THE OPEN UNIVERSITY OF TANZANIA DIPLOMA IN PRIMARY TEACHER EDUCATION

Transcription

1 THE OPEN UNIVERSITY OF TANZANIA INSTITUTE OF CONTINUING EDUCATION DIPLOMA IN PRIMARY TEACHER EDUCATION ODC 043: INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY Imani M. Mwakamele

2 TABLE OF CONTENTS GENERAL INTRODUCTION. 4 LECTURE ONE: MEANING OF PSYCHOLOGY 7 1.0Introduction What is Psychology? Branches of Psychology... 9 LECTURE TWO: EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY:MEANING AND ITS IMPORTANCE Introduction What is Educational Psychology? Historical background of Educational Psychology Importance of Educational Psychology. 14 LECTURE THREE: EARLY CHILDHOOD Introduction Early childhood Why studying children development is important? Processes and periods of child development Periods of Development LECTURE FOUR: COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT Introduction Cognitive development The Brain and Children s education Piaget s Theory of Cognitive development Piaget s Key Ideas Stages of Cognitive Development

3 4.6 Educational implications of Piaget s Theory. 32 LECTURE FIVE: LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT Introduction Meaning and Features of a Language How Language develops in children Functions of Language in learning Educational implications of language development. 39 LECTURE SIX : SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT Introduction The meaning of socio-emotion Socio-emotional development Aspects of socio-emotions Functions of Emotions The role of teachers in enhancing socio-emotional development to pupils. 46 LECTURE SEVEN: INDIVIDUAL VARIATIONS Introduction Meaning of individual variations Physical Differences Intellectual differences Differences in interests Source of individual variations Teaching Strategies related to Individual variations among pupils. 51 LECTURE EIGHT: LEARNING Introduction Meaning of learning Three Laws of Learning

4 LECTURE NINE: THEORIES OF LEARNING Introduction Theories of Learning Behavioral Learning Theories (Behaviourism) Social Learning Theory Constructivism.. 61 LECTURE TEN : MOTIVATION AND TEACHING Introduction What is Motivation? Importance of motivation Motivation as a trait and as a temporal state Motivation Theories Impacting motivation in the classroom Teacher s attitude and personality.. 68 LECTURE ELEVEN: ADRESSING LEARNERS WITH SPECIAL NEEDS 11.0 Introduction 11.1 Pupils with Disabilities Helping pupils with Special Needs Important resources for Teachers REFERENCES. 79 3

5 GENERAL INTRODUCTION This course is intended to introduce issues of Educational Psychology to students taking the Diploma in Primary Teacher Education Programme in the Institute of Continuing Education (ICE). Moreover, the Course may be used by students aspiring for a degree in Education. It aims at enabling the prospective teachers have necessary skills to interact with pupils in primary and secondary schools. At the end of the Course, the students are expected to be able to apply Educational Psychology and skills in improving learning/teaching process in schools. (Students taking this course, however, should be aware that) Due to the depth and breadth of the field of Psychology in general, and Educational Psychology in particular, this course is only an introduction. More is yet to come. As a student and educator who continually seek for improvement in the field will find more knowledge as one moves to more higher levels of education. This course is divided into six parts. Part one (lecture one and two) provides definition and scope of Psychology and Education Psychology. Part two (lecture three, four, five and six) covers child development. Part three (lecture seven) dwells on individual variations, while part four (lecture eight and nine) focus on learning and major theories. Part five (lecture ten) is on motivation and the last part is on addressing learners with special needs. 4

6 COURSE OBJECTIVES This course aims at enabling student teachers to: 1. Demonstrate adequate knowledge and skills in Educational Psychology 2. Use principles of educational psychology in explaining human development 3. Explain how psychological aspects impact teachers, learners and teaching and learning processes 4. Adapt current and effective theories and models of Educational Psychology in teaching and learning. 5

7 Assessment procedures This course will be assessed in the following manner: 1. Main Timed Test 30% 2. Final Examination which will carry out 70% 6

8 LECTURE ONE MEANING OF PSYCHOLOGY INTRODUCTION In this first lecture, we shall discuss the meaning of psychology, the home base of the study of Educational Psychology. We shall also learn some branches of Psychology. Before we embark on Educational Psychology it is very important to understand what it is Psychology. Probably you have heard about the term Psychology on several occasions but you have not studied it scholarly. If you do not study Educational Psychology, you will lack something of value as a professional teacher. OBJECTIVES At the end of this lecture you should be able to: Define Psychology (both etymologically and in context) List down branches of Psychology 1.1 WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY? To students commencing the first year at the College or University, Psychology is a new subject as it is not studied at Secondary school level. However, for you might have come across this subject when you were training to be a teacher some few years ago. On the other contrast, subjects such as Mathematics, Geography, History and Chemistry are quite familiar to every first Year College /University student. Whatever it may appear to you, Psychology, in reality it is a subject which all of us are familiar with as we have lived with it from the time we were born, or even earlier, as life begins at conception. We live with Psychology everyday and in every moment. Why? Simply because the main concern of psychology is you and me; it is about you as a person, you and your 7

9 siblings, yours parents, your relatives and your neighbors. In what way is it about you and me? It focuses on our behavior or what we do and what we do not from moment to moment, and the reasons why we do what we do! Now what is the meaning of the term Psychology? The term Psychology comes from two Greek words Psyche which means mind or soul and logic which means the study of. Therefore in Greek the original meaning of psychology means the study of mind or soul. Mind or souls are elements believed to differentiate innate objects and plants from animals and human beings (Lema, 2004). Psychology is presently defined as the scientific study of human behavior and mental processes. Issues regarding behavior and mental processes are inevitable issues of human beings as well as animals. Everyday in our lives we portray behavior which means actions or responses that come unconsciously or in a conscious way. As human beings, we also portray mental activities such as thinking, memorizing, understanding and perceiving. Based on scope of the field, you can agree that every moment we encounter psychology in our lives. Psychologists explore such concepts as perception, cognition, attention, emotion, phenomenology, motivation, brain functioning, personality, behavior, and interpersonal relationships. Psychologists also consider the unconscious mind. Psychologists employ empirical methods to infer causal and correlational relationships between psychosocial variables. ACTIVITY? Why do we say that we have lived with Psychology from the time we were conceived, born and until now? 8

10 According to Lema (2004), the objectives of psychology are to: Understand behavior Explain behavior Predict behavior Control behavior NOTE It is important to note that psychology is a science because its methods of studying behavior are based on observation and experimentation, an approach commonly used in natural science such as physics and chemistry. 1.2 BRANCHES OF PSYCHOLOGY After learning what psychology is, let us now briefly discuss some branches of psychology. There are many branches that have been developed, since Psychology is a growing and broad subject. The first branch of psychology is Social Psychology which studies the behavior of people in different groups. It investigates the influence of people on one another. It addresses questions like why do we like some people and dislike others, why do people behave differently and other many questions. Secondly, we have Developmental Psychology which covers aspect of development of human behavior. We have Clinical Psychology that deals with diagnosis and treatment of abnormal behavior. Clinical Psychologists treat groups as well as individuals and may be in private practice or may work in public health centers. Further more, there is Industrial Psychology that deals with the study of production in industries. Industrial and Organizational Psychologists address the problem of training personnel, improve working condition and the issues related to employ and production. Counseling Psychology it performs personal and interpersonal operations in a person s being wherein the main concern are the emotional, social, vocational, educational, health-related, developmental and organizational areas. Although we have many other branches of psychology, we should not forget Educational Psychology which is our main focus in this Course. 9

11 ACTIVITY 2? List down and describe at least five branches of psychology not mentioned in this lecture. SUMMARY In this first lecture, we have covered in general terms, what psychology is. We traced the original meaning of psychology as well as what does psychology means today. We also discussed some branches of psychology. However our main focus in this Course is Educational Psychology. EXERCISE In your words, what do you understand by the term Psychology? Briefly discuss branches of psychology. REFERENCES Bernstein, A.D (1988). Psychology. Houghton Company: Dallas Campbell, C.Y. (2002). Psychology. Chicago: Rand McNally. Lahey, B. (1998). Psychology: An Introduction. McGraw-Hill New York. Lema, V.I. (2004). General Psychology. OUT: DSM Perrin, L. (1986). Understanding Psychology. (4 th Ed.). McGraw Hill: California. 10

12 LECTURE TWO EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY: MEANING AND ITS IMPORTANCE INTRODUCTION In the previous lecture, we learnt about the meaning of Psychology. We also explained some branches of psychology, one of it being Educational Psychology. Having defined and described the nature of Psychology let us now look specifically at Educational Psychology. We will discuss it in terms of its definition and more importantly, why is it an essential area of study for prospective teachers. This knowledge will enable us to asses the measure in which our knowledge meets the objective of preparing us for a teaching career. OBJECTIVES After studying this lecture, you should be able to: Define Educational Psychology. Describe historical background of Educational Psychology. Explain the importance of studying Educational Psychology to teachers. 2.1 WHAT IS EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY? Educational Psychology is the branch of Psychology that specializes in understanding teaching and learning in education settings (Stantrock, 2004). It is the study of how humans learn in educational settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the social psychology of schools as organizations. Educational Psychology is concerned with the study of learners, learning and teaching. Its principle focus is on the processes by which information, skills, values and attitudes are transmitted from teachers to pupils in the classroom situation. Educational psychology is concerned with how students learn and develop, often focusing on subgroups such as 11

13 gifted children and those subject to specific disabilities. In short, it focuses on the applications of principles of psychology to the practice of teaching and learning. Educational Psychology discusses in details, the characteristics of learners and how to apply psychology principles in making the learners and learning process effective. This branch of psychology involves not just the learning process of early childhood and adolescence, but includes the social, emotional and cognitive processes that are involved in learning throughout the entire lifespan. The field of educational psychology incorporates a number of other disciplines, including developmental psychology, behavioral psychology and cognitive psychology. NOTE It should be noted that the major principle underlying Educational Psychology is that there are certain strategies which are likely to be effective in the interaction between teachers and students. 2.2 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY Educational Psychology did not start as an abstract field. It has history as well as pioneers. The field of educational psychology was founded by several psychologists before the start of 20 th Century. Some of the great educational psychology pioneers include the following: (i)william James ( ): He gave a series of lectures to teachers in which he discussed the application of psychology in educating children. James argued that lessons should be given to children just beyond the child s level of knowledge and understanding, in order to stretch the child s mind. (ii)john Dewey ( ): A second major pioneer in shaping the field of educational psychology. He became the driving force in practical application of psychology to education. He established his first major educational psychology 12

14 laboratory in the United States of America in He believed that children should not be narrowly educated in academic topics but should learn how to think and solve problems for themselves. (iii) E.L. Thorndike ( ): He initiated an emphasis on assessment and measurement and promoted the scientific underpinnings of learning. Thorndike argued that one of schooling s most important tasks is to motivate children s reasoning skills. Furthermore, he suggested the idea that Educational Psychology must have a scientific base that it should focus strongly on measurement. (iv) Jean Peaget ( ): Best known for his research on children's cognitive development, Piaget studied the intellectual development of his own three children. Piaget's theory described stages that children pass through in the development of intelligence and formal thought processes. The theory describes four stages; (1)the sensorimotor stage, (2)the preoperational stage, (3)the concrete operational stage, and (4) the formal operation stage. Jean Piaget provided support for the idea that children think differently than adults. His research identified several important milestones in the mental development of children. His work also generated interest in cognitive and developmental psychology. Piaget's theories are widely accepted and studied today by students of both psychology and education. (v) B. F. Skinner ( ): Was an American Psychologist born in Pennsylvania. In 1948, he joined the psychology department at Harvard University where he remained for the rest of his life. He became one of the leaders of behaviorism and his work contributed immensely to experimental psychology. He also invented the 'Skinner box,' in which a rat learns to obtain food by pressing a lever. B.F. Skinner is famous for his research on operant conditioning and negative reinforcement. He developed a device called the "cumulative recorder," which showed 13

15 rates of responding as a sloped line. Using this device, he found that behavior did not depend on the preceding stimulus as Watson and Pavlov maintained. Instead, Skinner found that behaviors were dependent upon what happens after the response. Skinner called this operant behavior. In his research on operant conditioning, Skinner also discovered and described schedules of reinforcement. In the last several decades of 20 th Century Educational Psychologists have increasingly focused on socio-emotional aspects of pupils lives and information processing. Educational psychology is now one of the major branches of psychology we should not miss to learn it. ACTIVITY? John Dewey argued that children should not sit quietly in their seats and learn in a rote manner. Do you agree with Dewey? Why or why not? 2.3 IMPORTANCE OF EDUACATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY Education is a purposive attempt to bring about desirable changes in the students behavior. The objectives of education are realized in terms of behavioral changes among the students. Teachers have to create the learning conditions to provide knowledge and experiences to the students for the changes of behavior. They have to relate teaching to learning by appropriate method of teaching. Knowledge of psychology can be helpful in many areas of education. It aids the teacher in understanding the basic behavior and/or motivation of his/her pupils, students, colleagues and administrators. Educational psychology provides insights into learning processes. Information and skills obtained from educational psychology is not just theoretical but apply practical methods of dealing with classroom problems. 14

16 Each country, including Tanzania, has certain national objectives and goals which should be achieved by education offered. On this basis a curriculum is prepared. Educational psychology is therefore important in this area to assist teachers to prepare instruction that will suit the age, needs and interests of the pupils required to follow such a course of study and thus maximize its benefits to both the pupils and the nation as a whole. The course of a particular class level is prepared by teachers. Knowledge of psychology is helpful in developing curricular of different levels of students in different subjects. The developmental characteristics and needs of the students are also taken into account in the formulation of curriculum. Educational Psychology contributes to the theories of child and adolescent development in a number of ways. It enables us to identify the stages of growth and development and what kind of teaching is likely to be effective at each of these stages and to understand the role played by hereditably and environmental factors in the development of a child or a person. This is a topic which is widely misunderstood among many African ethnic groups. Any abnormality is often attributed to hereditably without considering environmental factors (Davidoff, 1987). A teacher acts as a philosopher and a guide to the students. He must know the growth and development of the child and his requirements at different levels. Educational psychology helps the teacher to study the ability, interests, intelligence, needs and adopt different techniques of teaching for effective communication. The utility of educational psychology for the teachers has been emphasized in both theory and practices of teaching and learning. A teacher has to deal carefully with a group of students in class room situation. As there, are wide variations in different abilities among the students. Therefore it is very essential to understand the individual difference of students regarding their ability, interests, attitudes and need at different levels of growth and development. 15

17 A well developed theory of class room teaching and learning is helpful for transacting the content to the students effectively, which includes class-room climate and the teaching competence which are required for effective communication and presentation of content. A teacher must know the appropriate principles of teaching-learning, different approaches to teaching for better result of teaching-learning process. Another important point is about mental health of teachers and pupils. In the process of teaching and learning activities in the classroom, mental health of the teacher and the pupils plays significant role. As the mental condition influence directly the achievement of pupils. The mental health of teacher and students must be normal or healthy. There are different causes of mental illness of the teacher and the pupils. It should be known to the teachers to regulate teaching - learning process. Measuring learning outcomes is another function of educational psychology. Teacher has to perform two important activities in classroom such as teaching and testing. The testing activities help in measuring learning outcomes of the students to judge their improvement and effectiveness of teaching-learning process. Psychological training can help the teacher select motivating methods of teaching pupils and improve his or her attitude of teaching. The method of teaching is based on the developmental characteristic of the students. For example History is taught effectively to small children with the help of storytelling method because small children like stories. So the classroom teaching depends on the teachers knowledge about the interest of students and methods of teaching for the students of different age-groups. In short, educational psychology is important because it helps the teacher to understand: How people learn The needs and problems of pupils/children/learner. Why pupils behave the way they do, and how to motivate them. Teaching and learning situations. Application of teaching and learning principles. 16

18 Thus, Educational Psychology is an effective tool for teachers. The study of educational psychology is thus very useful for teachers for planning, organizing and evaluating the teaching learning activities in the class. This is why Educational Psychology is included in the curricula of teacher education in all countries. SUMMARY In this lecture, we have covered meaning of Educational Psychology, historical background of Educational Psychology including some key pioneers of educational psychology. In the last part of this lecture we have discussed the importance of studying educational psychology. Educational psychology contributes a lot for increasing the teaching efficiency of the teacher in different areas mentioned above. EXERCISE 1. Who were the key thinkers in the history of Educational Psychology and what were their main ideas? 2. How is Educational Psychology important to teachers? REFERENCES Davidoff, L. (1987). Introduction to Psychology. (3 rd Ed). McGraw Hill: New York Slavin, R.E. (1988). Educational Psychology: Practice and Theory. Cliffs Inc., New Jersey. Santrock, J.W. (2004). Educational Psychology. (2 nd Ed.) McGraw- Hill: New York. 17

19 LECTURE THREE EARLY CHILDHOOD INTRODUCTION We are now in a position to think about the learner. Learning starts from early years of the life of a child. In Psychology we believe that learning does not start when a child is seven years old as many Tanzanians believe. As a teacher you will be responsible for a new wave of children each year in your classroom. The more you learn about children s development, the more you can understand what level is appropriate to teach them. In this lecture therefore we shall learn childhood growth and developmental experiences in relation to the teaching process. OBJECTIVES After you have completed studying this lecture you should be able to:- Define what early childhood is. Explain the value of studying children s development Classifies the general processes and periods in child development. 3.1 EARLY CHILDHOOD Early childhood can be defined as a period that extends from the end of infancy to about five or six years. Sometimes this period is commonly known as pre-school age. During this period children become more self-reliant and develop school readiness skills such as learning to follow instruction and identify letters. This period is very important as it acts as a foundation to the whole process of education to a particular individual. 18

20 3.2 GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT From the moment parents greet their newborn, they watch the baby's progress eagerly, anticipating every inch of growth and each new developmental milestone along the way. But how can they tell if their child is growing properly? Physical growth refers to the increases in height and weight and other body changes that occur as a child matures. Hair grows; teeth come in, come out, and come in again; and eventually puberty hits. It's all part of the growth process. Human development is a lifelong process of physical, behavioral, cognitive, and emotional growth and change. In the early stages of life from babyhood to childhood, childhood to adolescence, and adolescence to adulthood enormous changes take place. Throughout the process, each person develops attitudes and values that guide choices, relationships, and understanding. ACTIVITY? 1. What does pre-school age mean in Tanzania? 2. What should you expect as your child grows? Learn how to understand and deal with your child's changing body and mind from infancy through the teen years. A child's growth and development can be divided into four periods: Infancy Preschool years Middle childhood years Adolescence Immediately after birth, an infant normally loses about 5-10% of his or her birth weight. However, by about age 2 weeks, an infant should start to gain weight and grow quickly. 19

21 By age 4-6 months, an infant's weight should be double the birth weight. During the second half of the first year of life, growth is not as rapid. Between ages 1 and 2, a toddler will gain only about 5 pounds. Weight gain will remain at about 5 pounds per year between ages 2-5. Between ages 2-10 years, a child will continue to grow at a steady pace. A final growth spurt begins at the start of puberty, sometime between ages 9 and 15. The child's nutrient needs correspond with these changes in growth rates. An infant needs more calories in relation to size than a preschooler or school-age child needs. Nutrient needs increase again as a child gets close to adolescence. Generally, a healthy child will follow an individual growth curve, even though the nutrient intake may be different for each child. Parents and caregivers should provide a diet that is appropriate for their child's age. They should offer a wide variety of foods to ensure their child is getting enough nutrition. 3.3 WHY IS STUDYING CHILDREN DEVELOPMENT IS IMPORTANT? Childhood has become a distinct phase of human life span that is hard to imagine that it was not always thought of it that way. Today we view children quite differently from the way there were viewed in the past. We conceive childhood as a highly eventful and unique time of the life that lays an important foundation for the adult years. We value childhood as special time for growth and change, and we should therefore invest more resources in caring for and educating children in this stage. In this case, education for children should be developmentally appropriate to cater for their needs. That is, teaching should take place at a level that is neither too difficult nor stressful, and not too easy and boring for the age of a child. This is the reason why we should study child development. The physical development which occurs during early childhood has a number of educational implications. First, as a result of engaging in a variety of physical activities, 20

22 the child s motor skills are facilitated and consolidated. Second, nutrition contributes to physical development, and therefore it is vital that a pre-scholar receives adequate food if he is to engage in vigorous activities. If the diet is deficient, the pupil is likely to show retardation in weight and height. Third, poor physical growth of a child may cause or may result to poor cognitive development as we shall discuss in the forthcoming lectures. All teachers (including you) are required to study child psychology, which includes child development. The reason for this is that we need to understand the ways in which children's attitudes and abilities develop so that we may have a better chance of understanding the children and how to teach them. By understanding child development, we are better able to teach and manage our students. There are many scenarios that will come up in the classroom where it will certainly be beneficial for a teacher to have a basic understanding of child development. Children are not "little adults." Their emotional, physical, mental, and intellectual foundations are still forming. Therefore, it is the role of parents, guardians and teachers to ensure that child growth and development are not impaired. This can be facilitated in collaboration with the teachers and parents. 3.4 PROCESSES AND PERIODS OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT The pattern of child development is complex because it is the product of several processes: biological, cognitive and emotional. Development can therefore be described as biological, cognitive and emotional processes. Biological processes or physical development involve changes in the child s body. Genetic inheritance plays a large part. Biological processes underlie the development of brain, gains in height and weight. In general children during the first two years of life quadruple their weight and increase their height by two-thirds. This rate slows down between 2 and 3 years when children gain only about 4 pounds and grow only about

23 inches. Between the ages 4 and 6, the increase in height slows still further and children grow about 2.5 inches and gain 5 to 7 pounds on the average. As a result of the slower growth rate following age 2, most 3 and 4 year olds seem to eat less food. While causing alarm in some parents, the change in food intake is normal. Children do not eat less food but rather they eat fewer calories per pound of body weight. The decrease growth rate requires less calories to build their developing muscles, bones, and nerves. Although normal children follow the same growth pattern, there are wide individual variations. A child with a slow growth rate may continue to gain in height and weight until age 20 while a child with a fast growth rate may complete full growth by 16 years of age. Cognitive processes involve changes in child s thinking, intelligence and language. Cognitive development of child is learnt in relation with the growth of the brain; its parts and functions. Good brain developments will result to good cognitive development of a child. Emotional processes involve changes in the child s relationship with other people, changes in emotion and personality. It involves child s understanding and control of emotions such as joy, laughter, sorrow, love, anger, jealousy and aggression The role of environment on child development. The prenatal environment: The chemical balance of the mother's body and the presence of conditions or potentially toxic substances that can alter development processes. Examples are the mother's use of drugs or alcohol, viral or bacterial diseases, and direct traumatic injury to the fetus. The physical environment The air the child breathes, the nutritional value of food the child eats. Exposure to conditions that can lead to disease, accident, or injury, including child abuse and neglect. 22

24 The social/cultural environment Consists of the norms, values, belief systems and morals. Standards of behavior that regulate life in the cultural group in which the child is raised. The learning environment The degree and type of stimulation available in the child's immediate environment. Sensory input promotes and shapes cognitive development. Stimulation, in adequate quantity and intensity, promotes establishment of, and "shapes," neural pathways in the brain. The emotional environment The nature of the child's interpersonal relationships. The degree of nurturance available to the child. The emotional environment shapes personality and affects the development of self-esteem, identity, trust, the ability to enter into intimate relationships, and personal resilience. These changes and development will be discussed in details in the following lectures. Just try to get some brief insights of the process of development of a child. 3.5 PERIODS OF DEVELOPMENT This part of the lecture will expose you in tracing different periods a child goes through. But before we discuss this part do the following activity. ACTIVITY 2? Can you remember the age at which your parents did send you to school? Why did you think they sent you early or late? 23

25 For the purpose of organization and understanding we commonly describe development in terms of periods. In the most widely used system of classification, the developmental periods of a child can be classified as follow: (i) Infancy which extends from birth to eighteen to twenty-four months. It is a time of extreme dependence on adults in a number of ways. This is the beginning of many activities such as social learning, sensor motor coordination and language development. (ii) Early childhood extends from the end of infancy to about six years. During this period children become more self dependence, develop school readiness skills such as learning to follow instructions and identify letters and also spend many hours with peers. During this time a child starts pre-school/kindergarten education commonly known as Chekechea in Tanzania. (iii) Middle and late childhood this extends from six years to eleven. For the Tanzanian child or African child in general this is the age in which a child starts primary school. Under this category children master the fundamental skills of reading, writing and simple mathematics. At this age children interact more socially beyond the family level. (iv) Adolescence involves the transition from childhood to adulthood. For African children it begins with the age of eleven and ends around eighteen to twenty. Adolescence starts with rapid physical changes, including gains in weight and height. Their thinking becomes more abstract, logical and idealistic. In early adolescence, the child will experience development in sexual functions. NOTE It is important to note during the early and middle childhood of African children, a small proportion of children go to school, while the majority remain at home furthering non-formal education. In Tanzania, parents are now quite serious in sending their children to formal education at a prescribed going-school age. 24

26 SUMMARY It was very important for you to study about early childhood education since it lays a firm foundation in understanding children. This is because in primary schools we have the pool of our pupils most of whom are still growing. In this lecture therefore, we discussed important issues of early childhood, growth and development and how they relate to teaching and learning process. EXERCISE 1. In your words, what do you understand by the term Psychology? 2. Briefly discuss branches of psychology. REFERENCES Brandt, T. (1997). Child Development. (2 nd Ed.) Brown & Benchmark: Chicago. Bruce, T. (1997). Early Childhood Education. Holders & Stoughton: Bristol. Coon, D. (1986). Introduction to Psychology: Exploration and Application (4th Ed.). West Publishers: New York. Minett, P (1999). Child Care and Development. Publishers: London. John Murray Santrock, J.W. (2001). Adolescence. McGraw-Hill, New York 25

27 LECTURE FOUR COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT INTRODUCTION We have discussed some basic ideas about the nature of development in the previous lecture. In this lecture, we will examine cognitive development in greater length. In examining different processes of development in biological, cognitive and emotional we indicated that these processes interact. In keeping with this topic, in our exploration of cognitive development, we will describe the physical development of the brain and what happens when the brain functions. OBJECTIVES To complete this lecture, you should be able to:- Describe what is meant by cognitive development. Discuss the development of the brain. 4.1 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT Cognitive development involves the process whereby a child experiences changes in thinking, intelligence and language. It is the development of a person s mental capacity to engage in thinking, reasoning, organizing information, analysis and problem solving (Morris, 1982). Cognitive development processes enable a growing child to memorize things, imagine how to solve a problem, come up with a creative strategy or speak meaningfully connected sentences. 26

28 4.2 THE BRAIN AND CHILDREN S EDUCATION Until recently, little was known for certain about how the brain changes as children age and body grow. Considerable progress is being made in charting developmental changes in the brain, although much is still unknown, and connections to children s education are difficult to make (Blair, 2002). The number and size of the brain s nerve endings continue to grow until adolescence. There is a process known as myelination in which many cells of the brain and nervous system are covered with fat cells, myelination in brain is important in focusing attention (Tanner, 1978). Myelination is not complete in children until the end of elementary school years. The brain continues to grow rapidly during the preschool period. At age 2, the child's brain has reached 55% of its adult size; by six years of age it has grown to more than 90% of its adult size (Tanner, 1978). While brain growth during this period is often uneven, most has occurred before 4 to 4.5 years of age. There appears to be a spurt in growth at age 2 followed by a major decrease in growth rate between 5 and 6 years of age. The increase in brain size reflects changes in the organization and size of nerve cells rather than an increase in the number of cells. The growth also reflects an increase in the number of glial cells that feed and support the nerve cells and to the increasing myelination of nerve fibers. Myelin is the coating around nerve fibers that serves to channel impulses along the fibers and to reduce the random spread of impulses between adjacent fibers, thus helping the nervous system to function quickly and accurately. In appearance the human brain consists of two symmetrical hemispheres that specialize in different functions. The left hemisphere controls verbal, reasoning, and mathematical skills, while the right hemisphere specializes in nonverbal skills such as spatial ability, perception of patterns and melodies, and the expression and recognition of emotion. 27

29 4.3 PIAGET S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT One of the famous poets once asked; Who knows the thought of a child? More than anyone, the famous Swiss psychologist Jean Peaget knew! (Noah Perry in Santrock, 2004 p.39) Jean Piaget ( ) a psychologist who stated that in learning children uses schemas. A schema is a concept or framework that exists in person s mind to simple to organize and interpret information. A schema, in psychology and cognitive science, describes any of several concepts including: An organized pattern of thought or behavior. A structured cluster of pre-conceived ideas. A mental structure that represents some aspect of the world. A specific knowledge structure or cognitive representation of the self. A mental framework centering on a specific theme that helps us to organize social information. Structures that organize our knowledge and assumptions about something and are used for interpreting and processing information. Schemas range from simple to complex. Also according to Piaget children use Assimilation a mental process that occurs when a child incorporates new knowledge into existing knowledge. Accommodation occurs when a child adjusts to new information. The last mental process is organization which is Piaget s concept of grouping isolated ideas into higher order. 4.4 PIAGET S KEY IDEAS While working in Binet's IQ test lab in Paris, Piaget became interested in how children think. He noticed that young children's answers were qualitatively different than older children who suggested to him that the younger ones were not dumber (a quantitative position since as they got older and had more experiences they would get smarter) but, 28

30 instead, answered the questions differently than their older peers because they thought differently. The following are some key elements of Piaget s theory of cognitive development. Adaptation Assimilation Accommodation Classification Class Inclusion Conservation Decentration Egocentrism Operation What it says: adapting to the world through assimilation and accommodation The process by which a person takes material into their mind from the environment, which may mean changing the evidence of their senses to make it fit. The difference made to one's mind or concepts by the process of assimilation. Note that assimilation and accommodation go together: you can't have one without the other. The ability to group objects together on the basis of common features. The understanding more advanced than simple classification, that some classes or sets of objects are also sub-sets of a larger class. (E.g. there is a class of objects called dogs. There is also a class called animals. But all dogs are also animals, so the class of animals includes that of dogs) The realization that objects or sets of objects stay the same even when they are changed about or made to look different. The ability to move away from one system of classification to another one as appropriate. The belief that you are the centre of the universe and everything revolves around you: the corresponding inability to see the world as someone else does and adapt to it. Not moral "selfishness", just an early stage of psychological development. The process of working something out in your head. Young children (in the sensorimotor and pre-operational stages) have to act, and try things out in the real world, to work things out (like 29

31 Schema (or scheme) Stage count on fingers): older children and adults can do more in their heads. The representation in the mind of a set of perceptions, ideas, and/or actions, which go together. A period in a child's development in which he or she is capable of understanding some things 4.5 STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT Piaget identified four stages in cognitive development: (i) Sensorimotor stage (Infancy). This stage lasts from the birth of a baby to about two years. The child s capacity to organize results in adaptive behaviour involving both assimilation and accommodation as we have learnt in the previous part of the lecture. In the case of assimilation new experience are perceived in terms of existing knowledge. For example, a child tends to suck anything placed in its mouth on account of the experience of its mother s breast. In this period (which has 6 stages), intelligence is demonstrated through motor activity without the use of symbols. Knowledge of the world is limited (but developing) because it s based on physical interactions /experiences. Children acquire object permanence at about 7 months of age (memory). Physical development (mobility) allows the child to begin developing new intellectual abilities. Some symbolic (language) abilities are developed at the end of this stage. (ii) Pre-operational stage (Toddler and Early Childhood). The majority of pre-scholars (2-7 years) operate at this stage. In this period (which has two sub stages), intelligence is demonstrated through the use of symbols, language use matures, and memory and imagination are developed, but thinking is done in a 30

32 nonlogical, nonreversible manner. This means the child cannot reason logically. The child begins to represent the world with words and images. (iii) Concrete operational stage (Elementary and early adolescence). This stage is refereed to as the concrete operational stage because the child is capable of using a logical process of reasoning on the basis of concrete evidence. The period begins from 7-14 years of age. In this stage (characterized by 7 types of conservation: number, length, liquid, mass, weight, area, volume), intelligence is demonstrated through logical and systematic manipulation of symbols related to concrete objects. Operational thinking develops (mental actions that are reversible). Under this stage the child can now reason logically about concrete events and classify objects into different sets. (iv) Formal operational stage (Adolescence and adulthood). The stage of formal operation as proposed by Piaget is the highest level of thinking attained by human being. For African environment the stage covers adolescents with the age of 15 and 20 years. In this stage, intelligence is demonstrated through the logical use of symbols related to abstract concepts. Early in the period there is a return to egocentric thought. At this level a person is no longer restricted to reasoning based on concrete evidence but is capable of going beyond concrete evidence as he uses his imagination. If children are to attain this stage it is essential that they are provided with suitable environment. At this level, the adolescent reasons in more abstract, idealistic and logical ways. ACTIVITY? Do you consider yourself to be a formal operational thinker? Give examples. 31

33 4.6 EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF PIAGET S THEORY Many pre-school and primary programs are modeled on Piaget's theory, which, as stated previously, provides part of the foundation for constructivist learning. Discovery learning and supporting the developing interests of the child are two primary instructional techniques. It is recommended that parents and teachers challenge the child's abilities, but NOT present material or information that is too far beyond the child's level. It is also recommended that teachers use a wide variety of concrete experiences to help the child learn (e.g., use of manipulative, working in groups to get experience of seeing from another's perspective, field trips, etc). It is in this context that Piaget has stressed the importance of actions in the acquisition of knowledge and that the child should be given opportunity to do experiments which is likely to enhance his learning. Ready made answers are not what Piaget views as learning. NOTE Young children at preschool and primary schools learn more effectively when concrete objects, actions, materials and examples are used. You as a student teacher whenever possible make sure that your pupil s senses should be drawn into explanations of concepts, relationships, and cause and effects. This will facilitate your pupils understanding of abstract and complex topics. ACTIVITY 2? 1. How does the brain develop in human being? 2. What implications does this development have for the children s education? 32

34 SUMMARY Examining the shape of children s development allows us to understand better children s cognitive development. This lecture has provided you with knowledge necessary to understand the function of brain and cognition in general. It has also provided you with information on Jean Peaget who was among the pioneers who studied children cognitive ability. EXERCISE Using Piaget s Theory, explain the cognitive behavior of your standard III pupils at your school. REFERENCES Blair, C. (2002). Integrating cognition and emotion in Neurobiological conceptualization of children s function at school entry: America Psychologist Bruce, T. (1997). Early Childhood Education. Holders & Stoughton: Bristol. Tanner, J.M. (1978). Fetus into man. Cambridge, M.A. Harvard University Press. 33

35 LECTURE FIVE LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT INTRODUCTION It is difficult to imagine what our world would be without language as a tool of communication. As your tutor, I am now communicating with you using language on the printed page. This shows how important language is. OBJECTIVES At the end of this lecture you should be able to: Define what language is. Identify key features of a language. Discuss development of language in a child. Think about how important language in our lives. We need language to speak to others, listen to others, read, and write. We need language to describe past events in detail and to plan for the future. No change is as dramatic and interesting for a child than the acquisition of language. As we have touched a bit in previous lectures, language plays a central role in children s cognitive development. In this good lecture, therefore, we shall discuss how language develops in a child 5.1 MEANING AND FEATURES OF A LANGUAGE Language is a form of communication, whether spoken; written or signed that is based on a system of symbols. Spoken language is made up of basic sounds, or phonemes. All human languages follow the organizational rules of phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics. These are called features of a language. Let s define each of the features briefly. 34

36 (i)phonology is a sound system in a language. This system or rules allow some sound sequence to occur (like sp, ba or ar) while the rules prohibit other sound sequence to occur (for example, zx or qp). (ii) Morphology refers to rules of combining morphemes. Every word in English language is made up of one or more morphemes. For example; the word help-has single morpheme, but helper has two morphemes (help+er) (iii) Syntax involves the way words are combined to form acceptable phrases and sentences. For example; if someone says to you, Madeda was slapped by Emmanuel, you know who did the slapping and who was slapped because you understand the sentence structure. (iv) Semantics refers to the meaning of words and sentences. Every word has a set of semantic features. For example, a boy and a man share the same semantic denotations of male and human but differ in their meaning regarding age. (v) Pragmatics involves the use of appropriate conversation. This involves knowledge about context in which to say to whom and how to say it. For example, when to use polite language and rude, when to talk seriously and when to joke. 5.2 HOW LANGUAGE DEVELOPS IN CHILDREN Both biological and environmental influences are necessary to the development of a language to a child. Famous linguist Noam Chomsky (1957) argued that humans are endowed with language at a certain time and in a certain way. The strongest evidence for the biological basis of a language is that all over the world, children learn language at about the same time and the same order despite great differences in the language input they receive. For example, in some homes adults never talk to their infants less than one year of age, yet these infants still acquire language. In all cases, environment plays a great role in shaping the language of a child. The presence of family members and peers 35