscriminadamente adv. sin hacer distinciones cuidadosas, al azar. indivisible adj. que no se puede separar. inexorablemente adv. inflexiblemente; sin piedad. infalible adj. que no falla ni se equivoca. infernal adj. relativo al infierno; endemoniado. infinito adj. que no tiene límites. ingenio sust. inteligencia; creatividad. inmovilidad sust. falta de movimiento. innato adj. que pertenece a una persona de nacimiento. innoble adj. vergonzoso. innumerable adj. que son tantos que no se pueden contar. inquietante adj. extraño; asombroso; raro. inspiración sust. influencia del pensamiento y de fuertes sentimientos sobre las acciones, especialmente buenas acciones. insuficiente adj. que no alcanza. insufrible adj que no se puede tolerar. intermitente adj. que empieza y se detiene a intervalos; periódico. intimidar v. lograr que otra persona pierda el coraje. irisado adj. que muestra colores similares a los del arco iris. irreflexivo adj. descuidado; desconsiderado. itinerante adj. que viaja. J jovialidad sust. ligereza de ánimo; alegría. júbilo sust. ánimo; alegría. juicioso adj. que muestra buen juicio, perceptivo. junco sust. tipo de pasto alto con un tallo hueco que crece en lugares húmedos. jurar v. prometer solemnemente. L laborioso adj. trabajador. lamentar v. sentir pena o dolor por algo. languidez sust. falta de interés o de entusiasmo. lánguido adj. débil de una manera que expresa 1542 Spanish Glossary

93 tristeza, enfermedad o cansancio. lanzar v. arrojar con fuerza. lascivia sust. propensión a la lujuria. lastimoso adj. digno de lástima. latón sust. metal compuesto de cobre y cinc. lealtad sust. fidelidad. legado sust. aquello que se regala en un testamento. letal adj. mortal. lívido adj pálido; sin color. loable adj. que merece admiración. lúgubre adj. sombrío. lúgubre adj. extremadamente solemne o triste. M majestuosidad sust. grandeza. malicia sust. intención de hacer el mal; maldad. maníaco adj. enloquecido; excesivamente entusiasta. manifiesto adj. evidente; obvio. marchitar v. debilitar. marchitar v. desvanecer; secarse. martirio sust. muerte de un mártir, alguien que muere por sus creencias. meditabundo adj. pensativo; que reflexiona mucho. melancólico adj. triste o que provoca tristeza. melodioso adj. que produce sonidos agradables. melodioso adj. que produce un sonido dulce; placentero al oído. menguar v disminuir lentamente. menospreciar v rebajar; hablar negativamente de algo o alguien. mesurado adj. ahorrativo; cuidadoso con el dinero. meticulosidad sust. atencián en seguir las reglas y las tradiciones con exactitud. minucioso adj. hecho con cuidado. minúsculo adj. extremadamente pequeño. misantropía sust. odio a la humanidad. mitigar verbo. atenuar. modesto adj. sencillo; sin pretensiones. moldear v. formar. monótono adj. que no varía. mudo adj. que no habla; silencioso. multitud sust. muchedumbre; cantidad grande de algo. munificencia sust. generosidad. N naturaleza sust. características naturales de la personalidad. necedad sust. tontería. nocivo adj. muy dañino, a menudo venenoso. nocturno adj. que ocurre durante la noche. O objetar v. protestar. objetivo sust. meta o propósito. obligatorio adj. requerido; forzoso. obstinado adj. excesivamente testarudo. obstinado adj. persistente; terco. obtener v. conseguir; recibir. oficioso adj. ansioso de ofrecer ayuda no requerida. opresivo adj. difícil de soportar. oprobio sust. vergüenza; deshonra. oscuro adj. poco conocido. P pagano sust. persona que cree en muchos dioses o en ninguno. palidez sust. blancura. paralelo adj. que está alineado con algo, pero no lo cruza. páramo sust. terreno frío y desamparado. particularidad sust. característica que hace a una persona única. pasión sust. emoción fuerte. pasión sust. emoción fuerte. pasmar v. molestar. pastoral adj. relativo a la vida sencilla o pacífica del campo. patetismo sust. sentimiento de tristeza o melancolía a menudo provocado por una obra de arte. pavoroso adj. que inspira temor y respeto. pedante adj. que muestra una preocupación exagerada por los libros, el aprendizaje y las reglas. peregrinación viaje, especialmente a un lugar sagrado. perenne adj. eterno; que dura para siempre. pereza sust. holgazanería; flojera. pericia sust. capacidad extraordinaria. perjudicar v. estropear; debilitar. permanecer v. quedarse durante un largo rato. perpetuo adj. que dura para siempre. perseverar v. continuar a pesar de las dificultades o la oposición; persistir. perversamente adv. de mala manera. pestilencia sust. plaga. piedad sust. devoción por la religión; santidad. plácidamente adv. sin apuro; tomándose mucho tiempo. poso sust. sedimento. postrado adj. que yace acostado. póstumo adj. que sucede después de la muerte. potencia sust. fuerza, poder. RESOURCE CENTER Spanish Glossary Spanish Glossary 1543

94 Spanish Glossary RESOURCE CENTER precaución sust. medida de cuidado que se toma de antemano. precipitadamente adv. de repente. precipitado adj. rápido. predominante adj. que tiene una influencia superior; que prevalece. prescribir v. limitar por medio de reglas y leyes; ordenar; determinar. pretensión sust. reclamo débilmente respaldado. pretexto sust. excusa. prevalecer v. lograr el efecto deseado. proclamar v. declarar. prodigioso adj. extraordinario; maravilloso. prodigioso adj. enorme. proeza n. acto de valentía. profano adj. irrespetuoso; que no se relaciona con asuntos religiosos. profuso adj. muy abundante. prolongar v. alargar en el tiempo. promover acelerar el crecimiento o el progreso de algo o alguien. propagar v. contagiar una enfermedad. propagar v. expandirse por todos lados. propensión sust. inclinación o tendencia natural. propicio dj. favorable. proporción sust. razón; cantidad relativa. prórroga sust. postergación; retraso. prosaico adj. ordinario; aburrido. prosperidad sust. riqueza o buena fortuna. prudencia sust. comportamiento cuidadoso. puntilloso adj. manático; demasiado exigente. puntual adj. sin demora; a tiempo. punzar v. pinchar; clavar. R radiante adj. que irradia luz. reacio adj. que no está dispuesto a hacer algo. reanudar v. continuar. recluir v. separar; incomunicar. recolectar v. juntar de a poco o gradualmente. recompensa sust. pago o compensación a cambio de algo que se había perdido y se ha encontrado. recto adj. moralmente correcto. reflexión sust. pensamiento profundo; meditación. regatear v. discutir por un precio. regodearse v. sentir o expresar gran placer y satisfacción, a menudo maliciosamente. reino sust. territorio dominado por un rey. reiterar v. repetir. reiterar v. repetir. renombre sust. fama; celebridad. renunciar v. rendirse formalmente; rechazar. reponer v. volver a llenar; renovar. represalia sust. castigo en respuesta a una agresión u ofensa. reproche sust. acusación. repugnante adj. odioso; desagradable. reputación sust. la buena opinión que tiene la gente sobre una persona. resarcimiento sust. compensación o pago por una pérdida. resarcimiento sust. pago o acción que sirve como remedio de una injusticia o de un daño. resentirse v. sentir rencor o despecho. respingar v. encogerse o estremecerse. retorcer v. moverse o sacudirse por dolor. revelación sust. acto de dar algo a conocer. revelación sust. algo que se descubre. reverencia sust. sentimiento de respeto o veneración. reverencia sust. respeto profundo. reverencialmente adv. con veneración y respeto. reverencialmente adv. con gran respeto, como el que se tiene por algo sagrado. rigor sust. firmeza. risueño adj. feliz y despreocupado. rito sust. ceremonia formal. ritualista adj. relativo a una ceremonia formal. rivalizar v. competir. robusto adj. pesado; corpulento. S saciar v. aliviar; calmar. sancionar sust. aprobar; autorizar. sanguíneo adj. rojizo. secular adj. que no pertenece a ninguna orden religiosa; mundano. seducir v. atraer despertando esperanzas y deseos; tentar. semblante sust. expresión en la cara de una persona. sensual adj. relativo a los cinco sentidos. sensual adj. que apela a los sentidos del cuerpo en vez de a la mente. sepulcral adj. profundo y oscuro. serenamente adv. calmadamente; pacíficamente. serrado adj. que tiene dientes como los de una sierra a lo largo del borde. servil adj. dedicado ciegamente. servil adj. como un esclavo; obediente. sinuoso adj. con muchas curvas; torcido. socorrer v. ayudar en caso de peligro o necesidad. sofocar v. apagar; extinguir. soldar v. unir; sellar Spanish Glossary

95 solidificar v. espesar. sombrío adj. lúgubre. someramente adv. mecánicamente; sin cuidado. somero adj. poco entusiasta; indiferente. soportar v. resistir. sórdido adj. sucio; repugnante. sórdido adj sucio; desagradable. sórdido adj. impuro; sucio. sublime adj. impresionante por ser noble o majestuoso. subrepticiamente adv. en secreto o a escondidas. sucesivo adj. que sigue en orden consecutivo. suplantar v. reemplazar; desplazar. suplemento sust. algo agregado a una dieta, a menudo para compensar una deficiencia. súplica sust. humilde ruego. suprimir v. evitar que se conozca. sustento sust. comida o provisiones necesarias para vivir. susurrante adj. que produce un ruido suave y continuo. T taciturno adj callado. temeridad sust. atrevimiento tonto o impulsivo; insensatez. templado adj. moderado. temporal adj. limitado a este mundo; que no es espiritual. tendón sust. tejido fibroso y fuerte de gran poder conector. térmico adj. relacionado con el calor. tirano adj. severo; opresivo. tolerar v. soportar. tolerar v. sufrir; tolerar. tormento sust. gran angustia. tortuoso adj. lleno de vueltas o curvas. tosco adj. de baja calidad; áspero. tradición sust. costumbres, valores o ideas que se pasan de generación en generación. traición sust. deslealtad; abuso de confianza. transgredir v. ir en contra de algo; violar un límite impuesto. transitorio adj. que no es permanente. transmitir v. comunicar; expresar. trastornar v. inquietar o perturbar. trémulo adj. que tiembla o se tambalea. tribulación sust. gran preocupación o pena. tributo sust. algo hecho en honor a alguien. tumulto sust. ruido grande; agitación. turbación sust. frustración; vergüenza. turbio adj. empañado; confuso. turbión sust. tormenta violenta y breve. V valeroso adj. valiente; que tiene coraje. vano adj. inútil; que no produce ningún resultado bueno. vehementemente adv. violentamente. vehementemente adv. con gran sentimiento; apasionadamente. velado v. oculto. verosímil adj. creíble. vigor sust. gran intensidad. vil adj. malvado, desagradable. vil adj. desagradable. virtuoso adj. moral; recto. vislumbre sust. luz débil y temblorosa. vivacidad sust. animación; espíritu energético. vivamente adv. con fuerza y claridad. volubilidad sust. capacidad de cambio. vulnerar v. golpear; afectar. RESOURCE CENTER Spanish Glossary Spanish Glossary 1545

96 Academic Vocabulary Glossary The Academic Vocabulary Glossary in this section is an alphabetical list of the academic vocabulary words found in this textbook. Use this glossary just as you would use a dictionary to find out the meanings of words used in your literature class to talk about and write about literary and informational texts and to talk about and write about concepts and topics in your other academic classes. For each word, the glossary includes the pronunciation, part of speech, and meaning. A Spanish version of the glossary immediately follows the English version. For more information about the words in the Academic Vocabulary Glossary, please consult a dictionary. ENGLISH A adapt (uh DAPT) v. adjust for a new purpose. approach (uh PROHCH) n. a way of addressing something. attribute (uh TRIHB yoot) v. regard as being caused by something. B benefit (BEHN uh fiht) n. anything that is for the good of a person or thing. C complex (kuhm PLEHKS) adj. hard to understand; complicated. concept (KAHN sehpt) n. notion or idea. considerably (kuhn SIHD uhr uh blee) adv. by a large amount. controversies (KAHN truh vur seez) n. lengthy disagreement. convince (kuhn VIHNS) v. persuade; cause to believe. D device (dih VYS) n. something made for a particular purpose. differentiate (dihf uh REHN shee ayt) v. distinguish; identify differences. diverse (duh VURS) adj. varied. dominate (DAHM uh nayt) v. hold a commanding position. E emphasis (EHM fuh sihs) n. stress; importance. enhance (ehn HANS) v. improve the quality of. ensure (ehn SHOOR) v. to make certain. established (ehs TAB lihsht) v. set up; caused to happen. exhibit (ehg ZIHB iht) v. show, demonstrate. F function (FUNGK shuhn) n. the action for which a person or thing is specially fitted; purpose. I inevitable (ihn EHV uh tuh buhl) adj. unavoidable. inherent (ihn HIHR uhnt) adj. existing in something as a fixed, essential quality. P participate (par TIHS uh payt) v. take part in. perspective (puhr SPEHK tihv) n. particular way of looking at something. publish (PUHB lihsh) v. print and issue for the public. R respond (rih SPAHND) v. react. S statistics (stuh TIHS tihks) n. pl. numerical facts. status (STAT uhs) n. social or professional rank. T technique (tehk NEEK) n. method; way of using skills. W widespread (WYD SPREHD) adj. occurring over a wide area. SPANISH A adaptar v.: ajustar a un nuevo propósito. artefacto sust. algo construido para un fin específico. atribuir v. considerar que es la causa de algo Academic Vocabulary Glossary

97 B beneficio sust. algo que sea para el bien de una persona o cosa. C complejo adj. difícil de entender; complicado. concepto sust. noción o idea. considerablemente adv. por gran cantidad. controversia sust. desacuerdo o discusión prolongada. D diferenciar v. distinguir; reconocer lo que es distinto. diverso adj. variado. dominar v. tener poder. E énfasis sust. hincapié; importancia. enfoque v. modo de considerar algo. estadística sust. datos numéricos. estatus sust. rango social o profesional. exhibir v. mostrar, demostrar. F función sust. acción para la que una persona está especialmente capacitada; propósito. G generalizado adj. que ocurre en un área amplia. I ineludible adj. inevitable. inherente adj. que existe como una cualidad natural e inseparable de algo. instaurar v. establecer; permitir que algo ocurra. P participar v. formar parte de algo. perfeccionar v. mejorar la calidad de algo. perspectiva sust. modo particular de ver algo. persuadir v. convencer; hacer que alguien crea algo. publicar v. imprimir algo y distribuirlo al público. R ratificar v. dar certeza. reaccionar v. responder. T técnica sust. método; modo de usar las destrezas. RESOURCE CENTER Academic Vocabulary Glossary Academic Vocabulary Glossary 1547

98 Acknowledgments ACKNOWLEDGMENTS For permission to reprint copyrighted material, grateful acknowledgment is made to the following sources: B. Wordsworth from Miguel Street by V. S. Naipaul. Copyright 1959 by V. S. Naipaul. Reproduced by permission of Gillon Aitken Associates Ltd. Raven doth to raven fly from Alexander Pushkin: Collected Narrative and Lyrical Poetry, translated by Walter Arndt. Copyright 1984 by Walter Arndt. Reproduced by permission of Ardis Publishers. From Walking to Canterbury by Jerry Ellis. Copyright 2003 by Jerry Ellis. Reproduced by permission of Ballentine Books, a division of Random House, Inc., From The Second Teaching: Philosophy and Spiritual Decline from The Bhagavad-Gita, translated by Barbara Stoler Miller. Translation copyright 1986 by Barbara Stole Miller. Reproduced by permission of Bantam Books, a division of Random House, Inc. and electronic format by permission of The Estate of Barbara Stoler Miller. Why I Turned Pepys Diary into a Weblog by Phil Gyford from BBC News World Edition, January 2, 2003, from BBC News Web site at Copyright 2003 by BBC News. Reproduced by permission of the publisher. renewed 1990 by Beryl Graves. Reproduced by permission of Dutton Signet, a division of Penguin Group (USA) Inc., www. penguin.com. From Beowulf, translated by Burton Raffel. Translation copyright 1962 and renewed 1991 by Burton Raffel. Reproduced by permission of Dutton/Signet, a division of Penguin Group (USA) Inc. and electronic format by permission of Russell & Volkening as agents for the author. From WIT by Margaret Edson. Copyright 1993, 1999 by Margaret Edson. Reproduced by permission of Faber and Faber, Inc., an affiliate of Farrar, Straus and Giroux, LLC. The Wife s Lament from A Choice of Anglo-Saxon Verse, translated by Richard Hamer. Translation copyright 1970 by Richard Hamer. Reproduced by permission of Faber and Faber Ltd. Once upon a Time from Jump and Other Stories by Nadine Gordimer. Copyright 1991 by Felix Licensing, B. V. All rights reserved. Reproduced by permission of Farrar, Straus and Giroux, LLC and electronic format by permission of Russell & Volkening, Inc., as agents for Nadine Gordimer. From Trapped Australian Miners Rescued from BBC News International Edition, May 9, 2006, from BBC News Web site at Copyright 2006 by BBC News. Reproduced by permission of the publisher. From Introduction to The Life and Times of Chaucer by John Gardner. Copyright 1977 by Boskydell Artists, Ltd. Reproduced by permission of Georges Borchardt, Inc. Another Renaissance? by Gary Fisher from Electronic Engineering Times, October 28, Copyright 1996 by CMP Media Inc. Reproduced by permission of the publisher. From Games at Twilight from Games at Twilight and Other Stories by Anita Desai. Copyright 1978 by Anita Desai. Reproduced by permission of Anita Desai c/o Rogers, Coleridge & White Ltd., 20 Powis Mews, London W11 1JN. Marriage is a Private Affair from Girls at War and Other Stories by Chinua Achebe. Copyright 1972, 1973 by Chinua Achebe. Reproduced by permission of Doubleday, a division of Random House, Inc. and electronic format by permission of Harold Ober Associates Incorporated. A morning-glory vine by Kobayashi Issa from An Introduction to Haiku, translated by Harold G. Henderson. Copyright 1958 by Harold G. Henderson. Reproduced by permission of Doubleday, a division.of Random House, Inc., From Le Morte D Arthur from Le Morte D Arthur by Sir Thomas Malory, translated by Keith Baines. Copyright 1962 by Keith Baines; copyright renewed 1990 by Francesca Evans. Introduction copyright 1962 by Robert Graves; copyright Digging from Selected Poems by Seamus Heaney. Copyright 1990 by Seamus Heaney. All rights reserved. Reproduced by permission of Farrar, Straus and Giroux, LLC. The Horses from Collected Poems by Ted Hughes. Copyright 2003 by The Estate of Ted Hughes. All rights reserved. Reproduced by permission of Farrar, Straus and Giroux, LLC and electronic format by permission of Faber and Faber Ltd. The Explosion from Philip Larkin: Collected Poems, edited by Anthony Thwaite. Copyright 1988, 1989 by the Estate of Philip Larkin. All rights reserved. Reproduced by permission of Farrar, Straus and Giroux, LLC and electronic format by permission of The Society of Authors as the Literary Representative of the Estate of Philip Larkin. The Virgins from Sea Grapes by Derek Walcott. Copyright 1976 by Derek Walcott. All rights reserved. Reproduced by permission of Farrar, Straus and Giroux, LLC. From Omeros by Derek Walcott. Copyright 1990 by Derek Walcott. All rights reserved. Reproduced by permission of Farrar, Straus and Giroux, LLC. From Reason for Hope by Jane Goodall with Phillip Berman. Copyright 1999 by Sokc Publications Ltd. and Phillip Berman. All rights reserved. Reproduced by permission of Grand Central Publishing. Come and Go from Collected Shorter Plays by Samuel Beckett. Copyright 1965 by Samuel Beckett and renewed 1999 by the Estate of Samuel Beckett. Reproduced by permission of Grove/Atlantic Inc Acknowledgments

99 From That s All from Complete Plays: Three by Harold Pinter. Copyright 1966 by H. Pinter Ltd. Reproduced by permission of Grove/Atlantic, Inc. Slightly adapted from Private Twice Rescued Colleagues While Under Heavy Fire in Iraq: Soldier Wins First VC Since Falklands by Richard Norton-Taylor from The Guardian, March 18, Copyright 2005 by Guardian News & Media Limited. Reproduced by permission of the publisher. The Hollow Men from Collected Poems by T. S. Eliot. Copyright 1936 by Harcourt, Inc.; copyright 1963, 1964 by T. S. Eliot. Reproduced by permission of the publisher. Shooting an Elephant from Shooting an Elephant and Other Essays by George Orwell. Copyright 1950 by Sonia Brownell Orwell; copyright renewed 1978 by Sonia Pitt-Rivers. Reproduced by permission of Harcourt, Inc. and electronic format by permission of Bill Hamilton as the Literary Executor of the Estate of the Late Sonia Brownell Orwell and Secker & Warburg Ltd. Lot s Wife from View with a Grain of Sand by Wislawa Szymborska, translated by Stanislaw Baranczak and Clare Cavanaugh. English translations copyright 1995 by Harcourt, Inc. Reproduced by permission of the publisher and electronic format by permission of Stanislaw Baranczak. A Haunted House from The Complete Shorter Fiction of Virginia Woolf by Susan Dick. Copyright 1985 by Quentin Bell and Angelica Garnett. Reproduced by permission of Harcourt, Inc. Letter No. 1454: To Lytton Strachey, March 21st 1924 from The Letters of Virginia Woolf, Volume III: Copyright 1977 by Quentin Bell and Angelica Garnett. All rights reserved. Reproduced by permission of Harcourt, Inc. From The Civilization of the Middle Ages by Norman F. Cantor. Copyright 1963, and 1993 by Norman F. Cantor. Reproduced by permission of HarperCollins Publishers, Inc. # 8 The supreme good is like water from Tao Te Ching by Lao Tzu, A New English Version, translated by Stephen Mitchell. Translation copyright 1988 by Stephen Mitchell. Reproduced by permission of HarperCollins Publishers, Inc. and electronic format by permission of the translator. Never Shall I Forget from Night by Elie Wiesel, translated by Marion Wiesel. Copyright 1972, 1985 by Elie Wiesel; translation copyright 2006 by Marion Wiesel All rights reserved. Reproduced by permission of Hill and Wang, a division of Farrar, Straus and Giroux, LLC. From The Collected Beowulf by Gareth Hinds. Copyright by Gareth Hinds. Reproduced by permission of the artist. Mushrooms and Siren Song from Selected Poems, by Margaret Atwood. Copyright 1976 by Margaret Atwood. Reproduced by permission of Houghton Mifflin Company and electronic format by permission of Margaret Atwood. From Gilgamesh: A Verse Narrative translated by Herbert Mason. Copyright 1970 by Herbert Mason. All rights reserved. Reproduced by permission of Houghton Mifflin Company, From Sir Vidia s Shadow by Paul Theroux. Copyright 1998 by Paul Theroux. All right reserved. Reproduced by permission of Houghton Mifflin Company, From The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers by J.R.R. Tolkien. Copyright 1954, 1965 by J.R.R. Tolkien; copyright renewed 1982 by Christopher R. Tolkien, Michal H.R. Tolkien, John F.R. Tolkien and Priscilla M.A.R. Tolkien. Reproduced by permission of Houghton Mifflin Company and electronic format by permission of HarperCollins Publishers, Ltd. Telephone Conversation by Wole Soyinka from Reflections: Nigerian Prose and Verse, edited by Frances Ademola. Copyright 1962, 1990 by Wole Soyinka. Reproduced by permission of Melanie Jackson Agency, L.L.C. The Demon Lover from The Collected Stories of Elizabeth Bowen. Copyright 1981 by Curtis Brown Ltd., Literary Executors of the Estate of Elizabeth Bowen. Reproduced by permission of Alfred A. Knopf, a division of Random House, Inc. and electronic format by permission of Curtis Brown Ltd., on behalf of the Estate of Elizabeth Bowen. The Doll s House from The Short Stories of Katherine Mansfield. Copyright 1923 by Alfred A. Knopf, a division of Random House, Inc.; copyright renewed 1951 by John Middleton Murry. Reproduced by permission of Alfred A. Knopf, a division of Random House, Inc., From speech by Jawaharlal Nehru, August 14, Reproduced by permission of Jawaharlal Nehru Memorial Fund. Dulce et Decorum Est from The Collected Poems of Wilfred Owen. Copyright 1963 by Chatto & Windus, Ltd. Reproduced by permission of New Directions Publishing Corporation. Not Waving But Drowning from Collected Poems of Stevie Smith. Copyright 1972 by Stevie Smith. Reproduced by permission of New Directions Publishing Corporation. Fern Hill and Do Not Go Gentle into That Good Night from The Poems of Dylan Thomas. Copyright 1945 by The Trustees for the Copyrights of Dylan Thomas. Reproduced by permission of New Directions Publishing Corporation and electronic format by permission of Harold Ober Associates Incorporated. Jade Flower Palace by Tu Fu from One Hundred Poems from the Chinese, translated by Kenneth Rexroth. Copyright 1971 by Kenneth Rexroth. Reproduced by permission of New Directions Publishing Corporation. From Nobel Lecture: The Poet and the World by Wislawa Szymborska. Copyright 1996 by The Nobel Foundation. Reproduced by permission of the publisher. From Everyman from The Norton Anthology of English Literature, Seventh Edition, Volume 1, edited by M.H. Abrams and Stephen Greenblatt. Copyright 1962, 1968, 1974, 1986, 1990, 1993 and 2000 by W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. Reproduced by permission of the publisher. Acknowledgments Acknowledgments 1549

100 Acknowledgments Atlantis--A Lost Sonnet from Domestic Violence by Eavan Boland. Copyright 2007 by Eavan Boland. Reproduced by permission of W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. From The Meaning of Everything: The Story of the Oxford English Dictionary by Simon Winchester. Copyright 2003 by Simon Winchester. Reproduced by permission of Oxford University Press (UK). I love you as I love. from The Flowers of Evil by Charles Baudelaire, translated by James McGowan. Translation copyright 1993 by James McGowan. Reproduced by permission of Oxford University Press (UK). A Clever Judge by Chang Shih-nan from Chinese Fairy Tales and Fantasies, translates and edited by Moss Roberts. Copyright 1979 by Moss Roberts. Reproduced by permission of Pantheon Books, a division of Random House, Inc., com. Gold, Gold by Lieh Tzu from Chinese Fairy Tales and Fantasies, translated and edited by Moss Roberts. Copyright 1979 by Moss Roberts. Reproduced by permission of Pantheon Books, a division of Random House, Inc., Even stones in streams by Uejima Onitsura from Haiku Harvest. Japanese Haiku, Series IV, translated by Peter Beilenson and Harry Behn. Copyright 1962 by Peter Pauper Press, Inc. Reproduced by permission of the publisher. From African Proverbs, compiled by Charlotte and Wolf Leslau. Copyright 1962, 1985 by Peter Pauper Press, Inc. Reproduced by permission of the publisher. Caedmon of Whitby from A History of the English Church and People by Bede, translated by Leo Sherley-Price, revised by R. E. Latham (Penguin Classics 1955, Revised edition 1968). Translation 1955, 1968 by Leo Sherley-Price. Reproduced by permission of Penguin Books Ltd. From Introduction by Nevill Coghill; from The Prologue, The Pardoner s Prologue and Tale, and from The Wife of Bath s Prologue and Tale from The Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer, translated by Nevill Coghill (Penguin Classics 1951, Fourth Revised Edition 1977). Copyright 1951, 1958, 1960, 1975, 1977 by Nevill Coghill. Reproduced by permission of Penguin Books Ltd. and electronic format by permission of Curtis Brown Group Ltd. Night from The Koran, translated by N. J. Dawood (Penguin Classics 1956, Fifth Revised Edition 1990). Copyright 1956, 1959, 1966, 1968, 1974, 1990 by N. J. Dawood. Reproduced by permission of Penguin Books Ltd. Question and answer among the mountains by Li Po from The Penguin Book of Chinese Verse, translated by Robert Kotewall and Norman L. Smith (Penguin Books, 1962). Translation copyright 1962 by N. L. Smith and R. H. Kotewall. Reproduced by permission of Penguin Books Ltd. Quiet Night Thoughts and Letter to His Two Small Children by Li Po, and Night Thoughts Afloat by Tu Fu from Li Po and Tu Fu, translated by Arthur Cooper (Penguin Classics, 1973). Copyright 1973 by Arthur Cooper. Reproduced by permission of Penguin Books Ltd. The Jewels from Selected Short Stories by Guy de Maupassant, translated by Roger Colet (Penguin Classics, 1971). Copyright 1971 by Roger Colet. Reproduced by permission of Penguin Books Ltd. Sonnet (retitled Spacecraft Voyager 1 has boldly gone... ) from Woods etc. by Alice Oswald. Copyright 2005 by Alice Oswald. All rights reserved. Reproduced by permission of The Peters Fraser & Dunlop Group Ltd. From William Shakespeare s Macbeth: The Graphic Novel, script by Arthur Byron Cover, illustrated by Tony Leonard Tamai with Alex Niño. Copyright 2005 by Byron Preiss Visual Publications. All rights reserved. Reproduced by permission of Puffin Books, a division of Penguin Group (USA), The Night-Soil Men from Ghost Map by Steven Johnson. Copyright 2006 by Steven Johnson. Reproduced by permission of Riverhead Books, an imprint of Penguin Group (USA) Inc, Musèe des Beaux Arts from W H. Auden: Collected Poems by W. H. Auden, edited by Edward Mendelson. Copyright 1940 and renewed 1968 by W. H. Auden. Reproduced by permission of Random House, Inc. and electronic format by permission of Curtis Brown, Ltd. No Witchcraft for Sale from African Stories by Doris Lessing. Copyright 1951 by Doris Lessing. Reproduced by permission of Simon & Schuster Adult Publishing Group and electronic format by permission of Jonathan Clowes Ltd., London, on behalf of Doris Lessing. From 1 dead in attic by Chris Rose. Copyright 2005 by Simon and Schuster Adult Publishing Group. Reproduced by permission of the publisher. Number 17 from Book II, numbers 15 and 21 from Book VII, and number 23 from Book XV from The Analects of Confucius, translated by Arthur Waley. Copyright 1938 by George Allen & Unwin, Ltd. Reproduced by permission of Scribner, an imprint of Simon & Schuster Adult Publishing Group and electronic format by permission of The Estate of Arthur Waley. From Autobiography from Memoirs by W.B. Yeats, edited by Denis Donoghue. Copyright 1972 by M. B. Yeats and Anne Yeats. Reproduced by permission of Scribner, an imprint of Simon & Schuster Adult Publishing Group and electronic format by permission of A.P. Watt, Ltd. on behalf of Michael B. Yeats. Sailing to Byzantium from The Collected Works of W. B. Yeats, Volume I: The Poems, Revised, edited by Richard J. Finneran. Copyright 1928 by The Macmillan Company; copyright renewed 1956 by Georgie Yeats. Reproduced by permission of Simon & Schuster Adult Publishing Group and electronic format by permission of A.P. Watt, Ltd. on behalf of Michael B. Yeats. From Dear Smitty (retitled Saving Creatures Great and 1550 Acknowledgments

101 Small ) by Timothy Foote from Smithsonian Magazine Web site accessed May 22, 2007 at issues/2001/september/journeys_smitty.php. Copyright 2001 by Smithsonian Institute. Reproduced by permission of the publisher. I waited and I, by Princess Nukada, The end of my journey by Oshikochi Mitsune, Now, I cannot tell by Ki Tsurayuki, How helpless my heart! by Ono Komachi, and Every single thing by Priest Saigyo from The Penguin Book of Japanese Verse, translated by Geoffrey Bownas and Anthony Thwaite (Penguin Classics, 1964). Translation copyright 1964 by Geoffrey Bownas and Anthony Thwaite. Reproduced by permission of Anthony Thwaite. The First Principle, The Gates of Paradise, The Moon Cannot Be Stolen, and Temper from Zen Flesh, Zen Bones: A Collection of Zen and Pre-Zen Writings, compiled by Paul Reps. Copyright 1957 by Charles E. Tuttle Co., Inc., Boston, MA, and Tokyo, Japan. Reproduced by permission of the publisher. From Sir Gawain and the Green Knight from The Complete Works of the Gawain-Poet, translated by John Gardner. Copyright 1965 by The University of Chicago. Reproduced by permission of the publisher. Sonnet 79/Soneto 79 from 100 Love Sonnets/Cien sonetos de amor by Pablo Neruda, translated by Stephen Tapscott. Copyright 1959 by Pablo Neruda and Fundaciòn Pablo Neruda; translation copyright 1986 by The University of Texas Press. Reproduced by permission of the publisher and electronic format by permission of Agencia Literaria Carmen Balcells. The Lorelei from Heinrich Heine: Paradox and Poet by Louis Untermeyer. Copyright 1937 by Louis Untermeyer. Reproduced by permission of Laurence S. Untermeyer on behalf of The Estate of Louis Untermeyer, Norma Anchin Untermeyer c/o Professional Publishing Services Company. From The Book of Sand from Collected Fictions by Jorges Luis Borges, translated by Andrew Hurley. Copyright 1998 by Maria Kodama; translation copyright 1998 by Penguin Putnam Inc. Reproduced by permission of Viking Penguin, a division of Penguin Group (USA) Inc., From Don Quixote by Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra, translated by Samuel Putnam. Copyright 1949 by The Viking Press, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Viking Penguin a division of Penguin Group (USA) Inc., The Death of Hector from The Iliad by Homer, translated by Robert Fagles. Copyright 1990 by Robert Fagles. Reproduced by permission of Viking Penguin, a division of Penguin Group (USA) Inc. and electronic format by permission of Georges Borchardt. Inc. The Destructors from Collected Stories of Graham Greene. Copyright 1955, 1983 by Graham Greene. Reproduced by permission of Viking Penguin, a division of Penguin Group (USA) Inc., The Rocking-Horse Winner from Complete Short Stories of D. H. Lawrence. Copyrigh 1933 by the Estate of D. H. Lawrence; copyright renewed 1961 by Angelo Ravagli and C.M. Weekley, Executors of the Estate of Frieda Lawrence Ravagli. Reproduced by permission of Viking Penguin, a division of Penguin Group (USA) Inc. and electronic format by permission of Pollinger Limited and the Estate of Frieda Lawrence Ravagli. On the Bottom from If This Is a Man (Survival in Auschwitz) by Primo Levi, translated by Stuart Woolf. Copyright 1958 by Guilio Einaudi editore S.P.A.; copyright 1959 by Orion Press, Inc. Reproduced by permission of Viking Penguin, a division of Penguin Group (USA) Inc. and electronic format by permission of Guilio Enaudi Editore S.P.A. When Elements Go Extreme by Jason La Canfora from The Washington Post, August 2, Copyright 2006 by The Washington Post. Reproduced by permission of the publisher. Fear from Selected Poems of Gabriela Mistral: A Bilingual Edition, translated by Doris Dana. Copyright 1961, 1964, 1970, 1971 by Doris Dana. Published by The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, Reproduced by permission of Writers House, Inc., as agent for the proprietor. To a Mosquito from Present Company by W. S. Merwin. Copyright 2005 by W. S. Merwin. Reproduced by permission of The Wylie Agency, Inc. Riddles 1, 14, and 32, The Seafarer, and The Wanderer from Poems and Prose from the Old English, translated by Burton Raffel. Copyright 1960, 1964, 1998 by Burton Raffel. Reproduced by permission of Yale University Press. Source Cited: Parable of the Prodigal Son from The New Oxford Annotated Bible. Published by Oxford University Press, New York, NY, Acknowledgments Acknowledgments 1551

102 Picture Credits PICTURE CREDITS The illustrations and photographs on the Contents pages are picked up from pages in the textbook. Credits for those can be found either on the textbook page on which they appear or in the listing below. Photo credits: xx-1, Bridgeman Art Library; 2 (tr), Bridgeman Art Library, NY; (cl), Art Resource, NY; (cr), Werner Karrasch; 3 (cr), Bridgeman Art Library; (br), Paolo Aguilar/EPA/Corbis; 4, Getty Images/Guy Edwardes; 5, Bridgeman Art Library; 8 (cr), Corbis; 8-9 (c), Scala/Art Resource, NY; (c), R.G. Ojeda/Réunion des Musées Nationaux/Art Resource, NY; (c), New Line/ Courtesy of the Everett Collection; 14, New Line/Courtesy of the Everett Collection; 16, Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY; 17, AKG- Images; 18, Bridgeman-Giraudon/Art Resource, NY; 22, Scala/ Art Resource, NY; 24, The Granger Collection, NY; 28, HIP/Art Resource, NY; 31, Bridgeman Art Library; 32, Gareth Hinds; 35, Max Morse/Reuters; 40, Werner Forman/Art Resource, NY; 43, Eirik Irgens Johnsen; 44, Michael Holford; 47, CM Dixon/HIP/The Image Works; 54-58, Gareth Hinds, 2007; 60, The Granger Collection, NY; 63, Gary Cook/Alamy; 64, The Art Archive; 65, Werner Forman/Corbis; 67, David Lyons/Alamy; 69, David Hancock/Alamy; 71, Hans Strand/Corbis; 75, 76, Art Resource, NY; 87, Mary Evans Picture Library; 88 (bl), Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY; (bkgd) Nik Wheeler/Corbis; 90-91, Nik Wheeler/ Corbis; 92, Dagli Orti/The Art Archive; 94, Art Resource, NY; 98, Dagli Orti/The Art Archive; , Warner Brothers/Courtesy Everett Collection; 102, The Bridgeman Art Library; 104, Dagli Orti/The Art Archive; 107, Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY; 108, Ronald Sheridan/Ancient Art & Architecture Collection Ltd.; 109, Ancient Art and Architecture Collection/The Bridgeman Art Library; 112, The Bridgeman Art Library; 114, Private Collection/The Bridgeman Art Library; 116 (bl), QT Luong/Terra Galleria Photography; 117 (cr), The Bridgeman Art Library; , Private Collection/The Bridgeman Art Library; 120, The Bridgeman Art Library; , Private Collection/Bridgeman Art Library; 150 (c), Private Collection/Harry Mileham/The Bridgeman Art Library; 151, The Bridgeman Art Library; 157, Mary Evans Picture Library; 159, 162 (b), The Granger Collection, NY; 165, Private Collection/The Bridgeman Art Library; , Nigel Norrington/Arena Pal; 170, Bettmann/ CORBIS; 177, DLILLC/Corbis; 179, Colin Edwards/Alamy; 181 (tl), Fine Art Photographic Library/Corbis; (cl), AA World Travel Library/Alamy; (cr), The Bridgeman Art Library; (br), David Noble Photography/Alamy; 184, Dagli Orti/The Art Archive f.47r; 187 (br), J. Garcia/Photocuisine/Corbis; 189, Art Resource, NY; 191, HIP/Art Resource, NY; 193, Mario Perez/ABC/Courtesy of Everett Collection; 194, Private Collection/Photo Christie s Images/ The Bridgeman Art Library; 197, Blue Lanterns Studio/Corbis; 198, Clive Barda/The Arena Pal Picture Library; 200, Blue Lanterns Studio/Corbis; 202, Clive Barda/The Arena Pal Picture Library; 205, Paramount/Courtesy of Everett Collection; 206, Dagli Orti/The Art Archive; , Touchstone/Courtesy Everett Collection; , Jonathan Hession/Touchstone/ Bureau L.A. Collection/Corbis; 213, Touchstone Pictures/Jerry Bruckheimer Films/Jonathan Hession/The Kobal Collection; 216, The Bridgeman Art Library; 218, Han Klaus Techt/Epa/ Corbis; 225, Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY; 228, Mary Evans Picture Library/The Image Works; 250 (tl), Jacket Cover copyright 1971, from Grendel by John Gardner. Used by permission of Alfred A. Knopf, a division of Random House, Inc.; (br), Cover from Mythology: The Voyage of the Hero by David Adams Leeming by David Adams Leeming. Used by permission of Oxford University Press; (c), Erich Lessing/Art Resource, New York; 254 (tl), The New York Public Library/Art Resource, NY; (tr), Art Resource, NY; (cr), HIP/Art Resource, NY; (bl), The Granger Collection, NY; 255 (tc), Photo Stage, UK; (cr), The Bridgeman Art Library; (bl), Superstock, Inc.; 256 Chris George/Alamy; 257 The Bridgeman Art Library; 258, Bridgeman-Giraudon/Art Resource, NY; 259, Private Collection/ Philip Mould Ltd, London/The Bridgeman Art Library; 260 (bl), Salisbury Cathedral, Wiltshire, UK/The Bridgeman Art Library; (br), Cristian Peña; 261, AKG-Images; 262 (t), Lebrecht Music and Arts Photo library/alamy; (br), London/Art Resource, NY; 264, AKG-Images; 265, Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY; 266, Fredrick Naumann/Panos Pictures; 267, F. Hoffman- La Roche, Ltd. Basel Switzerland; 268, Scala/Art Resource, NY; 270, Visual Art Library, London/Alamy; 272 (bc), National Trust Photographic Library/The Bridgeman Art Library; 276, The Bridgeman Art Library, NY; 278 (bl), Paul Watts/Cornish Picture Library; 281, The Bridgeman Art Library; 283, E & S Ginsberg/ Alamy; 284 (cl), The Granger Collection, NY; 286, Christie s Images/The Bridgeman Art Library; 288, Castello del Buonconsiglio, Trent, Italy/Giraudon/The Bridgeman Art library; 290, Lebrecht Music and Arts Photo Library/The Image Works; 292, Rolf Richardson/Alamy; 295, Art Resource, NY; 297, The Bridgeman Art Library; 299, Angelo Hornak/Corbis; 300, The Bridgeman Art Library; 303, Jeremy Pardoe/Alamy; 305, Art Resource, NY Add f.85; 307, The Kobal Collection; 310, The Bridgeman Art Library Roy 11 f.2v; 312 (b), Paul Watts/ Cornis Picture Library; (br), Private Collection/Photo Christie s Images/The Bridgeman Art Library; 313 (bc), Paul Watts/Cornish Picture Library; (br), Fine Art Photographic Library, London/ Private Collection/Art Resource; 315, Julia Engelhardt; 318, 319 (br), The Bridgeman Art Library; 322 (bkgd) Art Resource, NY; (bl), Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY; (b), Nik Wheeler/ Corbis; 324 (br), Dagli Orti/Corbis; , Nik Wheeler/Corbis; 329, Scala/Art Resource, NY; 330, Michael S. Quinton/National Geographic Image Collection; 332, Art Resource, NY; 333 (cl), Art Resource, NY, Ms. Or. 2265, fol. 195a.; (cr), Rogers Fund, 1940, Photograph 1989 The Metropolitan Museum of Art a; 337, Purchased with the Edith H. Bell Fund 1975; 338, B.S.P.I./ CORBIS; 340, Vanni/Art Resource, NY; 341, Archives Charmet/ The Bridgeman Art Library; 342, The Bridgeman Art Library; 343, Bequest of Cora Timken Burnett, 1956 ( ). Photograph 1978 The Metropolitan Museum of Art; 344, The Bridgeman Art Library; 349, Private Collection/Photo Bonhams, London, UK/Bridgeman Art Library; 350, Gift of W.A. White, ; 355, Private Collection/Christopher Wood Gallery, London/The Bridgeman Art Library; 358, Charles Walker/Topfoto, UK; 366, Private Collection/ Cider House Galleries, Ltd., Bletchingley, Surrey, UK/The Bridgeman Art Library; 371, Private Collection, The Bridgeman Art Library; 373, Courtesy of Everett Collection; 375 Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY; 377, Private Collection/The Bridgeman Art Library; 378, Dagli Orti/The Art Archive; 382, Giles Keyte/ HBO/Courtesy of the Everett Collection; 383 (tr), The Bridgeman Art Library; (b), Ray T/Rex Features/Courtesy of Everett Collection; 384, PCL/ Alamy; 387 Nathan Benn/Corbis; 388 (bl), Private Collection/ Ken Welsh/The Bridgeman Art Library; (bc), Chris Cole/The Image Bank/Getty Images; (br), The Granger Collection, NY; 389 (t), Private Collection/Ken Welsh/The Bridgeman Art Library; 1552 Picture Credits

103 (bc), The Bridgeman Art Library; (br), Shakespeare Birthplace Trust Records Office; 391 (cr), Private Collection/ Christopher Wood Gallery, London, UK/The Bridgeman Art Library; (b), Charles Gullung/Photonica/Getty Images; (b) Bridget Webber/Photonica/Getty Images; 392 (br), Art Resource, NY; 393 (br), Giraudon/The Bridgeman Art Library; 395, Steve Frost/ Alamy; (t), Richard Green/Photonica/Getty Images; 397 (tl, tr), Photograph 1984 The Metropolitan Museum of Art; 398, The Bridgeman Art Library; 402, Art Resource, NY; 403, Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY; 405 (tr), Roger Holmes/ Photonica/Getty Images; (b), Sara Krulwich/The New York Times/ Redux; 406, David Robertson/Alamy; , Donald Cooper/ Photostage; 418, Dale Jorgensen/Superstock; 421, Ben Graville/ PhotoNews Service LTD.; 428, Steve Mackins; 429, David Gowans/Alamy; 430, Cromwell/Lamancha/Grampian TV/The Kobal Collection; 432, Steve Mackins; 437, The Bridgeman Art Library, NY; 438, David Sanger Photography/Alamy; 442, Donald Cooper/Photostage; 444, Steve Mackins; 447, Vittoriano Rastelli/Corbis; , Donald Cooper/Photostage; 462, Robbie Jack/Corbis; 465, Robert Holmes/Corbis; 466, Clive Barda/ArenaPal; 469, Robert Harding Picture Library Ltd./Alamy; 472, Vittoriano Rastelli/Corbis; 479, Paul Ridgeway/PhotoNews Service, LTD; 481, Matti Kolho/Lebrecht Music & Arts; 484, Steve Mackins; 486, Private Collection/Pace Wildenstein Gallery, New York; 488, David Sanger/Alamy; 491, Columbia Pictures/ Photofest, NY; , Skyscan Photolibrary/Alamy; 528 (cl), Private Collection/Archives Charmet/The Bridgeman Art Library; (br), National Trust/Art Resource, NY; 529 (t), Donald Cooper/ Photostage, UK; (cl), Bildarchiv Preussischer Kulturbesitz/Art Resource, NY; (cr), Archives Charmet/The Bridgeman Art Library; (br), British Museum, London/The Bridgeman Art Library; 530 Guildhall Art Gallery, City of London/The Bridgeman Art Library; 532 Alen Lauzan Falcon/Politicalcartoons.com; (br), Book cover from ZEN AND THE ART OF MOTORCYCLE MAINTENANCE by ROBERT PIRSIG. Copyright 1974 by ROBERT M. PIRSIG. Reprinted by permission of HarperCollins Publishers. WILLIAM MORROW; (br), The Tragedy of Hamlet by William Shakespeare. Cover, HRW. Cover art by Joe Melomo; 533, Historical Picture Archive/Corbis; 534 Jon Arnold Images/Alamy; 535 HIP/Art Resource, NY; 536 Granger Collection, NY; 537 (t), Jerry Grayson/Helifilms Australia PTY Ltd./Getty Images; (cl), AKG Images; 540, Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY; 542 (tr), Courtesy of Everett Collection; (cr), Lebrecht Music & Arts; 543, Courtesy of the Warden and Scholars of New College, Oxford/The Bridgeman Art Library; 544 (bl), National Portrait Gallery, London/The Bridgeman Art Library; (cl), AKG Images; 547, Yale Center for British Art, Paul Mellon Collection/The British Art Library; 551, Jonathan Blair/Corbis; 552, Private Collection/The Bridgeman Art Library; 553, John Miller/Robert Harding Picture Library, Ltd/Alamy; ,The Granger Collection, NY; (cr), Private Collection/The Bridgeman Art Library; 559 (cl), The Granger Collection, NY; (cr), Private Collection/The Bridgeman Art Library; (cl), The Granger Collection, NY; (cr), Private Collection/The Bridgeman Art Library; 561 (cr), Private Collection/The Bridgeman Art Library; 564, National Portrait Gallery, London; , Courtesy of the Everett Collection; 575, Alex Bailey/Corbis Sygma; 581, The Granger Collection, NY; 585 (cr), The Granger Collection, NY; (bl), The Illustrated London News Picture Library; (br), The illustrated News Picture Library; 591, Richard Melloul/Sygma/Corbis; 592, Burstein Collection/CORBIS; 593, Petar Pismestrovic/Artizan; 594 (tl), Achim Bednorz; (cl), Lauros/Giraudon/The Bridgeman Art Library; 596 (b), Donald Cooper/Photostage; (bl), Achim Bednorz; 598, Donald Cooper/Photostage; 602 (cl), Private Collection/The Bridgeman Art Library; 602, 604, Hans Georg Roth/Corbis; 612 (cl), 617 (t), The Bridgeman Art Library; 618, David Levenson/Alamy; 622, The Bridgeman Art Library.; 625, Visual Arts Library, London/Alamy; 627, Robert Halsband Collection; 628, The Bridgeman Art Library; 632, Private Collection/The Bridgeman Art Library; 634, AP Photo/Adam Butler; 638 (bl), Scott Eells/Getty Images; 642, Rob Howard/ Corbis; 644 (b), Bridgeman Art Library; (bl), The Bridgeman Art Library; 646 (bl), Bridgeman Art Library; (bc), Michael Nicholson/CORBIS; 649, The Granger Collection, NY; (c), The Bridgeman Art Library; 656 (bl), Thomas Dobner/Alamy; 659, Thomas Dobner/Alamy; (bc), Alan Novelli/Alamy; 665, Private Collection/Gemalde Mensing/The Bridgeman Art Library; 668, The Bridgeman Art Library; 669, Christopher Weil Photography/StoryCorps; (b), Jeremy Pardoe/Alamy; 672 (tl), The Bridgeman Art Library; 675, Art Resource, NY; 677, The Bridgeman Art Library; 679, Mark Atkinson/JupiterImages/ Comstock; , Fine Art Photographic Library, London/Art Resource, NY; 702 (tl), Jochen Remmer/Bildarchiv Preussischer Kulturbesitz/Art Resource, NY; (tr), The Bridgeman Art Library; (cl), The Granger Collection, NY; (bl), Réunion des Musées Nationaux/Art Resource, NY; (br), Wim Wiskerke/Alamy; 703 (t), Ann Ronan Picture Library, London/HIP/Art Resource, NY; (cl), Private Collection/The Bridgeman Art library; (cr), The British Library, London/The Bridgeman Art Library; (bl), The Bridgeman Art Library; 704, The Granger Collection, NY; 706, Lauros/ Giraudon/The Bridgeman Art Library; 707, Everett Collection; 708 (tr), The Granger Collection, NY; (tr), The Misanthrope and Tartuffe by Moliére. Cover illustration by Mark English. Used by permission of Harcourt Publishers; 709, Alex Segre/Alamy; 711 (tr), The Bridgeman Art Library; (b), The Jane Goodall Institute; 716, The Bridgeman Art Library; 719, Tate Picture Library, London; 720 (bl), Anna Grossman/Photonica/Getty Images; 722 (t), 723 (bc), Anna Grossman/Photonica/Getty Images; (br), The Maas Gallery, London, UK/The Bridgeman Art Library; 725, Hervé Lewandowski/Réunion des Musées Nationaux/Art Resource, NY; 726, Peter Arnold, Inc./Alamy; 728 (cl), Art Resource, NY; (bl), The Granger Collection, NY; 729, Jarrold Publishing/The Art Archive; 732 (cl), Art Resource, NY; (cr), The Bridgeman Art Library; 736 (cr), Randy Wells/Corbis; (br), S.E. Arndt/Peter Arnold, Inc.; (c), INSADCO Photography/ Alamy; 739, Bettmann/Corbis; 740, The Bridgeman Art Library; 746 (bl), Pictorial Press Ltd./Alamy; 749, Neil Setchfield/Alamy; 750, Pictorial Press, Ltd/Alamy; 753, AA World Travel Library/ Alamy; 758, Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY; 759, Art Resource, NY; 762 (t), Frank Rothe/Photonica/Getty Images; (cr), John Miller/Robert Harding World Imagery/Corbis; 766 (bl), The Bridgeman Art Library; 769, Granger Collection, NY; 775, The Bridgeman Art Library; 787, 797, Momatiuk-Eastcott/Corbis; 803, The Bridgeman Art Library; 804, Art Wolfe/Photo Researchers, Inc.; (bkgd), Art Wolfe/Photo Researchers Inc.; 805 (tl), Kevin Schafer/Corbis; (cr), David Hosking/Photo Researchers Inc.; (bc), Eric Hosking/Photo Researchers, Inc.; 808, The Bridgeman Art Library; 809, Art Resource, NY; 810, Sotheby s Transparency Library, London; 812, Private Collection/The Bridgeman Art Library; (c), Farhad J. Parsa/Photonica/Getty Images; (b), Sharon Montrose/Stone/ Getty Images; 818, Bridgeman Art Library; 820, Michael Juno/ Alamy; 823, World Pictures/Alamy; 825, Terry Deroy Gruber/ Photonica/Getty Images; , Amelia P. Schaffner/ Picture Credits Picture Credits 1553

104 Picture Credits 831, Andrew Darrington/Alamy; 834, David Tipling/Alamy; 836, Stephanie Young Merzel/Jus This Moment Photography; 838, Eye of Science/Photo Researchers, Inc.; 839, Jeff Faerber; 841 (cr), DLILLC/Corbis; (bl), Martin Harvey/Gallo Images/Corbis; 842 (bl), The Bridgeman Art Library; (bkgd), Tom Mackie/Alamy; 844, Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY; 845, Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY; 850, Réunion des Musées Nationaux/Art Resource, NY; 853, Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY; 854 (br), Bildarchiv Preussincher Kulturbesitz/Art Resource, NY; 855, Frankenstein, Or the Modern Prometheus by Mary Shelley. Cover HRW, illustration by Cliff Nielsen Philippe Weisbecker. Used by permission of Riley Illustration; 860, The Granger Collection, NY; 863, Dennis Cox/ChinaStock; 864, Judy Mundy/Alamy; 865 (cr), Dennis Cox/Alamy; (bl), View Stock/ Alamy; 866, Pacific Press Service/Alamy; 867 (cr), Chris Porter/ Alamy; (br), The Bridgeman Art Library; 869, Darby Sawchuk/ Alamy; 870, Golden Gate Images/Alamy; 872 (cl), B.S.P.I./Corbis; (bl), The Granger Collection, NY; 875, Dennis Cox/ChinaStock; 878, Smithsonian Freer Gallery of Art and Arthur M. Sackler Gallery; 879, Panorama Media (Beijing) Ltd./Alamy; Art Resource, NY; 902 (tr), Private Collection/Bridgeman Art Library; (cr), Archives Charmet/The Bridgeman Art Library; (bl), The Granger Collection, NY; 903 (tl), Private Collection/The Bridgeman Art Library; (tr), Pictorial Press Ltd./Alamy; (cl), The Granger Collection, NY; (cr), Heritage Image, UK/The Print Collector; (br), The Granger Collection, NY; 904, The Bridgeman Art Library; 907 (cr), Alinari/Bridgeman Art Library; (bc), Stefan Schuetz/Zefa/Corbis; 908 (tr), Private Collection/Whitford & Hughes, London/The Bridgeman Art Library; (bl), HRW; 909 (bl), Private Collection/The Bridgeman Art Library; 911 (cr), Roger Bamber/Alamy; 912 (b), Neil McAllister/Alamy; (c), Ed Maynard/ Alamy; 914, Tate Collection, London; 915, Christie s Images/ Corbis; 919, Art Resource, NY; 921 (tr), Everett Collection, NY; (cl), Bettmann/Corbis; 923, The Bridgeman Art Library, NY; 927, Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY; 929, Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY; 936, Private Collection/The Bridgeman Art Library, NY; 938, Steve Hawkins Photography/Alamy; 940, Mary Evans Picture Library; 945, Alinari/The Bridgeman Art Library; 948, Digital Image/licensed by Scala/Art Resource, NY; 954, National Trust Photographic Library/Derrick E. Witty/Bridgeman Art Library; 956, Mary Evans/Jeffrey Morgan Collection/The Image Works; 958, Roger Camp/Images.com; 960, The Bridgeman Art Library; 961, Private Collection/The Bridgeman Art Library; 963, NMPFT/SSPL/The Image Works; 967, Art Resource, NY; 972 (bl), The Bridgeman Art Library, NY; (bkgd), William Leaman/Alamy; 974, William Leaman/Alamy; 977, Private Collection/Photo Bonhams, London, UK/The Bridgeman Art Library, NY; 980, Mary Evans Picture Library; 983, Duomo/CORBIS; 985, Brigitte Sporrer/Zefa/Corbis; 989, Robert Llewellyn/Image State/Alamy; 990, Simon Bruty/Sports Illustrated; 994, Walter Crump/Corbis; 995, Tibor Bognar/Corbis; 997, Kazuyoshy Nomachi/Corbis; 998, Atlantide Phototravel/Corbis; 1001 (tr), The Bridgeman Art Library; (cr), Cyril Ruoso/JH Editorial/Minden Pictures; 1003, Lindsay Hebberd/Woodfin Camp & Associates; 1006, Everett Collection; 1007, The Bridgeman Art Library; 1008, Michael Nicholson/Corbis; , Library of Congress; , Corbis; 1018, AKG London; 1022, The Bridgeman Art Library, NY; 1025, Scala/Art Resource, NY; 1027, The Bridgeman Art Library, NY; 1032, Stefano Bianchetti/Corbis; (b), Corbis; 1035 (tl), Newmann/Zefa/Corbis; Dominic Burke/Alamy; 1062 (tr, c), Everett Collection; (cr), Corbis; (br), Private Collection/Topham Picturepoint/The Bridgeman Art Library; 1063 (tl, cr), Donald Cooper/Photostage; (br), David Magnus/Rex Features/Courtesy of Everett Collection; 1064, Mike Booth/Alamy; 1065, Private Collection/The Bridgeman Art Library; 1067 (t), Gavin Whitelaw Collection/Hulton Archive/ Getty Images; (cr), Picture Post/Hulton Archive/Getty Images; 1068, Bill Pierce/Time Life Pictures/Getty Images; 1069, Mark Boulton/Alamy; , NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory (NASA-JPL); 1072, Digital Image/Licensed by Scala/Art Resource, NY; 1073, Laurie Platt Winfrey Inc.; 1074 (bc), The Wilfred Owen Multimedia Digital Library; (bl), Time Life Pictures/ Mansell/Time Life Pictures/Getty Images; (bkgd), Michael Busselle/Stone/Getty Images; (bl), Reprinted with permission of Scribner, an imprint of Simon & Schuster Adult Publishing Group from What Jane Austen Ate and Charles Dickens Knew by Daniel Poole. (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1993); (br), The Importance of Being Earnest by Oscar Wilde. Cover HRW, photo by Scott Osdol; 1076, Popperfoto/Alamy; 1078, Michael Busselle/Stone/Getty Images; 1080, Hulton Deutsch Collection/ Corbis; 1082, Hulton Deutsch Collection/Corbis; 1085, Popperfoto; 1087, Jack Sullivan/Alamy; 1089, Fiona Hanson/ WPA Pool/AP Photo; 1092, Jerry Bauer; 1094, Digital Image/ Licensed by Scala/Art Resource, NY; 1097, Private Collection/ Roger Perrin/The Bridgeman Art Library; 1102, William Coupon/ Corbis; 1104, Les Gibbon/Alamy; 1105, Lain Masterton/Alamy; 1111, NMPFT/Daily Herald Archive/SSPL/The Image Works; 1112, AP Photos; 1116, Hulton-Deutsch Collection/Corbis; 1119, Private Collection/The Bridgeman Art Library; , Private Collection/Connaught Brown, London/The Bridgeman Art Library; 1122, The Bridgeman Art Library; 1126, AFP/Agence France Presse/Getty Images; 1129, Hulton-Deutsch Collection/Corbis; 1135, Bridgeman Art Library; 1140, The Granger Collection, NY; 1142 (c), Vivian Kereki/Veer/Corbis; (br), Hulton Archive/Getty Images; 1145, Christophe Boisvieux/ Corbis; 1150 (bl), Hulton-Deutsch Collection/Corbis; 1153, Time Life Pictures/Mansell/Getty Images; 1155, Paul Almay/Corbis; 1159 (tr), The Granger Collection, NY; (c), Cordaiy Photo Library Ltd./Corbis; 1160 (cl), AP Photos; 1161 (tc), Society of Authors, UK; (bl), The Granger Collection, NY; (bc), Paramount/Courtesy Everett Collection; 1165, Permission of Angelica Garnett/ Sotheby s Transparency Library, London; 1166, Michael Boys/ Corbis; , The Bridgeman Art Library; 1179, Private Collection/Bridgeman Art Library; 1210, Private Collection/The Bridgeman Art Library; (bl), Topham/The Image Works; 1217, Digital Image/Licensed by SCALA/Art Resource, NY; 1221 (c), Stefano Amantini/Atlantide Phototravel/Corbis; (cr), Pictorial Press Ltd./Alamy; 1222 (bl), Roy Hewson; (br), Geray Sweeney/ Corbis; 1223, Private Collection/The Bridgeman Art Library; 1225, Jim Zuckerman/Corbis; 1228, Vanni Archive/Corbis; 1230, Michael St. Maur Sheil/Corbis; 1233, Private Collection/ The Bridgeman Art Library; 1234, Envision/Corbis; 1237, Danny Lehman/Corbis; 1238, Cameraphoto Arte, Venice/Art Resource, NY; 1241 Liam White/Alamy; 1242, World History Archive/ Alamy; 1243, John Phillips/Pictures Inc./Time Life Pictures/Getty Images; 1246, Mary Evans Picture Library/Alamy; 1252, Bridgeman Art Library, NY; 1255 (cr), Jeff Towns; (cr), Sigrid Olsson/PhotoAlto/Alamy; 1260, Private Collection/The Bridgeman Art Library; 1262, Jonathan Williams; 1264, Stefan Schuetz/Zefa/Corbis; 1266, Topham Picturepoint/The Image Works; 1268, Rheinisches Blidarchiv/Stadt Kîln; 1270, Czarek Sokolowski/AP Photo; 1276 (c), Alastair Grant/AP Photos; (bl), Filip Miller/AP Photo; 1280, Bettmann/Corbis; 1282, Rheinisches Blidarchiv/Stadt Kîln; 1284, Gisele Freund/Grazia 1554 Picture Credits

105 Neri; 1286, Look Photography/Beateworks/Corbis; 1290, Charles Hewitt/Hulton Archive/Getty Images; 1293 (cr), Ian Waldie, Pool/AP Photo; (bl), Ian Waldie/Pool/EPA/Corbis; 1294 (cl), Digital Image/licensed by Scala/Art Resource, NY; 1296 (c), Tony Cragg; (bl), Jane Bown/Camera Press; 1300, Erich Lessing/ Art Resource, NY; 1301, Nadia Mackenzie/National Trust Photographic Library/The Bridgeman Art Library; 1302, Johnny Eggitt/AFP/Getty Images; 1303, Steve Allen/The Image Bank/ Getty Images; 1304 (cr), The Bridgeman Art Library; (c), Nicholas Devore III/Bruce Coleman, Inc.; 1306, Nicholas Devore III/Bruce Coleman, Inc.; 1308 (bl), Hulton-Deutsch Collection/Corbis; (bl), Sophie Bassouls/Corbis; Malcolm Morley/Sperone Westwater Gallery; 1310 (c), Lew Robertson/Corbis; (br), Stockbyte/Alamy; 1311 (tr), Everett Collection; (br), Keith Shuttlewood/Alamy; 1314 (bl), Stanford University; (bl), Stockbyte/Alamy; 1316, Oriol Alamany & E. Vicens/Corbis; 1317 (tl), Leo Mason/Alamy; (tr), Everett Collection; 1321, Bert Hardy/ Picture Post/Getty Images; 1323, Private Collection/The Bridgeman Art Library; 1324, Roy Hewson; 1334, Arici Graziano/Grazia Neri; 1335 PhotoLink/Getty; 1338, Christopher Zacharow/Images.com/Corbis; 1340, Paul Klee; 1342, Hulton- Deutsch Collection/Corbis; 1344 (cr),1347 (t), Donald Cooper/ Photo Stage, UK; 1350, Popperfoto/Alamy; 1352, Cornell Capa/Magnum Photos; 1354, MC Pherson Colin/Corbis Sygma; 1356, John King/Alamy; 1359, Juhan Kuus/SIPA Press; 1360, 1362, John King/Alamy; 1365, Peter Titmuss/Alamy; 1366, Ed Bailey/AP Photo; (b), Kolvenbach/Alamy; 1369 (cl), Gideon Mendel/Corbis; (br), Gideon Mendel/Corbis; 1370 (br), HMVH; (b), Kolvenbach/Alamy; 1372, Kolvenbach/Alamy; 1374, AP/Wide World Photos; 1377, Private Collection/The Bridgeman Art Library; 1379, Don Cole; 1382, Ira Wyman/Corbis Sygma; 1384, Private Collection/ The Bridgeman Art Library; 1387, Tim Graham/Alamy; 1388, Sophie Bassouls/Corbis Sygma; 1391, June Kelly Gallery, NY; 1394, MC Pherson Colin/Corbis Sygma; 1404, David Levenson/Getty Images; 1406, Jeremy Young; 1410, Andrew Toos/Cartoonstock; 1412, Paolo Della Corte/Rex USA; , Jon Hicks/eStock Photo; 1417, Christophe Boisvieux/Corbis. Picture Credits Picture Credits 1555

106 Index of Skills INDEX OF SKILLS LITERARY SKILLS Alexandrine, 813 Allegory, 217, 220, 222, 223, 228, 229, 230, 231, 325, 367, 368, 370, 372, 799, 1009, 1011, 1012, 1014, 1017, 1018, 1020, 1021 Alliteration, 50, 79, 160, 309, 394, 767, 768, 770, 771, 816, 840, 917, 957, 958, 959, 986, 1205, 1206, 1207, 1232, 1273, 1283 Allusion, 294, 345, 363, 364, 365, 763, 764, 765, 851, 1189, 1191, 1194, 1200, 1245, 1293 Analysis, literary. See Literary analysis Analyzing credibility, 582, 588, 776, 789, 793, 798, 799, 1024, 1026, 1028, 1030, 1327, 1328, 1331 Analyzing style, 820, 821, 944, 946, 948, 949 See also Style. Analyzing Visuals etchings, 543 paintings, 114 photographs, 963 Renaissance illuminations, 269 sculpture, 1296 Anglo-Saxon legacy, 4 6 Antagonist, 1422 Antipastoral, 277 Antithesis, 615, 616, 617, 618, 619 Apostrophe, 301, 313, 721, 727, 813, 815, 816 Archetype, 17, 21, 54, 88, 494, 600 Art. See Analyzing Visuals. Assonance, 774, 917, 957, 958, 959, 986, 1205, 1206, 1207, 1273 Atmosphere, 1322 Autobiography, 1093 Ballad, , 186, 188, 190, 192 See also Literary ballad. Biographical information, 647, 648, 651, 653, 927, 929, 930, 1230, 1231, 1232 Biography, 645, 649, 650, 652, 653 Blank verse, 350, 439, 477, 747, 748, 752, 754 Carpe diem, 283, 284, 286, 287 Character foil, 89, 91, 94, 96, 97, 110, 146, 214 Characterization, 231, 329, 457, 603, 1365, 1404 in narrative poetry, 121, 125, 126, 129, 132, 134, 137, 139, 140, 143, 146 Chinese poetry, , Climax, 203 Colloquial language, 1223 Conflict, 307, 1250 external, 307, 993 internal, 307, 993 in short story, 993, 994, 998, 999, 1000, 1002, 1003, 1004 Connotations, 315, 667, 1216, 1218, 1220 Constructed Response, 246, 521, 695, 895, 1055 Contemporary epic, 1391, 1392, 1393, 1395 Contrasting images, 917, 918, 920, 921, 922, 923 Couplet, 824, 843, 981, 982, 1075, 1273 Credibility, 582, 588, 776, 789, 793, 798, 799, 1024, 1026, 1028, 1030, 1327, 1328, 1331 Cross-curricular links, 35, 187, 356, 371, 481, 606, 625, 661, 671, 753, 769, 787, 854, 921, 1001, 1089, 1111, 1145, 1225, 1282, 1338, 1419 Dialect, 721, 722, 723, 724, 725, 727 Dialogue, 304, 305, 306, 307, 1351, 1354, 1355, 1397 Diary, 545, 546, 548 Diction in letters, 1181, 1183, 1184 in poetry, 315, 316, 317, 318, 319, 837, 838, 839, 840, 955, 1223, 1224, 1226, 1395 and style, 315, 316, 317, 318, 319, 548, 653 and tone, 633, 635, 636, 637, 839 Didactic literature, 332, 333, 334, 335, 337, 338, 339, 340, 341, 342, 343 Drama, medieval, 216 Drama, Renaissance, Dramatic irony, 359, 457, 741, 1033, 1239 Dramatic monologue, 943, 944, 947, 948, 949 Elegy, 61, 63, 64, 67, 68, 70, 73, 657, 658, 662, 663, 664, 931, 968, 1073, 1235, 1236, 1237 Elizabeth I, 254, End rhyme, 757 Enjambment, 1083 Epic, 17 18, 20, 1391 Epic, mock, 621, 623, 624, 626, 627, 628, 629 Epic hero, 17, 21, 23, 24, 26, 27, 28, 30, 31, 34, 35, 36, 38, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 47, 48, 49, 50, 54, 88, 97 Epic simile, 99, 102, 106, 110, 350, 629 Epiphany, 1325, 1330, 1331 Escape fiction, 1355 Essay, 1162, 1163, 1164, 1169 Exact rhyme, 986 Exposition, 1355 Extended metaphor, 760, 915, 937, 1279, 1281, 1283 External conflict, 307, 993 Figurative language, 283, 915, 923, 930, 939, 949, 955 Figures of speech, 291, 1075, 1076, 1079, 1180, 1229 apostrophe, 301, 313, 721, 727, 813, 815, 816 personification, 282, 287, 761, 762, 765, 915, 1106 simile, 99, 102, 106, 110, 350, 811, 812, 816, 835, 915, 1075, 1180 See also Metaphor; Symbol. First-person point of view, 1176 Flashback, 1117, 1120, 1121, 1124 Foil, 89, 91, 94, 96, 97, 110, 146, 214, 477 Folk ballad, 774 Foreshadowing, 214, 1124, 1309, 1312, 1315, 1316, 1318, 1319, 1320, 1322 Frame story, 118, 121, 123, 145, 146 Graphic novel, 54, 59, 496, 502 Haiku, 864, 867, 868, 870 Half rhyme, 986 Hero epic, 21, 23, 24, 26, 27, 28, 30, 31, 34, 35, 36, 38, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 47, 48, 49, 50, 54, 97 romance, 207, 209, 210, 212, 1556 Index of Skills

107 213, 214 Historical background Anglo-Saxon Period and Middle Ages, 1 11 Modern World, Renaissance, Restoration and Eighteenth Century, Victorian Period, Historical context, 407, 409, 413, 425, 431, 433, 436, 439, 440, 456, 457, 464, 474, 477, 480, 492, 493, 494, 966, 967, 968, 1095, 1098, 1099 Homeric simile, 99 Humanism, 267 Hyperbole, 287, 294, 298 Iamb, 747, 1075 Iambic hexameter, 813 Iambic pentameter, 267, 385, 813, 1075 Identity and diversity in modern literature, 1064, Imagery, 271, 289, 291, 324 contrasting, 917, 918, 920, 921, 922, 923 in drama, 493 in poetry, 657, 760, 828, 868, 869, 870, 871, 877, 878, 879, 880, 930, 1081, 1082, 1083, 1265, 1266, 1267, 1276 in short story, 1177, 1178, 1179, 1180, 1388, 1397, 1415, 1416, 1417, 1419, 1420, 1421, 1422 Informal essay, 1162 Interlude, in drama, 386 Internal conflict, 307, 993 Internal rhyme, 774 Interpretive fiction, 1357 Irony, 149, 153, 156, 158, 175, 192, 820, 821, 949, 1033, 1037, 1039, 1040, 1141, 1143, 1145, 1146, 1147, 1148, 1202, 1239, 1240, 1241, 1295 dramatic, 359, 457, 741, 1033, 1239, 1295 situational, 149, 160, 457, 565, 567, 568, 576, 577, 819, 1033, 1141, 1239, 1295, 1341, 1375 verbal, 149, 160, 457, 580, 583, 585, 587, 588, 1033, 1141, 1239, 1377, 1380, 1383 Japanese poetry, Journal, 557 Literary analysis allegory, 372 argument, 382, 643, 1113 author s beliefs, 1255 ballad, 192 biography, 653 blog, 554 diary, 548 diction, 637 didactic literature, 343 drama, 307, 425, 439, 457, 477, 493, 502, 1348, 1355 elegy, 73, 664 epic tradition, 42, 50, 97, 110, 629 essay, 1148, 1169 figurative language, 923, 930, 939, 949, 955 form and function, 619 graphic novel, 59 historical context, 85 Japanese and Chinese poetry, 871, 876, 880 journal, 562 letter, 1184 medieval drama, 231 medieval narrative, 146, 160, 175, 183 memoir, 1413 metaphysical conceits, 299 modern poetry, 1194, 1202, 1207, 1211, 1215, 1220, 1226, 1232, 1241, 1245, 1250, 1259, 1263, 1267, 1276, 1283, 1288, 1293, 1395 newspaper article, 991, 1271 novel, 1176 oral tradition, 85 parables, 329 political writing, 678, 1157 Psalms, 324 realism, 969, 978, 986 Renaissance poetry, 275, 280, 287, 294, 302, 312, 319, 359, 365 riddles, 79 romance, 203, 214 Romantic poetry, 727, 734, 741, 744, 754, 760, 765, 771, 799, 807, 816, 821, 828, 835, 840, 846, 851, 856 satire, 577, 588, 600 short story, 1004, 1021, 1030, 1040, 1124, 1139, 1180, 1306, 1322, 1341, 1365, 1375, 1383, 1388, 1404, 1422 sonnet, 394, 399 war literature, 1079, 1083, 1086, 1091, 1099, 1106, 1124, 1139 Literary ballad, 774, 776, 777, 779, 780, 782, 785, 788, 789, 790, 794, 795, 797, 798, 799 Literary Focus epic tradition, figurative language, 915 form and function in Age of Reason, 613 forms of romantic poetry, 809 irony, 1295 medieval narrative, 113 realism, Renaissance poetry, rise of the novel, Shakespeare s sonnets and plays, themes of modern and contemporary poetry, 1187 themes of romantic poetry, war literature, 1073 Literary Perspectives biographical information, 647, 648, 651, 653, 927, 929, 930, 1230, 1231, 1232 credibility, 582, 588, 776, 789, 793, 798, 799, 1024, 1026, 1028, 1030, 1327, 1328, 1331 historical context, 407, 409, 413, 425, 431, 433, 436, 439, 440, 456, 457, 464, 474, 477, 480, 492, 493, 494, 966, 967, 968, 1095, 1098, 1099 philosophical context, 301, 302, 749, 752, 754, 849, 851, 1190, 1193, 1194 political context, 163, 168, 175, 582, 669, 678, 1163, 1166, 1167, 1169, 1357, 1363, 1364, 1365 style, 820, 821, 944, 946, 948, 949 Lyric, 309, 310, 311, 312, 657, 1235 Lyric poetry, 1229, 1231, 1232 Medieval drama, 216 Medieval narrative, Medieval society, 4, 9 10 Meet the Writer, 80, 98, 116, 206, 270, 276, 282, 288, 308, 314, 320, 346, 366, 388, 544, 556, 594, 602, 614, 632, 638, 644, 656, 666, 720, 728, 746, 810, 818, 836, 842, 866, 867, 872, 916, 942, 964, 972, 992, 1008, 1022, 1032, 1074, 1080, 1092, 1102, 1108, 1116, 1126, 1140, 1150, 1160, 1188, 1198, 1222, Index of Skills Index of Skills 1557

108 Index of Skills 1228, 1238, 1242, 1246, 1256, 1260, 1264, 1272, 1278, 1284, 1290, 1298, 1308, 1324, 1334, 1342, 1350, 1356, 1368, 1376, 1384, 1390, 1396, 1406, 1414 Memoir, 1073, 1093, 1095, 1096, 1098, 1099 Metaphor, 275, 291, 321, 852, 853, 856, 915, 937, 938, 939, 1075, 1180, 1212, 1213, 1214, 1215, 1237, 1261, 1262, 1263 extended, 760, 915, 937, 1279, 1281, 1283 Metaphysical conceit, 291, 293, 294 Metaphysical poetry, 289, 290, 294, 959 Meter, 289, 745, 747, 757, 759, 760, 774, 917, 923 Middle English, 119 Miracle play, 216, 386 Mock epic, 621, 623, 624, 626, 627, 628, 629 Modern and contemporary poetry, 1187 Monologue, dramatic, 943, 944, 947, 948, 949 Mood, 502, 873, 874, 875, 876, 965, 966, 968, 1211 Morality play, 216, 386 Motif, 20, 439 Motivation, 1030 Mystery play, 216, 386 Narrative voice, 557, 558, 560, 561, 562, 1004, 1299, 1301, 1302, 1303, 1305, 1306 Narrator, 161, 164, 166, 169, 175, 557 Naturalism, 962 Nonfiction, forms of autobiography, 1093 biography, 645, 649, 650, 652, 653 essay, 1162, 1163, 1164, 1169 journal, 557 memoir, 1093, 1095, 1096, 1098, 1099 Norman invasion of Britain, 4, 7 8 Novel, Octave, 745, 1075 Ode, 809, 824, 825, 826, 827, 828 Omniscient point of view, 1176 Onomatopoeia, 299, 309 Oppositions, 917 Oratory, 1109, 1110, 1112, 1113 Order and reason in the Restoration and eighteenth century, Oxymoron, 359, 1075 Parable, 325, 326, 328, 329 Paradox, 275, 300, 301, 302, 359, 425, 1220, 1335, 1336, 1338, 1341 Parallelism, 321, 322, 323, 324, 374, 381, 737, 739, 740, 741, 880 Parody, 603, 605, 607, 608 Pastoral poetry, 277, 278, 279, 280 Personification, 282, 287, 761, 762, 765, 915, 1106 Petrarchan sonnet, 745, 843, 953, 954, 955, 1077, 1263 Philosophical context, 301, 302, 749, 752, 754, 849, 851, 1190, 1193, 1194 Plot, 1383 Poetic structure, 1077, 1078, 1079, 1272, 1274, 1275, 1276 Point of view, 1176, 1413 Political context, 163, 168, 175, 582, 669, 678, 1163, 1166, 1167, 1169, 1357, 1363, 1364, 1365 Postcolonial literature, 1068, 1387 Progress and prosperity in the Victorian Era, 904, Protagonist, 216, 541, 1422 Protestant Reformation, 254, Quatrain, 1075 QuickTalk, 282, 308, 496, 545, 594, 614, 632, 638, 842, 916, 1116, 1324, 1342, 1356, 1376 Realism, Refrain, 185, 277, 280, 319, 734, 1257, 1258, 1259 Renaissance poetry, Repetition, 1103, 1104, 1106, 1109, 1241 Rhetorical question, 943, 949 Rhyme, 757, 759, 760, 774, 917 Rhyme scheme, 309, 312, 365, 385, 745, 747, 757, 774, 824, 923, 939 Rhythm, 309, 774 Riddle, 74, 75, 79 Riots and reforms in the Victorian Era, Romance, 114, 195, 196, 197, 199, 202, 203 Romance hero, 207, 209, 210, 212, 213, 214 Romantic poetry, , 809 Run-on line, 1083 Satire, 146, 565, 577, 595, 597, 598, 599, 600, 678, 1385, 1387, 1388 Scanning a poem, 757 Sestet, 745, 1075 Setting, 81, 83, 84, 85, 269, 372, 856, 876 and details, 1099 in photographs, 963 of short story, 1127, 1128, 1132, 1133, 1136, 1137, 1138, 1139, 1397, 1398, 1400, 1403, 1404 Shakespearean sonnet, 390, 391, 392, 393, 394, 395, 396, 397, 398, 399, 843, 1077 Simile, 811, 812, 816, 835, 915, 1075, 1180 epic, 99, 102, 106, 110, 350 Homeric, 99 Situational irony, 149, 160, 457, 565, 567, 568, 576, 577, 819, 1033, 1141, 1239, 1341, 1375 Social classes in the Restoration and eighteenth century, 530, Sonnet, 267, 271, 275, 309, 363, 809, 821, 843, 844, 845, 846, 1291 Petrarchan, 267, 745, 843, 953, 954, 955, 1077, 1263 Shakespearean, 268, 385, 390, 391, 392, 393, 394, 395, 396, 397, 398, 399, 843, 1077 turn in, 267, 385 Sound devices, 917, 919, 920, 922, 923, 1229 Speaker, 271, 272, 273, 274, 275, 727, 973, 975, 976, 978 of a poem, 727, 973, 975, 976, 978, 1247, 1248, 1249, 1250 Spenserian stanza, 809 Stage directions, 1348 Stanza, 745 Style, 350, 353, 354, 357, 359, 821, 1184 and diction, 315, 316, 317, 318, 319, 548, 637 in novel, 1172, 1173, 1175, 1176 in poetry, 820, 821, 944, 946, 948, 949 and syntax, 350 Subject, 926 Symbol, 871, 1040, 1113, 1148, 1215, 1267, 1288, 1306 in modern poetry, 1208, 1209, 1210, 1211 in Romantic poetry, 730, 731, 733, 734, 744, 771, 829, 830, 834, 835 in short story, 1369, 1371, Index of Skills

109 Synesthesia, 847, 848, 849, 850, 851 Tanka, 864, 866, 868, 869 Terza rima, 824 Theater of the absurd, 1343, 1345, 1346, 1348 Theme, 296, 302, 926 in poetry, 727, 742, 743, 744, 754, 765, 928, 929, 930, 984, 985, 986, 1194, 1200, 1201, 1202, 1243, 1244, 1245, 1259, 1285, 1287, 1288 in short story, 1023, 1026, 1029, 1030, 1139, 1357, 1360, 1362, 1363, 1365 universal, 42, 73 war literature, 1079 Third-person limited point of view, 1176 Tone, 85, 161, 203, 273, 296, 297, 298, 299, 562, 588, 1021 and connotations, 667, 670, 671, 673, 675, 676, 677, 678 and diction, 839 in essay, 1169 and inversion, 277 in memoir, 1407, 1409, 1410, 1411, 1413 in poetry, 280, 399, 619, 657, 846, 931, 934, 935, 936, 939, 978, 1081, 1083, 1194, 1207, 1226 in short story, 1331 Tragedy, 404, 407, 410, 412, 415, 418, 422, 424, 425, 426, 427, 429, 431, 432, 436, 438, 439, 440, 441, 442, 444, 446, 447, 448, 450, 453, 455, 456, 457, 459, 460, 461, 463, 464, 465, 467, 469, 470, 472, 476, 477, 478, 480, 482, 483, 484, 486, 487, 488, 489, 490, 493, 494, 496, 502 Tragic flaw, 404 Tragic hero, 404 Tudor rule, Turn, poetic, 267, 385, 1075, 1291 Universal theme, 42, 73 Values and beliefs in the Restoration and eighteenth century, 530, Verbal irony, 149, 160, 457, 580, 583, 585, 587, 588, 1033, 1141, 1239, 1377, 1380, 1383 Villanelle, 1235 War literature, 1073 World War I, World War II, 1064, INFORMATIONAL TEXT SKILLS Analyzing argument, 374, 376, 377, 378, 379, 381, 382 Analyzing author s beliefs, 1251, 1253, 1254, 1255 Analyzing cause and effect, 988, 989, 990, 991 Analyzing details and main idea, 802, 804, 806, 807 Analyzing political statements, 1084, 1085, 1086 Analyzing primary sources, 859, 861, 862 Analyzing sequence of events, 1088, 1089, 1090, 1091 Argument, analyzing, 374, 376, 377, 378, 379, 381, 382 Author s argument, 639, 640, 641, 642, 643 Author s beliefs, 1251, 1253, 1254, 1255 Causes and effects, 988, 989, 990, 991 Comparing and contrasting, 550, 551, 552, 553, 554 Critiquing author s argument, 639, 640, 641, 642, 643 Details and main idea, 802, 804, 806, 807 Effects, causes and, 988, 989, 990, 991 Graphics, using, 1268, 1269, 1270, 1271 Main idea, 802, 804, 806, 807 Parallelism, 374, 381 Political assumptions, 1151, 1152, 1154, 1156, 1157 Political statements, 1084, 1085, 1086 Primary sources, 859, 861, 862 Recognizing political assumptions, 1151, 1152, 1154, 1156, 1157 Sequence of events, 1088, 1089, 1090, 1091 READING SKILLS Alexandrine, 813 Analyzing details, 115, 124, 128, 131, 133, 135, 141, 146, 207, 212, 213, 214, 1227, 1229, 1230, 1232, 1415, 1416, 1418, 1420, 1421, 1422 Analyzing style, 304, 305, 307, 821 key details, 115, 124, 128, 131, 133, 135, 141, 146 poetry, 350, 352, 355, 357, 358, 359, 931, 932, 933, 934, 936, 939, 1212, 1214, 1215 satire, 595, 597, 598, 599, 600 Analyzing tone, 837, 838, 840, 1239, 1240, 1241 Annotating a poem, 757, 758, 760 Appeal, persuasive to authority, 667 types of, 579, 580, 1107, 1109 Archaic words, 321, 322, 324, 774, 777, 781, 786, 788, 790, 794, 797, 799 Argument by analogy, 667 See also Persuasive techniques. Author s argument, identifying and critiquing, 639, 640, 641, 642, 643, 1107, 1109, 1110, 1113 Author s beliefs, 367, 370, 371, 372, 1162, 1167, 1168, 1169 Author s credibility, 545, 547, 548 Author s perspective, 1216, 1218, 1219, 1220, 1385, 1386, 1388 Author s point of view, 645, 648, 652, 653 Author s purpose, 185, 186, 189, 190, 192, 363, 364, 365, 565, 569, 570, 572, 574, 576, 577, 1141, 1144, 1146, 1147, 1148, 1407, 1409, 1410, 1413 Author s stance, 615, 617, 618, 619 Author s style. See Analyzing style. Background knowledge, 1391, 1392, 1394, 1395 Build background, 12, 23, 62, 66, 68, 75, 82, 90, 101, 122, 151, 162, 179, 186, 188, 190, 196, 219, 262, 272, 273, 274, 278, 284, 290, 292, 297, 301, 305, 310, 311, 316, 317, 318, 322, 323, 326, 334, 336, 338, 339, 340, 341, 342, 351, 364, 368, 375, 377, 380, 391, 392, 395, 396, 397, 398, 405, 536, 546, 551, 558, 566, 581, 596, 604, 616, 618, 622, 634, 640, 646, 658, 668, 674, 677, 722, 725, 731, 733, 738, 740, 743, 758, 762, 764, 768, 775, 803, 812, 820, 825, 830, 836, 844, 845, 853, 860, 869, 870, 874, 875, 878, 910, 918, 927, 938, 944, 947, 954, 958, 966, 974, 976, 982, 985, 989, 994, 1010, 1024, 1034, 1070, 1076, 1078, 1082, 1085, 1089, 1094, 1104, 1110, 1118, 1128, 1142, 1152, 1155, 1163, 1173, 1178, 1182, 1190, Index of Skills Index of Skills 1559

110 Index of Skills 1206, 1209, 1213, 1217, 1224, 1230, 1236, 1240, 1244, 1248, 1252, 1258, 1262, 1266, 1269, 1281, 1286, 1292, 1301, 1311, 1326, 1336, 1344, 1353, 1358, 1370, 1378, 1386, 1392, 1398, 1408, 1416 Cause and effect identifying, 1297, 1299, 1304, 1305, 1306 understanding, 195, 197, 198, 200, 201, 202, 203 Character, interpreting, 161, 163, 165, 168, 172, 173, 175, 1309, 1311, 1314, 1318, 1320, 1322 Comparing and contrasting, 89, 92, 94, 97, 315, 317, 318, 319 epic heroes, 97 medieval and contemporary periods, 178, 180, 182, 183 in poetry, 291, 292, 293, 294, 817, 819, 820, 821, 1279, 1282, 1283 in short story, 1325, 1327, 1328, 1330, 1331 Comparing ideas across cultures, 332, 333, 335, 337, 338, 339, 340, 341, 342, 343 Comparison, 291, 819 Conclusions, drawing, 149, 151, 153, 154, 159, 160 about meaning, 737, 739, 740, 741, 957, 958, 959 Connecting text to experience, 1205, 1206, 1207 Connotations, 657 Context clues, 74, 77, 78, 79, 350, 730, 731, 733, 734, 1075, 1076, 1079 Contrast, 291, 819 Credibility, author s, 545, 547, 548 Critical judgments, 217, 220, 221, 223, 226, 228, 229, 230, 231, 557, 560, 561, 562 Cultural characteristics, 1377, 1380, 1381, 1383 Details analyzing, 115, 124, 128, 131, 133, 135, 141, 146, 207, 212, 213, 214, 1227, 1229, 1230, 1232, 1415, 1416, 1418, 1420, 1421, 1422 visualizing, 1081, 1082, 1083 Diction. See Word order. Drawing conclusions, 149, 151, 153, 154, 159, 160 about meaning, 737, 739, 740, 741, 957, 958, 959 Drawing inferences. See Making inferences. Effect. See Cause and effect. Emotional appeal, 579, 580, 1107, 1109 Ethical appeal, 579, 580, 1107 Evaluating historical context, 81, 82, 85, 1093, 1094, 1095, 1097, 1098, 1099 Form and meaning, 981, 982, 986 Generalizations, 971, 973, 975, 976, 978 about writer s beliefs, 367, 370, 371, 372 Graphic novel, responding to, 54, 59, 496, 502 Graphic organizers, 1229, 1235, 1243, 1257, 1273 cause-and-effect chain, 1299 cluster chart, 1377 compare-and-contrast chart, 819, 821 concept map, 767, 771, 965, 968, 969, 1033, 1040 flow chart, 639, 643, 774, 799 idea web, 1200, 1223, 1226, 1355 making inferences, 829, 835 spider map, 1127, 1212 trifold chart, 1041 Venn diagram, 741, 957, 959, 1395 word map, 204, 735 word web, 61, 73, 1162 Historical allusion, 667 Historical context, 81, 82, 85, 1093, 1094, 1095, 1097, 1098, 1099, 1357, 1359, 1360, 1363, 1364, 1365 Iambic hexameter, 813 Iambic pentameter, 813 Identifying cause and effect, 1297, 1299, 1304, 1305, 1306 Identifying cultural characteristics, 1377, 1380, 1381, 1383 Identifying historical context, 1357, 1359, 1360, 1363, 1364, 1365 Identifying language structure, 1369, 1372, 1374, 1375 Identifying main ideas, 61, 73, 289, 290, 294 Identifying theme, 63, 65, 67, 68, 72, 325, 328, 329, 1009, 1011, 1012, 1013, 1014, 1016, 1017, 1019, 1020, 1021, 1223, 1224, 1225, 1226 Identifying tone, 620, 621, 623, 628, 629, 1181, 1182, 1183, 1184 Imagery interpreting, 766, 768, 769, 771, 1285, 1287, 1288 visualizing, 99, 103, 104, 106, 108, 110, 271, 852, 853, 855, 856, 1200, 1201, 1202 Inferences, 271, 272, 273, 274, 275 about author s beliefs, 1103, 1104, 1106 about character, 603, 605, 606, 608 about characters motivations, 1127, 1128, 1130, 1131, 1132, 1133, 1134, 1136, 1137, 1138, 1139 about drama, 1343, 1345, 1346, 1348 about meaning, 957 about poetry, 829, 830, 834, 835, 1189, 1190, 1191, 1194, 1290, 1292, 1293 about short stories, 1033, 1034, 1036, 1037, 1039, 1040 about theme, 325, 328, 329, 1397, 1400, 1401, 1403, 1404 from textual clues, 941, 943, 946, 947, 949 See also Predictions. Interpreting character, 161, 163, 165, 168, 172, 173, 175, 1309, 1311, 1314, 1318, 1320, 1322 Interpreting imagery, 766, 768, 769, 771, 1285, 1287, 1288 Inverted word order, 277, 278, 279, 280, 843, 844, 845, 846 Language structure, 1369, 1372, 1374, 1375 Loaded language, 1162 Logical appeal, 579, 580, 1107, 1109 Logical fallacy, 195 Main idea, 61, 73, 289, 290, 294 Making critical judgments, 217, 220, 221, 223, 226, 228, 229, 230, 231, 557, 560, 561, 562 Making generalizations, 971, 973, 975, 976, 978 about writer s beliefs, 367, 370, 371, 372 Making inferences, 271, 272, 273, 274, 275 about author s beliefs, 1103, 1104, 1106 about character, 603, 605, 606, 608 about characters motivations, 1560 Index of Skills

111 1127, 1128, 1130, 1131, 1132, 1133, 1134, 1136, 1137, 1138, 1139 about drama, 1343, 1345, 1346, 1348 about meaning, 957 about poetry, 829, 830, 834, 835, 1189, 1190, 1191, 1194, 1290, 1292, 1293 about short stories, 1033, 1034, 1036, 1037, 1039, 1040 about theme, 325, 328, 329, 1397, 1400, 1401, 1403, 1404 from textual clues, 941, 943, 946, 947, 949 Making predictions, 1023, 1024, 1025, 1027, 1029, 1030, 1335, 1337, 1339, 1341 Meaning and form, 981, 982, 986 Meter, 745 Modifying predictions, 1117, 1118, 1119, 1121, 1123, 1124 Monitoring reading, 401, 404, 409, 410, 412, 413, 415, 416, 419, 420, 424, 425, 426, 428, 430, 431, 435, 438, 439, 441, 444, 445, 452, 455, 457, 463, 465, 467, 468, 472, 473, 477, 483, 492, 493 Octave, 745 Paraphrasing epic, 19, 21, 25, 29, 32, 33, 34, 36, 37, 39, 41, 42, 45, 47, 48, 49, 50, 345, 350 poetry, 283, 284, 285, 287, 721, 722, 723, 724, 726, 727, 953, 954, 955 Patterns of organization, 296, 297, 298, 299, 745, 749, 750, 754, 1351, 1354, 1355 Persuasive techniques, 579, 580, 582, 584, 586, 587, 588 Petrarchan sonnet, 745 Predictions making, 1023, 1024, 1025, 1027, 1029, 1030, 1335, 1337, 1339, 1341 modifying, 1117, 1118, 1119, 1121, 1123, 1124 See also Inferences. Prior knowledge, 1265, 1266, 1267 Purpose, author s, 185, 186, 189, 190, 192, 363, 364, 365, 565, 569, 570, 572, 574, 576, 577, 1141, 1144, 1146, 1147, 1148, 1407, 1409, 1410, 1413 Questioning, 401, 404, 409, 410, 412, 413, 415, 416, 419, 420, 424, 425, 426, 428, 430, 431, 435, 438, 439, 441, 444, 445, 452, 455, 457, 463, 465, 467, 468, 472, 473, 477, 483, 492, 493 Reading closely, 847, 848, 850, 851, 1172, 1175, 1176 Reading Focus analyzing cause and effect, 1297 analyzing details, 1227 analyzing Milton s style, 345 analyzing style: key details, 115 comparing and contrasting, 817 drawing inferences from textual clues, 941 identifying and critiquing author s argument, 1107 identifying cause and effect, 1297 identifying tone, 620 making generalizations, 971 paraphrasing, 19 recognizing patterns of organization, 745 recognizing persuasive techniques, 579 using questioning to monitor reading, 401 Read with Purpose, 12, 15, 23, 43, 62, 66, 68, 75, 82, 90, 101, 122, 151, 162, 179, 186, 188, 190, 196, 219, 262, 272, 273, 274, 278, 279, 284, 285, 290, 292, 297, 301, 305, 310, 311, 316, 317, 318, 322, 323, 326, 334, 336, 338, 339, 340, 341, 342, 351, 364, 368, 375, 377, 380, 391, 392, 395, 396, 397, 405, 536, 546, 551, 558, 566, 581, 596, 604, 616, 618, 622, 634, 640, 646, 658, 668, 674, 677, 722, 724, 731, 733, 738, 740, 743, 758, 762, 764, 768, 775, 803, 812, 820, 825, 830, 836, 844, 845, 853, 860, 869, 870, 874, 875, 878, 879, 910, 918, 927, 932, 938, 944, 947, 954, 956, 958, 966, 974, 976, 982, 985, 989, 994, 1010, 1024, 1034, 1070, 1076, 1078, 1082, 1085, 1089, 1094, 1104, 1110, 1118, 1128, 1142, 1152, 1155, 1163, 1173, 1178, 1182, 1190, 1206, 1209, 1213, 1217, 1224, 1230, 1236, 1240, 1244, 1248, 1252, 1258, 1262, 1266, 1269, 1274, 1281, 1286, 1292, 1301, 1311, 1326, 1336, 1344, 1353, 1358, 1370, 1378, 1386, 1392, 1398, 1408, 1416 Repetition, 667 Resolution, 993, 996, 999, 1000, 1002, 1004 Responding to graphics, 54, 59, 496, 502 Rhetorical devices, 667, 669, 670, 672, 673, 675, 676, 677, 678 Rhetorical question, 667 Rhyme scheme, 745 Rhythm and rhyme, reading, 813, 814, 816 Satire, 565 Sensory details, 1229 Sestet, 745 Setting, visualizing, 965, 966, 968, 1177, 1178, 1179, 1180 Sonnet, 745 Stanza, 745, 747 Style, analyzing, 304, 305, 307, 821 key details, 115, 124, 128, 131, 133, 135, 141, 146 poetry, 350, 352, 355, 357, 358, 359, 931, 932, 933, 934, 936, 939, 1212, 1214, 1215 satire, 595, 597, 598, 599, 600 Summarizing, 926, 927, 929, 930 TechFocus, 21, 837 Text structure and meaning, 390, 391, 392, 393, 394, 395, 396, 397, 398, 399, 868, 869, 870, 871, 873, 876, 877, 880 Theme, identifying, 63, 65, 67, 68, 72, 325, 328, 329, 1009, 1011, 1012, 1013, 1014, 1016, 1017, 1019, 1020, 1021, 1223, 1224, 1225, 1226 Tone analyzing, 837, 838, 840, 1239, 1240, 1241 identifying, 620, 621, 623, 628, 629, 1181, 1182, 1183, 1184 Understanding archaic language, 321, 322, 324, 774, 777, 781, 786, 788, 790, 794, 797, 799 Understanding cause and effect, 195, 197, 198, 200, 201, 202, 203 Understanding historical context, 81, 82, 85 Visualizing details, 1081, 1082, 1083 Visualizing imagery, 99, 103, 104, 106, 108, 110, 852, 853, 855, 856, 1200, 1201, 1202 Index of Skills Index of Skills 1561

112 Index of Skills Visualizing setting, 965, 966, 968, 1177, 1178, 1179, 1180 Word choice, 657, 658, 659, 663, 664 Word order, 657, 658, 659, 663, 664 inverted, 277, 278, 279, 280 Writer s stance, 615, 617, 618, 619 VOCABULARY SKILLS Academic Vocabulary, 11, 261, 360, 535, 909, 1069 Accented syllables, 1369 Adjectives, verbs as, 811 Affix, 52, 361 Analogy, 176, 563, 696, 800, 987, 1056, 1114, 1332, 1423 Anglo-Saxon word roots, 52, 185 Antonym, 81, 86, 147, 374, 578, 615, 667, 679, 852, 857, 926, 1084, 1100, 1114, 1229, 1233, 1349 Article, definite, 965 British phrases, 1351 Characteristic relationship, 1114 Commonly confused words, 121, 147, 300, 1247 Commonly misused words, 1239 Compound noun, 1273, 1277 Compound word, 1285 Connotation, 21, 51, 289, 315, 390, 522, 589, 735, 813, 924, 1005, 1149, 1243, 1257, 1323 Context clues, 772, 896, 1195, 1307, 1366 C sounds, 595, 601, 1093, 1100 Definite article, 965 Definitions, creating, 645, 654 Denotation, 522, 589, 735, 1005 Dictionary, 679, 822 Double letters, 973 Etymology, 86, 215, 360, 601, 630, 1125, 1158, 1203, 1291 Figurative language, 857, 969, 1181, 1277 Foreign words, 1335 Forms of words, 149 French word roots, 969 Greek word roots, 361 Heteronym, 1127 Historical terms, 1158 Homograph, 1325, 1332 Homonym, 315, 603, 869 Idiom, 950, 1299, 1405 Intensity, 589 Latin word roots, 178, 291, 321, 361, 931, 969, 1151, 1158 Literal meaning, 1181 Mathematical words, 361 Metaphor, 857, 969 Multiple-meaning words, 248, 271, 350, 360, 404, 802, 837, 917, 924, 937, 943, 950, 1088, 1208, 1235, 1279, 1307, 1309, 1322, 1377, 1397 Negative prefix, 1141, 1216 Noun compound, 1273, 1277 endings, 161, 176 suffix, 1189, 1195 Nouns, specific, 877 Online sources, 822 Onomatopoeia, 847 Parts of speech, 309 Past tense verbs, 195, 204 Personal definitions, 645, 654 Personification, 857, 969 Poetry recitation, 1205 Political science terms, 1158 Prefix, 51, 52, 829, 988, 1033, 1081 dis-, 207, 215 im-, 367, 1172 in- and un-, 1141, 1149, 1216, 1343 micro-, 361 re-, 639 Pronunciation, 119, 819, 822, 981, 1423 Recitation, 1205 Related words, 304, 843 Repetition, 1177 Roots, word. See Word roots. Scientific words, 361 Shades of meaning, 89 Silent consonants, 772 Silent letters, 1103 Simile, 857 Sounds, word, 847 Specific nouns, 877 Stressed syllables, 580, 589 Suffix, 51, 52, 1033, 1109, able and -ible, 217, 545, 549 -ant and -ate, 621, 630 -archy, 1200, ion, 1189, ly, 1117, 1125, 1357, ology, 361 -ous, 277, ous and -ious, 1162, tion, 296 Synonym, 325, 549, 953, 979, 993, 1005, 1031, 1100, 1114, 1261, 1268, 1349 Unfamiliar words, defining, 1265 Verbs as adjectives, 811 Verb tenses, 565, 578 Word analogy, 176, 563, 696, 800, 987, 1056, 1114, 1332, 1423 Word chart, 110 Word definitions, 957, 1265 Word family, 1212, 1251, 1385, 1407 Word map, 204 Word meanings, 1170 Word origins, 283, 333, 363, 557, 563, 755, 824, 873 Word roots, 74, 178, 185, 633, 859, 1023, 1391 Anglo-Saxon, 52, 185 French, 969 Greek, 361 Latin, 178, 291, 321, 361, 931, 969, 1151, 1158 Word sounds, 847 WRITING SKILLS Choices advertisement, 281 allusions, 1204 anthology, 1289 ballad, 1289 blog, 383, 555, 940, 1149, 1171 calypso, 1405 character sketch, 148, 495 compare and contrast, 111, 193, 303, 313, 330, 400, 841, 1101, 1289, 1333, 1349 critical essay, 313, 330, 383, 680, 801, 823, 858, 1006, 1101, 1196, 1277, 1323, 1424 debate, 1031 diary, 555 digital collage, 1204, 1277 discussion, 53, 177, 1031, 1101, 1149 documentary, 53, 655 drama reading, 951, 1307 expository essay, 177, 193 fact and opinion, 1171 field guide, 1289 foil, 111 frame story, 148 graphics, 177 group activity, 193, 205, 281, 295, 495, 555, 610, 680, 756, 823, 841, 925, 951, 1031, 1087, 1101, 1234 hypertext, 1196 illustration, 631 imagery, 1087, 1424 inscription, 823 interior monologue, Index of Skills

113 interview, 925, 951 journal entry, 1405 letters, 281, 631, 655, 1087 memorial, 1087 message, 841 mood, 971 movie, 925, 1006 music, 193, 303, 313, 330, 400, 610, 756 narrator, 1307 news story, 193 North America, 1367 orations, 1115 paraphrase, 979 parody, 205 partner activity, 295, 590, 655, 773, 841, 858, 881, 940, 1196 personal essay, 1031, 1234, 1333 persuasion, 940 photographs, 736, 951 plot outline, 362 podcast, 1087 poem, 841, 971, 987, 1204, 1277 point of view, 362 presentation, 205, 495, 823, 1087 psychological profile, 1349 radio program, 1289 recommendation, 1289, 1367 research, 177, 193, 383, 495, 590, 680, 773, 841, 881, 940, 1115, 1367 response essay, 979 rituals, 303 satire, 590 script, 303 setting, 756 slide show, 773, 979 sound effects, 736 speech, 925 storyboard, 1087 story map, 1125 storytelling, 148, 177, 1006, 1125, 1149, 1307, 1323 style, 303 summary, 610, 801, 971, 1289 symbols, 736 theme, 111 time line, 303, 495, 1171 topic web, 987 travel brochure, 1333 TV flashback, 1125 video, 193, 631, 801, 1405 visual image, 295, 495, 555, 680, 881, 940, 1234 Web page, 362, 881, 1115, 1349, 1424 Comparison/contrast essay, 344, 382, 503, 611, 681, 881, 1041, 1185, 1221, 1425 Constructed Response, 344, , 802, 1268 Historical research paper, 531 Hyperbole, 289, 294 Parody, 205 Personification, 217, 231 Persuasive essay, 697 QuickWrite, 20, 60, 80, 88, 98, 116, 184, 194, 206, 216, 270, 288, 314, 320, 346, 366, 388, 556, 564, 602, 644, 656, 666, 720, 728, 746, 766, 810, 836, 866, 872, 942, 952, 964, 972, 980, 992, 1008, 1022, 1032, 1074, 1080, 1092, 1102, 1108, 1126, 1140, 1150, 1188, 1222, 1228, 1238, 1242, 1248, 1256, 1260, 1264, 1272, 1278, 1284, 1290, 1298, 1308, 1334, 1350, 1368, 1384, 1390, 1396, 1406, 1414 Reflective essay, 897 Short story, editing, 1057 Sonnet, 271, 275 TechConnect, 580 TechFocus, 53, 111, 149, 193, 205, 281, 289, 295, 303, 350, 362, 367, 383, 400, 404, 495, 555, 590, 610, 621, 631, 823, 881, 917, 925, 940, 950, 979, 987, 993, 1006, 1081, 1087, 1115, 1117, 1125, 1149, 1171, 1204, 1273, 1277, 1285, 1289, 1323, 1349, 1405, 1424 Think as a Reader/Writer active verbs, 1414, 1422 adjectives, 761, 763, 765, 973, 978 allegory, 1009, 1021 alliteration and assonance, 957, 959, 1077, 1079 allusions, 363, 365, 1189, 1194 analogy, 667, 678 anecdotes, 81, 85 antithesis, 615, 619 apostrophe, 721 assumptions, 991 atmosphere, 1335, 1341 catalog, 621, 629 characterization, 367, 372, 404, 425, 457, 493, 984, 986 concrete nouns, 1229, 1232 connotations, 1216, 1220 conversational tone, 747, 754 critical essay, 111, 1255 description, 121, 146, 309, 312, 372, 545, 548, 580, 767, 837, 840, 1088, 1091, 1117, 1124, 1162, 1172, 1176, 1309, 1322, 1357, 1365 details, 178, 183, 1088, 1091, 1291, 1293, 1299, 1306, 1391, 1395, 1407, 1413 dialogue, 207, 214, 439, 477, 557, 562, 645, 653, 1127, 1139, 1348, 1351, 1355, 1385, 1388, 1397, 1404 diction, 633, 637, 639, 1223 elegy, 61 epics, 21, 50, 99, 110, 350, 359 examples, 633, 637 figures of speech, 291, 294, 799, 829, 835, 1077, 1079, 1391, 1395 graphics, 59, 1268, 1271 imagery, 195, 203, 291, 296, 298, 315, 319, 496, 502, 757, 760, 868, 871, 877, 880, 917, 923, 1177, 1265, 1267, 1279, 1283, 1285, 1325, 1331 interior monologue, 89, 97 irony, 1141, 1148 language structures, 1369, 1375 loaded language, 1084, 1086, 1151, 1157 main idea and details, 802, 807, 1251 metaphors and similes, 321, 332, 343, 374, 382, 390, 394, 399, 843, 846, 937, 939, 1075, 1212, 1261, 1263 mood, 61, 73, 873, 876, 965, 968, 1117, 1124, 1180 narrator, 161, 175 organization, 550, 554 paradox, 300, 302 parallelism, 615, 619, 1103, 1106, 1109, 1247 parody, 603, 608 passage of time, 1023, 1030, 1208 personification, 217, 231, 657, 664, 847, 851 poem, 271, 275, 930, 1202, 1273, 1276, 1395 point of view, 1239, 1241 present tense, 1093, 1099 questions, 931 realism, 1033, 1040 refrain, 277, 280, 1257, 1259 repetition, 185, 192, 742, 744, 811, 852, 856, 953, 955, 1205, 1207, 1235, 1247, 1250, 1343, Index of Skills Index of Skills 1563

114 Index of Skills 1348 rhetorical questions, 943, 949 riddles, 74, 79 satire, 565, 577, 595, 600 sentence structure, 824, 828 setting, 325, 329 show and tell, 1377, 1383 sound devices, 917, 923 speaker, 730 stage directions, 304, 307 statistics, 988 style, 859, 862, 1184 suspense, 993, 1004 symbols, 737, 741, 1208, 1211, 1215 syntax, 1181 theme, 926, 930, 1200, 1202, 1243, 1245 tone, 1081, 1083, 1235 understatement, 981, 986 verbal irony, 149, 160 word choice, 819, 821 Timed Writing, 111, 148, 177, 193, 303, 313, 330, 495, 680, 823, 841, 858, 881, 971, 979, 1031, 1101, 1234, 1307, 1333, 1349 STANDARDIZED TEST PRACTICE Literary Skills Review, , , , , , Vocabulary Skills Review, 246, 522, 696, 896, 1056, 1448 Writing Skills Review, 247, 523, 697, 897, 1057, 1449 LANGUAGE (GRAMMAR, USAGE, AND MECHANICS) SKILLS Active voice, 1204 Adjective and adverb, 925, 1223 clause, 362, 1171 demonstrative, 1196 proper, 1077 shades of meaning, 89 verb as, 99, 811 Adverb and adjective, 925, 1223 clause, 362, 1171 relative, 361 Antecedent, 590 Apostrophe, 313 Appositive, 756 Appositive phrase, 756 Clause adjective, 362, 1171 adverb, 362, 1171 dependent/independent, 281, 970, 1171, 1333 noun, 1171 in sentence, 823 subordinate, 281, 970, 1171, 1333 Colon, 1101 Combining sentences, 494, 951 Comma splice, 281 Comparative modifier, 330 Complement, 295 Complex sentence, 823, 970 Compound complex sentence, 823, 970 Compound sentence, 823, 970 Conjunction, subordinating, 362 Connecting ideas, 1115 Dangling modifier, 1006 Dash, 1101 Demonstrative adjective, 1196 Demonstrative pronoun, 1196 Dependent clause, 281, 970, 1171 Direct object, 295 Direct quotation, 858 Double comparison, 330 Effective sentences, 1424 Essential appositive, 756 Fused sentences, 281 Imperative mood, 313 Independent clause, 970, 1171, 1333 Indirect object, 295 Indirect quotation, 858 Infinitive, 801 Infinitive phrase, 801 Intransitive verb, 205 Irregular verbs, 655 Literary present tense, 610, 736 Modifier, 330, 1006 Nonessential appositive, 756 Noun, proper, 1077 Noun clause, 1171 Noun endings, 161, 176 Parallelism, 1367 Participial phrase, 1234 Participles, 951, 1234 Passive voice, 1204 Past participle, 1234 Past subjunctive, 680 Past tense verbs, 195, 204 Phrase fragment, 281 Preposition, 773 Prepositional phrase, 773 Present participle, 1234 Present subjunctive, 680 Present tense, 610, 736 Progressive verb forms, 148 Pronoun antecedent agreement, 590 demonstrative, 1196 relative, 361 Proper adjective, 1077 Proper noun, 1077 Punctuation, 1101 Quotation, 858 Relative adverb, 361 Relative pronoun, 361 Restrictive appositive, 756 Run-on sentence, 281 Semicolon, 1101 Sentence fragment, 281 Sentences combining, 494, 951 fused/run-on, 281 structure, 823, 970 types of, 823, 970 variety, 1424 Simple sentence, 823, 970 Subject/verb agreement, 53 Subjunctive mood, 680 Subordinate clause, 281, 970, 1171, 1333 Subordinating conjunction, 362 Superlative modifier, 330 Tense. See Verb tenses Transitions, 1115 Transitive verb, 205 Verbs active/passive voice, 1204 as adjectives, 99, 811 irregular, 655 progressive forms of, 148 transitive/intransitive, 205 Verb tenses, 565, 578 consistency, 736 literary present, 610 past, 195, 204 sequence of, 631 READ ON Achebe, Chinua, 1450 Anouilh, Jean, 248 Austen, Jane, 898, 1058 Baer, William, 524 Becket, 248 Brave New World, 1450 Bronte, Charlotte, 1058 Coetzee, J. M., 1451 Churchill: A Life, 1451 Dared and Done: The Marriage of Elizabeth Barrett and Robert 1564 Index of Skills

115 Browning, 1058 Jane Eyre, 1058 Forster, E. M., 1451 Frankenstein, 898 Fraser, Antonia, 524 Garcia Márquez, Gabriel, 1450 Gardner, John, 248 Gilbert, Martin, 1451 Grendel, 248 Hamlet, 525 Huxley, Aldous, 1450 The Inimitable Jeeves, 1450 Keats, John, 898 Leeming, David Adams, 248 Letters of John Keats, 898 Maathai, Wangari, 1451 Markus, Julia, 1058 Mary, Bloody Mary, 524 Mary, Queen of Scots, 524 Medieval Castle, The, 248 Meyer, Carolyn, 524 One Hundred Years of Solitude, 1450 Passage to India, A, 1451 Pirsig, Robert, 524 Pool, Daniel, 1058 Pride and Prejudice, 898 Shakespeare, William, 525 Shelley, Mary, 898 Sonnets: 150 Contemporary Sonnets, 524 Sound of Water, The, 898 Things Fall Apart, 1450 Unbowed, 1451 Voyage of the Hero, The, 248 Waiting for the Barbarians, 1451 Warner, Philip, 248 What Jane Austen Ate, 1058 Woodhouse, P. G., 1450 Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance, 524 Index of Skills Index of Skills 1565

116 Index of Authors and Titles INDEX OF AUTHORS AND TITLES Page numbers in italics refer to the pages on which author biographies appear. Achebe, Chinua, 1376, 1378 African Proverbs, 342 Ah, Are You Digging on My Grave?, 976 Akhmatova, Anna, 1242, 1244 Aldington, Richard, 596 Alfred, Lord Tennyson, 916, 918, 927, 932, 938 Analects of Confucius, The, from, 338 Anglo-Saxon Riddles, Another Renaissance?, Araby, Arndt, Walter, 245 Arnold, Matthew, 964, 966 Atlantis A Lost Sonnet, 1292 Atwood, Margaret, 1284, 1286, 1445 Auden, W.H., 1222, 1224 Autobiography of William Butler Yeats, The, from, B. Wordsworth, Bacon, Francis, 375 Baines, Keith, 208 Baranczak, Stanislaw, 1248, 1252 Bashō, Matsuo, 867, 870 Baudelaire, Charles, 695 Beckett, Samuel, 1342, 1344 Bede, The Venerable, 80, 82 Behn, Aphra, 694 Behn, Harry, 870 Beilenson, Peter, 870 Beowulf, from, 23 41, Bet, The, Bhagavad-Gita, from, Blake, William, 728, 731, 733, 738, 740, 743, 894 Blood, Sweat, and Tears, Boland, Eavan, 1290, 1292 Book of Sand, The, Borges, Jorge Luis, 1334, 1336 Boswell, James, 644, 646 Bowen, Elizabeth, 1116, 1118 Bownas, Geoffrey, 869 Brooke, Rupert, 1074, 1078 Browning, Elizabeth Barrett, 952, 954 Browning, Robert, 942, 944, 947 Bunyan, John, 366, 368 Burns, Robert, 720, 722, 724 Buson, Taniguchi, 867, 870 Candide, from, Canterbury Tales, The, from, , , Cavanagh, Clare, 1248, 1252 Cavendish, Margaret, 377 Cervantes, Miguel de, 602, 604 Chamberlain, Joseph, 1150, 1152 Chaucer, Geoffrey, 116, 122, 151, 162 Chekhov, Anton, 1022, 1024 Childe Harold s Pilgrimage, Canto IV, from, Chimney Sweeper, The (Songs of Experience), 740 Chimney Sweeper, The (Songs of Innocence), 739 Chudleigh, Lady Mary, 666, 677 Churchill, Winston, 1108, 1110 Coghill, Nevill, 122, 151, 162 Coleridge, Samuel Taylor, 766, 768, 775 Colet, Roger, 1034 Collected Beowulf, The, from, Come and Go, Composed Upon Westminster Bridge, 762 Cooper, Arthur, 875, 878, 879 Crossing the Bar, 938 Dana, Doris, 1258 Darkling Thrush, The, Dawood, N. J., 333 Day of Destiny, The, from, Death be not proud, 301 Defoe, Daniel, 556, 558, 666, 674 Demon Lover, The, Desai, Anita, 1414, 1416 Destructors, The, Diary of Samuel Pepys, The, from, Dictionary of the English Language, A, from, Digging, Doll s House, The, Donne, John, 288, 290, 292, 297, 301 Do Not Go Gentle into That Good Night, 1236 Don Quixote, from, Dover Beach, Drummer Hodge, 1054 Dulce et Decorum Est, 1076 Edson, Margaret, 305 Education of Women, The, from, Edward, Edward, Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard, Eliot, T.S., 1188, 1190 Ellis, Jerry, 179 Essay on Man, An, from, 618 Everyman, from, Exeter Book, The, from, 60 Explosion, The, 1266 Fagles, Robert, 100 Fall of Satan, The, Fear, 1258 Female Orations, from, 377 Fern Hill, Fisher, Gary, 262 Foote, Timothy, 803 Games at Twilight, Gardner, John, 196 Garnett, Constance, 1024 Get Up and Bar the Door, Ghost Map, The, from, Gilgamesh, from, Gordimer, Nadine, 1368, 1370 Gordon, George (Lord Byron), 810, 812, 814 Gray, Thomas, 656, 658 Greene, Graham, 1126, 1128 Gulliver s Travels, from, Gyford, Phil, 551 Haiku, 870 Hamer, Richard, 66 Hardy, Thomas, 972, 974, 976, 1054 Haunted House, A, Heaney, Seamus, 43, 1278, 1281 Heine, Henrich, 1444 Henderson, Harold G., 870 Heroic Couplets, Herrick, Robert, 282, 284 Hinds, Gareth, 54 History of the English Church and People, A, from, Hollow Men, The, Homer, 98, 100 Hopkins, Gerard Manley, 956, 958 Horses, The, Housman, A.E., 980, 982, 985 How Much Land Does a Man Need?, Hughes, Ted, 1272, 1274 Hurley, Andrew, 1336 I Believe in a British Empire, Iliad, from the, I love you as I love..., 694 In Memoriam A. H. H., from, Issa, Kobayashi, 867, 870 Jacob s Room, from, Index of Authors and Titles

117 Jade Flower Palace, 874 Jewels, The, Johnson, Samuel, 632, 634 Johnson, Steven B., 910 Jonson, Ben, 308, 310, 311 Journal of the Plague Year, A, from, Joyce, James, 1324, 1326 Keats, John, 842, 844, 845, 848, 853, 860 Keats s Last Letter, King James Bible, from, , Kipling, Rudyard, 992, 994 Komachi, Ono, 866, 869 Koran, from, 333 Kotewall, Robert, 878 Kubla Khan, La Canfora, Jason, 989 Lady of Shalott, The, Lake Isle of Innisfree, The, 1206 Lamb, The, 733 Lao Tzu, 339 Larkin, Philip, 1264, 1266 Lawrence, D. H., 1308, 1311 Leslau, Charlotte and Wolf, 342 Lessing, Doris, 1356, 1358 Letters of Virginia Woolf, The, from, Letter to His Two Small Children, 879 Levi, Primo, 1092, 1094 Lewisohn, Ludwig, 1055 Li Po, 872, 878, 879 Life of Samuel Johnson, The, from, Lines Composed a Few Miles Above Tintern Abbey, London, 894 Lord of the Rings, The, from, Lord Randall, 186 Lorelei, The, 1444 Lot s Wife (Akhmatova), 1244 Lot s Wife (Szymborska), Love Arm d, Lovelace, Richard, 314, 317, 318 Macbeth, , , , , Malory, Sir Thomas, 206, 208 Mansfield, Katherine, 1298, 1301 Mark of the Beast, The, Marlowe, Christopher, 276, 278 Marriage is a Private Affair, Marvell, Andrew, 282, 285 Mason, Herbert, 90 Maude, Aylmer, 1010 Maude, Louise, 1010 Maupassant, Guy de, 1032, 1034 McGowan, James, 695 Meaning of Everything, The, from, Meditation 17 (Donne), 297 Merwin, W.S., 836, 838 Miller, Barbara Stoler, 334 Milton, John, 346, 351, 364 Mistral, Gabriela, 1256, 1258 Mitchell, Stephen, 339 Mitsune, Oshikochi, 866, 869 Modest Proposal, A, from, Musée des Beaux Arts, Mushrooms, My Last Duchess, Naipaul, V. S., 1396, 1398 Nehru, Jawaharlal, 1150, 1155 Neruda, Pablo, 1260, 1262 Never Shall I Forget, 1104 Night, 333 Night-Soil Men, The, Night Thoughts Afloat, 875 Nobel Lecture: The Poet and the World, from, Noble Mansion of Free India, The, Not Waving but Drowning, 1240 No Witchcraft for Sale, Nukada, Princess, 866, 869 Nymph s Reply to the Shepherd, The, 279 Ode: Intimations of Immortality, from, Ode To A Grecian Urn, Ode To A Nightingale, Ode to the West Wind, Of Studies, 375 Omeros, Once Upon a Time, Dead in Attic, On First Looking Into Chapman s Homer, 844 Onitsura, Uejima, 867, 870 On My First Son, 310 Orwell, George, 1140, 1142 Oswald, Alice, 1070 Owen, Wilfred, 1074, 1076 Ozymandias, 820 Parable of the Prodigal Son, The, Paradise Lost, from, Pardoner s Tale, The, from, Passionate Shepherd to His Love, The, 278 Pepys, Samuel, 544, 546 Philosophy and Spiritual Discipline, from, Pied Beauty, 958 Pilgrim s Progress, The, from, Pinter, Harold, 1350, 1353 Poison Tree, The, 743 Pope, Alexander, 614, 616, 618, 622 Porphyria s Lover, Under fire in Iraq, Psalm 23, 322 Psalm 137, 323 Putnam, Samuel, 604 Queen Elizabeth I, 380 Question and Answer Among the Mountains, 878 Quiet Night Thoughts, 878 Raffel, Burton, 23, 62, 68, 75 Raleigh, Sir Walter, 276, 279 Rape of the Lock, The, from, Raven doth to raven fly, 245 Rear-Guard, The, 1082 Reps, Paul, 336 Rexroth, Kenneth, 874 Rimbaud, Arthur, 1055 Rime of the Ancient Mariner, The, Roberts, Moss, 340 Rocking-Horse Winner, The, Ronsard, Pierre de, 520 Room of One s Own, A, from, Rose, Chris, 536 Saigyo, 866, 869 Sailing to Byzantium, Sassoon, Siegfried, 1080, 1082, 1085 Saving Creatures Great and Small, Sayings of Saadi, 341 Seafarer, The, Second Coming, The, 1201 Shah, Idries, 341 Shakespeare, William, 391, 392, 393, 395, 396, 397, 398, 405 Shelley, Percy Bysshe, 818, 820, 825, 830 Sherley-Price, Leo, 82 She Walks in Beauty, 812 Shooting an Elephant, Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, from, Sir Vidia s Shadow, from, Siren Song, 1445 Sleeper of the Valley, The, 1055 Smith, Norman L., 878 Smith, Stevie, 1238, 1240 Soldier, The, 1078 Soldier s Declaration, A, 1085 Song: To Celia, 311 Index of Authors and Titles Index of Authors and Titles 1567

118 Index of Authors and TItles Song (Donne), 290 Sonnet 43 (Browning), 954 Sonnet 79 (Neruda), 1262 Sonnet 18 (Shakespeare), 391 Sonnet 29 (Shakespeare), 392 Sonnet 30 (Shakespeare), 393 Sonnet 71 (Shakespeare), 395 Sonnet 73 (Shakespeare), 396 Sonnet 116 (Shakespeare), 397 Sonnet 130 (Shakespeare), 398 Sonnet 30 (Spenser), 273 Sonnet 75 (Spenser), 274 Soyinka, Wole, 1384, 1386 Spacecraft Voyager 1 Has Boldly Gone, Spenser, Edmund, 270, 273, 274 Suckling, Sir John, 314, 316 Survival in Auschwitz, from, Swift, Jonathan, 564, 566, 581 Szymborska, Wislawa, 1246, 1248, 1252 Tanka, 869 Taoist Anecdotes, 340 Tao Te Ching, from, 339 Tapscott, Stephen, 1262 Telephone Conversation, That s All, Theroux, Paul, 1406, 1408 Thomas, Dylan, 1228, 1230, 1236 Thwaite, Anthony, 869 Tilbury Speech, 380 To a Louse, To Althea, from Prison, 318 To a Mosquito, To a Mouse, To a Skylark, To an Athlete Dying Young, 982 To His Coy Mistress, Tolkien, J. R. R., 12 Tolstoy, Leo, 1008, 1011 To Lucasta, on Going to the Wars, 317 To the Ladies, 677 To the Virgins, to Make Much of Time, 284 Trapped Australian Miners Rescued, Tsurayuki, Ki, 866, 869 Tu Fu, 872, 874, 875 Twa Corbies, The, 244 Tyger, The, 731 Ulysses, Untermeyer, Louis, 1444 Valediction: Forbidding Mourning, A, Vindication of the Rights of Women, A, from, Virgins, The, 895 Voltaire, 594, 596 Walcott, Derek, 895, 1390, 1392 Waley, Arthur, 338 Walking to Canterbury, from, Wanderer, The, When Elements Go Extreme, When I consider how my light is spent, 364 When I Have Fears, 845 When I Was One-and-Twenty, 985 When You Are Old (Ronsard), 520 When You Are Old (Yeats), 521 Whoso List to Hunt, 272 Why I Turned Pepys Diary into a Weblog, from, Why So Pale and Wan, Fond Lover?, 316 Wiesel, Elie, 1102, 1104 Wife of Bath, The, from, Wife s Lament, The, Wilbur, Richard, 1244 Wild Swans at Coole, The, Winchester, Simon, 638, 640 Wolfe, Humbert, 520 Wollstonecraft, Mary, 666, 668 Woolf, Stuart, 1094 Woolf, Virginia, 1160, 1163, 1173, 1178, 1182 Wordsworth, Wordsworth, William, 746, 748, 762, 764 World Is Too Much with Us, The, 764 W;t, from, Wyatt, Sir Thomas, 270, 272 Yeats, William Butler, 521, 1198, 1201, 1206, 1209, 1213, 1217 Zen Parables, Index of Authors and Titles