Computer Supported Cooperative Work

Transcription

1 Computer Supported Cooperative Work 1

2 Outline Computer Supported Cooperative Work Supporting Communication Understanding Cooperative Work Technologies to Support Cooperative Work 2

3 What is CSCW? Computer Supported Cooperative Work The field of CSCW focuses on the use of technology to mediate interactions among people Use: Ethnography, design, Technology: Devices, infrastructures, Interactions: Text, audio, video, People: Teams, organizations, communities, Psychology, organizational behavior, sociology, 3

4 More definitions Rodden:"CSCW is a fusion of the understanding of a business organisation with the possibilities of modern computer and communication technologies." Brinck:"CSCW is the study of how people work together using computer technology. Typical topics include use of , hypertext that includes awareness of the activities of other users, videoconferencing, chat systems, and realtime shared applications, such as collaborative writing or drawing." Digital Media Laboratory Cybrary: "CSCW is a multidisciplinary research field including computer science, economics, sociology, and psychology. CSCW research focuses on developing new theories and technologies for coordination of groups of people who work together." 4

5 HCI vs. CSCW HCI: human-computer interaction Individuals interactions and relationships with information technology May involve > 1 person, but not necessarily CSCW: human-computer-human interaction Individuals interactions and relationships through information technology Always > 1 person 5

6 6 Supporting Communication

7 Human Interaction Simplest social unit: two people. Simplest social dynamic: face-to-face communication. Communication Verbal: What is said Non-verbal: How it is said 7

8 Effective communication Verbal aspects Non-verbal communication Gestures Body language Distance = Proxemics: the science of personal space How does the physical proximity between two people affect their interaction? E.g. Someone who leans in to tell you something is acting 8

9 Communication between Group Members Communication channels Face to face Telephone Video conferencing Chat Letter Immersion systems Large video wall screen systems Virtual life (e.g. 2 nd Life) 9

10 Face-to-Face Communication Face-to-Face Communication Audio channels Visual channels Manifest Language content information conveyed Vocalisations eg. um, you know General appearance Latent ambiguities, slips etc. physical characteristics Facial expression eg. maintaining Body eye-contact movement eg. nodding, pointing etc. Psycho-physiolog ical responses eg. blushing, yawning etc. 10

11 Computer Mediated Communication Computer-Mediated Communication Visual channels Language content Presentation Manifest information conveyed Latent ambiguities, slips etc. Layout Capitalisation, Indentation, Structure etc. Precision Accuracy, spelling etc. Includes often also audio channels 11

12 Computer mediated communication Voice based Telephone, VOIP Text based , chat, sms Video based Video conference, shared workspace Combinations Immersion systems 12

13 Technology for human interaction Technology may increase or decrease the distance between people, depending on the task at hand. Vantages and disadvantages over F2F Achieving common ground 13

14 Computer mediated Face to face Gaze awareness: Know when someone is looking at you (mutual gaze) Know what someone is looking at (joint attention) Mutual gaze difficult in videoconferencing software: Apple s ichat Why do people seem to be looking downward? 14

15 Computer mediated Face to face Hiroshi Ishii developed ClearBoard, a solution to the mutual gaze problem: Concept: Talking through and drawing on a transparent glass window. 15

16 Common ground Co-presence shared reference, shared context access to same artifacts Visibility, Audibility rich clues Co-temporality Shared temporal context (e.g. almost break, lunch time) Simultaneity, Sequentiality Order of utterances Reviewability, Revisability Time for thought, analysis of content 16

17 Functionalities of CSCW systems CSCW systems provide support for: Sharing of information Co-ordination and control of shared work objects Sharing of workspace Organization and common understanding of the work process Decision making 17

18 Shared information Prevent duplication of effort Ensure use of same information E.g. Multi-user Databases, Web pages, news groups, Multiuser hypertext (wikis) 18

19 Coordination and Control of Shared Objects Changes should be available immediately to all group members support for version control Examples: Shared editors for synchronous group meetings Co-authoring tools for asynchronous working Shared diaries 19

20 Sharing of Workspace Group members need to share workspace on which to develop their ideas Similar to white board or flip chart or filing cabinet Examples: WYSIWIS, Electronic whiteboards, Electronic Workspace such as BSCW 20

21 Organisation and Common Understanding of the Work Process Group members need support Role assignment Objectives and deadlines Keeping informed Examples: Co-authoring tools, Agenda management tools, shared Diary systems 21

22 Decision Making Group need support to reach decisions objectives, roles, method Examples: Tools to display available facts and options Argumentation tools Naming tools to define terminology Idea generation 22

23 23 Understanding Cooperative work

24 Besides communication, how, or why do people cooperate? Why cooperate? Hypothesis: One good turn deserves another Donor expects to receive back some reward from recipient Swiss psychological experiments provide evidence against this view: Group of volunteers passed money to one another. Volunteers could give any amount of money to any other volunteer. If a volunteer received money, they could no longer give money back to that volunteer. 24

25 Besides communication, how, or why do people cooperate? So who got rich? 1. Those who gave away the least money, 2. Those who gave away the most money, 3. Those who gave a lot of money to one or a few people, or 4. Those who gave a little money to everyone? So why cooperate? Hypothesis: People tend to like to reward generous people, even if they weren t directly generous to them. Cooperation is a positive-feedback phenomenon The more cooperation there is in a group, the more cooperative the members become. 25

26 Group To cooperate, people must form groups "A group is a number of people working together or sharing beliefs" (Oxford Concise Dictionary) All groups have: Objectives/Purposes Background/History Common Tasks/Activities 26

27 Group dynamics How do groups form? Phases in the life of a group (Tuckerman, 1965) Forming: Anxiety about process, dependence on leader, finding out the rules Storming: Conflict between individuals, rebellion against leader, resistance to rules Norming: Stable, cohesive group forms, social norms established, conflicts resolved Performing: Constructive problem-solving, energy directed toward task Decay: Task has been achieved, people drift off 27

28 Groups Groups are a dynamic process: they grow, shrink, change shape, change leaders, etc. CSCW software cannot assume a group already exists, or that it will stay in its current form. How can collaborative software support group formation (and dissolution)? 28

29 Social Norms Compliance Conformance Change E.g. What are the social norms in this course? 29

30 Grudin: Groupware and Social Dynamics Eight Challenges Upshot: Groupware is situated in between applications aimed at individual users and mainframe systems targeting entire organizations. Because of its peculiar spot, groupware boasts an impressively high failure rate. Eight design and evaluation challenges are discussed. 30

31 Grudin: Eight Challenges What is groupware? Defining feature: software designed/used to support groups -> social factors become an issue. Around since mid-1980s when standalone personal computers connected to network architectures became pervasive. Examples: desktop and video conferencing, bulletin boards, coauthoring, calendar scheduling, . Market mostly driven by shrink-wrapped sales isolated development typical of off-the-shelf products is behind many of the challenges encountered. In contrast, IS software is designed and deployed individually with management support. 31

32 Grudin: Challenge #1 Work vs. Benefit disparity: Problem: Costs and benefits from using groupware are often distributed unevenly. Principal beneficiaries are often the purchase decision makers/management; but others have to carry out bulk of work without clear motivation. Solution: create benefits for all group members during design stage. 32

33 Grudin: Challenge #2 Critical Mass / Prisoner s Dilemma Problem: Groupware is only useful if most group member utilize it more stringent requirement than for individual software. If individuals prefer lurking/freeloading, groupware the app will ultimately fail. Solution: Build in use incentives, emphasize individual/group benefites (vague). 33

34 Grudin: Challenge #3 Disruption of social processes: Problem: Groupware has to fit into implicit framework of social group interaction. Not all processes can be represented explicitly. Solution: Don t assume a completely rational work environment. Understand the subtleties of the target environment. Work with representative users. 34

35 Grudin: Challenge #4 Exception handling: Problem: Groupware has to adapt to/enable ad hoc problem solving and improvisation; post hoc rule-based systems are too rigid and brittle. In reality, decoupling of rules and actual work patterns is pervasive - allows for flexibility and localized judgment Solution: Learn how work is really done. 35

36 Grudin: Challenge #5 Infrequently used features Problem: To a hammer, everything looks like a nail : group communication may be infrequent. Solution: Integrate group features w/ individual activity Design should be unobtrusive yet accessible Add groupware features to already existing applications (e.g., MS Office) 36

37 Grudin: Challenge #6 Difficulty of evaluation: Problem: Group context introduces social, motivational, economic, political dynamics that are hard to measure. Lab situations and prototypes are often ineffective. Because of a lack of definitive studies, the same mistakes are repeated over and over again. Solution: (cf. chapter 22) Include stakeholders in design decisions Ensure multiple support levels Heuristics: communication means, individual s embodiment, shared artifacts, protection, facilitate contact making, facilitation action coordination 37

38 Grudin: Challenge #7 Decision making Problem: Developers cannot rely on their own individual informed intuition when group processes are concerned. Group decisions follow complex processes. Solution: Involve real users early on in the design process. 38

39 Grudin: Challenge #8 Managing acceptance Problem: Developers are removed from system acceptance issues. More relevant in groupware than single user systems Solution: Learn from experience; provide consultancy 39

40 Grudin: Wrap-up Take home messages from Grudin s paper: Groupware should : Directly benefit all users. Augment existing applications if possible. Developers must: Truly understand the working environment where the software will be used. Interact directly with the users in an iterative process. Question their own decision making processes during the design stage. 40

41 41 Technologies to support cooperation

42 Groupware "GroupWare is technology designed to facilitate the work of groups" (Baurens, 2001) Main categories of Groupware are: Shared information systems Communication systems Shared workspace systems Group activity support systems Virtual spaces Examples include: electronic diaries, electronic mail, electronic newsgroups, hypertext systems, group workspaces, computer conferencing, group decision support systems, collaborative writing tools, 42

43 Groupware Software specifically designed to support group working with cooperative requirements in mind NOT just tools for communication Groupware can be classified by when and where the participants are working the function it performs for cooperative work Specific and difficult problems with groupware implementation 43

44 Classifying Groupware Time/Space matrix When and where the participants are working People-Artifact Framework The function it performs for cooperative work 44

45 Applied to traditional technology same time different time same place face-to-face conversation post-it note different place phone call letter 45 CS 6750 Spring 2004

46 46 Applied to computer technology

47 Tools for Synchronous Work Telephone / VOIP Chat Shared workspaces Electronic meeting Virtual worlds 47

48 Tools for Asynchronous Work Bulletin boards Shared information spaces Knowledge management systems 48

49 Classification by Function Cooperative work involves: Participants who are working Artefacts upon which they work understanding participants P direct communication P control and feedback artefacts of work A 49 CS 6750 Spring 2004

50 What interactions does a tool support? understanding meeting and decision support systems common understanding participants P direct communication P control and feedback computer-mediated communication direct communication between participants artefacts of work A shared applications and artefacts control and feedback with shared work objects 50 CS 6750 Spring 2004

51 Communication via an artifact understanding P direct communication P Deixis reference to work objects deixis control and feedback Feedthrough A communication through the artefact 51 CS 6750 Spring 2004

52 awareness what is happening? who is there e.g. IM buddy list P who is there P what has happened and why? what has happened A how did it happen 52

53 Evolution of CSCW Computer Supported Cooperative Work Work is [typically] a social activity involving > 1 person Technology can aid: Foreground: Communication, coordination, collaboration Background: Awareness Bridging time, space, organizational boundaries, Computer Supported Cooperative Whatever Beyond the workplace: increasingly available in other contexts Home, car, coffee shops, public places, private places, and applied to non-work activities Socializing, recreation, staying in touch, 53