PARTICIPATORY RURAL APPRAISAL REPORT: OFLA WOREDA, TIGRAY REGION

Transcription

1 applie PARTICIPATORY RURAL APPRAISAL REPORT: OFLA WOREDA, TIGRAY REGION Girmay Tesfay Girmay Gebresamuel Alem Gebretsadik Abrhaley Gebrelibanos Yemane Gebremeskel Tesfay Hagos CASCAPE WORKING PAPER 2.6.3

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3 PARTICIPATORY RURAL APPRAISAL REPORT: OFLA WOREDA, TIGRAY REGION Girmay Tesfay Girmay Gebresamuel Alem Gebretsadik Abrhaley Gebrelibanos Yemane Gebremeskel Tesfay Hagos January 2014

4 The CASCAPE project is designed to assist the activities deployed under the Agricultural Growth Programme (AGP) by further strengthening the capacity of AGP stakeholders in identifying, documenting and disseminating best practices in agricultural production. CASCAPE is jointly executed by Ethiopian researchers from Jimma University, Haramaya University, Bahir Dar University, Hawassa University, Mekelle University, Addis Ababa University and Dutch researchers from Wageningen University and Research Centre. In each site researchers from the universities and from the RARIs from different disciplines work on the CASCAPE project. The CASCAPE project is financed by the Dutch Ministry of Foreign Affairs through the Embassy of the Kingdom of The Netherlands. CASCAPE technical report series are meant to document activities and findings of field work. They are reviewed by the CASCAPE management team and are available on the projects website: CASCAPE technical reports are numbered according to topic (level 1), region (level 2) and, where applicable, woreda (level 3). The topics include: 1 = Results of national support activities 2 = Results of the participatory rural appraisals (PRA) per region and woreda 3 = Results of the baseline survey per region 4 = Results of the innovation theme experiments per region 5 = Results of the MonQI toolbox per region More topics may follow during the course of the project. Level 2 headings refer to regions in alphabetical order viz. 1) Addis Ababa, 2) Bahir Dar, 3) Haramaya, 4) Hawassa, 5) Jimma and 6) Mekelle regions. For example technical report 3.2 refers to the series on the baseline survey for Bahir Dar region.

5 Contents List of abbreviations and acronyms... viii Executive summary... xi Introduction... 1 Description of the woreda and selected kebeles... 2 Results: Hashenge kebele... 3 Environmental conditions... 3 Abundant resources per community group... 3 Scarce resources per community group... 4 Problematic resources... 4 Access to land per community group... 4 Soil fertility... 4 Decision-making on land allocation... 6 Collection of water and firewood... 6 Livestock grazing... 6 Environmental constraints... 7 Best practices... 7 Summary of findings... 7 Socio-economic conditions... 8 Village boundaries with regard to social interaction and social services... 8 Demographic characteristics... 8 The main economic activities... 8 Livelihoods... 8 Access to finance... 9 Access to markets... 9 Economic constraints... 9 Best practices Summary of findings Actor landscape Organisations/institutions/groups that are working with the community Most important institutions/groups Groups addressing household food security and nutrition issues Organisations working together Gender-based groups Exclusion of groups or people from groups Best practices Gender analysis Agricultural production conditions Main crops cultivated Livestock Prevalent practices (crops) Prevalent practices (livestock) Organisation of agricultural inputs Agricultural crop production constraints Best practices Livestock production constraints Best practices (livestock) Summary of findings v

6 Results: Menkere kebele Environmental conditions Abundant resources per community group Scarce resources per community group Problematic resources Access to land per community group Soil fertility Decision-making on land allocation Collection of water and firewood Livestock grazing Environmental constraints Best practices Summary of findings Socio-economic conditions Village boundaries with regard to social interaction and social services Demographic characteristics Main economic activities Livelihoods Access to finance Access to markets Main economic constraints Summary of findings Actor landscape Organisations/institutions/groups that are working with the community Most important institutions/groups Groups addressing household food security and nutrition issues Organisations working together Gender-based groups Exclusion of groups or kind of people from groups Best practices Summary of findings Gender analysis Agricultural production conditions Livestock Prevalent practices (crops) Prevalent practices (livestock) Organisation of agricultural inputs Agricultural production constraints Crop production contraints Livestock production constraints Best practices in livestock production Summary of findings Community workshop Views of the community on the main findings Community plan Summary of findings Long list of potential innovation themes Evaluation of PRA process by the team Annexes Tools used during the study vi

7 List of figures Figure 1: Location of the Ofla woreda... 2 Figure 2: Resource map of Hashenge kebele... 4 Figure 3: Soil map of the Hashenge kebele... 5 Figure 4: Model farmer, Molla Shikuru, and his use of FYM... 6 Figure 5: Overstocking in the Hashenge kebele... 7 Figure 6: Resource map of Menkere drawn by farmers and redrawn by IT Figure 7: Map of arable soils in Menkere kebele List of tables Table 1: Summary of major agricultural production constraints in the Ofla woreda... xii Table 2: Trend analysis of resources in the Hashenge kebele over the past 10 Ethiopian years... 3 Table 3: Soil type and farmers fertility rating of arable land in the Hashenge kebele... 5 Table 4: Socio-economic problems prioritised using pair-wise ranking (Hashenge PA) Table 5: Distribution of labour by gender in the Hashenge kebele Table 6: Control over and access to major household resources in the Hashenge kebele Table 7: Share of crops grown in the Hashenge kebele Table 8: Crop production constraints prioritised using pair-wise ranking in Hashenge Table 9: Calendar of livestock diseases as provided by participant farmers Table 10: Livestock problems prioritised using pair-wise ranking in Hashenge Table 11: Trend analysis of resources in the Menkere kebele over the past 10 Ethiopian years Table 12: Soil type and farmers fertility rating of soils in the Menkere kebele Table 13: Socio-economic problems prioritised using pair-wise ranking in Menkere PA Table 14: Socio-economic problems and proposed solutions in Menkere PA Table 15: Summary of farmers main activities in Menkere kebele Table 16: Distribution of labour by gender in the Menkere kebele Table 17: Control over and access to major household resources in Menkere Table 18: Share field crops cultivated in the Menkere kebele Table 19: Share of livestock types in the Menkere kebele Table 20: Crop production constraints prioritised using pair-wise ranking in Menkere Table 21: Calendar on animal feed availability for the Menkere kebele Table 22: Major types of livestock type of disease and time of occurrence in Menkere Table 23: Livestock constraints prioritised using pair-wise ranking in Menkere Table 24: Possible topics for thematic areas and their justification vii

8 List of abbreviations and acronyms AGP AARC CA CASCAPE CD CF CIG DAP DECSI DLS EIAR F FAO FGD FHH FTC FYM GO H HH IT kg LD LSB masl MHH MS MU N NGO NRM OoARD P PE PA PB PR PRA RDAE REST S SISS SN TARI TR WFP WHS W Agricultural Growth Programme Alamata Agricultural Research Centre Credit access Capacity Building for Scaling up of Evidenced-based Best Practices in Agricultural Production in Ethiopia Crop diseases Cost of fertiliser Common interest group Diammonium phosphate Dedebit Credit and Savings Institution Diffused light store Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research Frost Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Focus group discussion Female-headed household Farmer training centre Farmyard manure Government organisation hail Household Innovation team kilogram Livestock disease Local Seed Business project metres above sea level Male-headed household Moisture stress Mekelle University Nitrogen Non-government organisation Natural resource management Office of Agriculture and Rural Development Potassium Pests Peasant association Poor breed type Predator Participatory rural appraisal Rural development and agricultural extension Relief Society of Tigray Storage Shortage of improved seed supply serial number Tigray Agricultural Research Institute Transport World Food Programme (United Nations) Water harvesting structure Weeds viii

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10 Executive summary A participatory rural appraisal (PRA) study was conducted by MU-CASCAPE innovation team (IT) members in five woredas (10 kebeles/villages) in Southern Tigray. The study covered the highland woredas of Alaje (Atsela and Ayba kebeles), Endamehoni (Mekan and Simret kebeles) and Ofla (Hashenge and Menkere kebeles) and the lowland woredas of Raya Alamata (Tumuga and Garjale kebeles) and Raya Azebo (Tsigea and Genete kebeles). The main objectives of the study were to gain an insight into the physical and socio-economic potential of the area, identify existing constraints and possible solutions, and suggest best practices and research questions. In carrying out the study, the elderly, men, women and youth from various woredas were consulted. They also included rich and poor farmers from model and non-model farms. The PRA tools used by the IT members to learn about the communities were: resource maps, transect walks, semistructured interviews, focus group discussions, timelines, wealth ranking, proportional piling, seasonal calendars, Venn diagrams, and pair-wise ranking. Ofla is richly endowed with surface and ground water. Agriculture is primarily rain-fed, relying on the kiremt rains. The woreda has fertile soils, a plain, and water resources. Mixed farming is widely practised in the kebeles, Hashenge and Menkere. The main crops grown are barley, faba bean, maize, sorghum and wheat. Cabbage, beetroot, potato and tomato are important vegetable crops grown there. Other activities include the rearing of cattle, sheep, chickens, donkeys, goats, horses and beekeeping. Lake Hashenge is a good source of fish for the two communities and there is the potential for the lake to be used for irrigation purposes. Waterlogging along the peripheries of the lake, however, poses somewhat of a constraint to crop production and solutions such as the identification of rice varieties best suited to this environment are being sought. The main environmental constraints facing the kebeles are deforestation, free grazing and soil erosion. Examples of best practices aimed at addressing these problems are the implementation of soil and water conservation measures, the planting of trees, area closure of upper catchments to reduce the degradation of natural resources, and improving soil fertility management practices. Socio-economic conditions such as demography, economic activities and livelihood, market access, financing and economic constraints were explored in the woreda. Community-based institutions are recognised as playing a vital role in the kebeles in terms of identifying the right beneficiaries and in solving the root causes of social problems within the communities. The main socio-economic constraints in the Hashenge kebele include poor storage and transport facilities as well as limited access to credit. The high cost of fertiliser is the main constraint in the Menkere kebele. Constructing diffused light stores with local materials and establishing savings and loan groups at the village level will help address storage and credit problems in Hashenge, while promoting the use of organic fertilisers in Menkere will help offset the cost of inorganic fertilisers. The major agricultural production constraints facing the Ofla woreda and recommended best practices are summarised in Table 1. xi

11 Table 1: Summary of major agricultural production constraints in the Ofla woreda Subsector Constraint Suggested best practices Crop Crop diseases Use resistant varieties and clean, disease-free seeds Livestock Crop pests Inputs Storage Weeds Low productivity of local breeds Shortage of feed for livestock Livestock diseases Allow chickens to feed on worms; use natural and chemical pesticides Use organic fertilisers Construct diffused light stores with local materials Crop rotation with non-host crops; train farmers to identify the weed wild oats Reduce herd size; introduce crossbreed Reduce herd size; promote the efficient use of available feeds; plant fodder crops; implement a cut-and-carry system Keep livestock sheds clean and properly ventilated; ensure timely vaccination and treatment of livestock; xii

12 Introduction Since June 2011, the MU-CASCAPE project has been active in the in the southern zone of Tigray (Southern Tigray) as part of efforts to support the Agricultural Growth Programme (AGP). The project is designed to demonstrate integrated best practices to the AGP implementation team so as to raise awareness on the need for an integrated farming systems approach to agricultural production. So as to address various dimensions of community problems, it is imperative to design technically sound, economically feasible and culturally acceptable research, extension and development strategies. To this end, MU-CASCAPE initiated a participatory rural appraisal (PRA) study in Southern Tigray. The main objectives of the study were to assess the farming systems, identify and prioritise agricultural production constraints and possible solutions, and suggest research directions. The study was conducted in five woredas, namely: Raya Azebo and Raya Alamata: lowland agro-ecology areas Ofla, Endamehoni and Alaje: highland areas To achieve the objectives, two main data collection techniques were used. A desk study of documents on Tigray, in particular, Southern Tigray and the woreda study area was carried out to provide a broad overview of the existing farming systems. The study also made use of different PRA tools to collect the required information from the communities and sector offices. A mix of different tools was used, depending on the context and type of information required, see Annexes. The tools were applied sequentially and included: Timelines: used to get a historical impression of the development of the area and learn about key changes in the kebeles. Within the context of the study, it was useful in making the changes over time visible, encouraged discussions on the reasons for these changes, drew out associated perceptions and values and raised questions about future trends. Elderly and long-term residents were involved in the discussions and accounts were taken from them about the area General resource and social mapping techniques: used to identify natural resource problems and opportunities. People who knew about the area and were willing to share their knowledge participated in the mapping process. The areas and boundaries of the kebeles were sketched on the ground using local materials such as sticks, leaves, sorghum stalks, and stones and copied on to papers using coloured markers Transect walks: these involved systematic walks with key informants through an area of interest. Here observation, the asking of questions, and listening were key activities performed during the process. The findings were mapped on to a transect diagram and strata formed based on governing parameters such as altitude and farm behaviour Wealth ranking: used to gain an understanding of the distribution of wealth in the community. It was based on how people within the community understand well-being and poverty. They set the criteria used for the ranking of the community Proportional pilling: used to determine the percentage of each wealth category among the households in the kebeles and to understand the share of crops grown, livestock, soil types, etc. Other tools used included focus group discussions (FGDs), pair-wise ranking, semi-structured interviews (SSIs) and Venn diagrams. 1

13 Description of the woreda and selected kebeles The Ofla woreda is geographically located between and north latitude and and east longitude, ranging in altitude from m. Long-term meteorological data indicate that the mean annual rainfall is between mm with mean daily temperatures ranging from ºC. It shares common borders with the Endamehoni woreda in the north, Raya Alamta to the south, Amhara regional state in the west and Raya Azebo to the east. Ofla comprises 19 kebeles and is characterised by two major agro-ecologies lowlands and highlands. Two of the 19 kebeles, namely Hashenge and Menkere, are located in the highland areas. Total land area in Ofla is estimated at 133,500 hectares. There are 25,275 hectares of arable land, 3,382 hectares are under forest, 44,000 hectares are grazing lands and 22,275 hectares fall under others. Arable land in the CASCAPE kebeles Hashenge and Menkere cover an area of 1,045 and 1,779 hectares, respectively. Both project sites touch on Lake Hashenge (which has an area of just under 1,378 hectares) and, as a result, fishing is an important activity in the communities. The lake also serves as a source of water for irrigated lands. This is done by directly pumping the water from the lake or by digging shallow wells on the farms bordering the lake. The woreda has a population of 141,585. MU-CASCAPE PROJECT WOREDAS N W E S OFLA WOREDA Kilometers Figure 1: Location of the Ofla woreda Major cereal crops grown in the woreda include barley, maize, sorghum and wheat. Faba bean, field pea and lentil are important pulses there. Monoculture is the dominant cropping system cereals, mainly wheat, are rotated with faba bean aimed at restoring soil fertility. Rainfall is bimodal, there is a short rainy season between February and May, and a long rainy season between June and September. The main livestock types are cattle, sheep and goats. They provide draught power, food and income. The main source of feed comes from communal grazing lands in the community and crop residue obtained from barley, maize, sorghum and wheat. 2

14 Results: Hashenge kebele Environmental conditions The village of Hashenge is nestled just under the mountain peaks and is bordered on one side by Lake Hashenge. Trend analysis was used to depict environmental changes over the past 10 years. The information was obtained from the farmers in the area and is presented in the table below. Table 2: Trend analysis of resources in the Hashenge kebele over the past 10 Ethiopian years Farmers explanations for the changes in the resources were: Land: cultivated land has shown little decrease in area over the last 10 years. Based on discussions in the FGD, participants believe that some of the cultivable lands, especially farms along hillsides, have been turned into either area enclosures or forest. These enclosures have been given to youths to act as a source of wood (to be used as firewood and for construction materials purposes) Grazing area: there is a vast area of rangeland bordering on Lake Hashenge. The area of the rangeland fluctuates from time to time during heavy rainy seasons parts of this land becomes swampy and as a result the area of grazing lands shrinks Swampy area: Except during heavy rain seasons where some part of the rangeland becomes swampy, the general trend is that swamp areas have been decreasing over the last 10 years and changing into grazing area Forest area: this area has been increasing as a whole. Some areas which were formerly covered in crops are now in forest. Abundant resources per community group At the time that arable land was being distributed in the kebele, it was shared equally among households (the amount of land that each family got was based on the size of the households). No group gets any extra resource. It is worthwhile noting that the kebele is endowed with water resources, i.e., Lake Hashenge, which is not yet fully used by the community. 3

15 Figure 2: Resource map of Hashenge kebele Scarce resources per community group Shortage of arable land over time and the problem of landless youth Number and type of cattle: lack of draught animals to prepare farmlands. Problematic resources Shortage of arable land Waterlogging of arable land Erratic rainfall: some time ago there was double cropping which took advantage of the biannual rainfall (kiremt and belg) Poor performance of livestock. Access to land per community group All community members have equal access to land. Soil fertility During soil characterisation and soil mapping, farmers classified the soil of arable land based mainly on its colour and depth. The main classes were: Walka (clay), Red soil and White soil. 4

16 Figure 3: Soil map of the Hashenge kebele The fertility of the arable land is assumed to be decreasing every year. Over 20 years ago productivity was high and chemical fertiliser was not used. Chemical fertiliser was first introduced in 1986 Ethiopian calendar (EC) year. Table 3: Soil type and farmers fertility rating of arable land in the Hashenge kebele No Soil class Prop. (%) 1 Walka (clay) soil 50 Best crop grown Wheat, barley, sorghum and teff 2 Keyih (Red) soil 32 Wheat, barley, maize and vegetables 3 Tsaeda (White) soil Fertility Rating 1 Remark 2 Deposited from hillside 18 Mostly vegetables 3 Dry part of the lake According to the farmers, the type of fertiliser used depends on the type of soils on farmlands. A mix of diammonium phosphate (DAP) and urea is used on Walka soils for crops like wheat, barley and sorghum. In Red soils only urea is used to protect against crop lodging. Where there is optimum soil moisture such as on White soils, a mix of DAP and urea is also used on wheat and barley crops. However, if there is excess moisture crop lodging and fast crop wilting can occur when there is a brief dry spell. The use of animal manure and compost to fertilise farmland is not widely done, however, a few farmers have been applying animal manure mostly on farmlands close to their homesteads. 5

17 Box 1: Case study on the use of FYM Molla Shikuru is a 50 year old farmer who is considered to be one of the innovative farmers in the Hashenge kebele. He has been using FYM over the last four years. Shikuru collects animal manure close to his homestead at three different locations. At each location or collection spot a different type of manure is stored, i.e. cattle, shoats and equines manure. In 2001 EC, Shikuru constructed an underground biogas tanker to provide fuel. Cow dung is used to produce the gas and the by-product is collected in a pit. This by-product is deposited into a heap and left to decompose until it is ready to be used as a fertiliser. Cattle manure is stored under a shed and left to decay during the winter period. The manure is then used on the homestead farm and on the farm far away from the homestead. FYM (about 40 donkey loads per hectare) is taken to these farms before the start of the main rains. It is evenly distributed and ploughed into the land there. On homestead farms, run-off from the roof and floor of houses is channelled to the manure heap and this FYM is later distributed on the farm. Figure 4: Model farmer, Molla Shikuru, and his use of FYM Decision-making on land allocation Land distribution is the task of both the kebele land administration and the kebele administration. They have the responsibility for allocating arable land (i.e., transferring arable land from one to the other) and partitioning the hillside to allocate land to landless youths. Collection of water and firewood Women are responsible for the collection of water and firewood. Livestock grazing The kebele has a vast area allocated for grazing and it has a high potential for grass that can feed animals all year round. Most of the lake is surrounded by grazing area. However, the quality of the grass is poor and needs to be improved. Overstocking was observed during the transact walk. 6

18 Figure 5: Overstocking in the Hashenge kebele Environmental constraints Moisture stress: double cropping on arable land was carried out by the farming community in the past. However, nowadays, there is only one cropping season (kiremt) and because there is also the early cessation of rains there is crop failure Soil erosion: there is run-off from the hills surrounding arable lands, there is erosion and sedimentation on the farmlands Waterlogging: during the summer season, arable lands along the periphery of Lake Hashenge become waterlogged, damaging crops to the extent that there is a total loss of production Overstocking: there are too many livestock on grazing lands, this is aggravated by the declining productivity of grasslands. Best practices Application of water harvesting techniques on catchments and arable lands Select late set crop type in waterlogged areas after the excess moisture is gone Plough the farm and plant chickpea in waterlogged areas Use manure on White soils as it is less responsive to chemical fertiliser Agroforestry provide fencing and shade around homesteads. Summary of findings Agricultural production is very dependent on the amount and seasonality of rainfall. Initially, there were two distinct rainfall periods kiremt and belg sufficient to produce crops twice a year. Nowadays, the production season has been altered and farmers are now forced to produce once a year. The change in the rainfall pattern has also adversely affected the productivity of grazing land, resulting in the poor performance of livestock (i.e., in terms of draught power and milk). The kebele is a highland community which has significant surface and groundwater resources. Lake Hashenge covers about 1,379 hectares and is a source of fish. The lake can also be used to expand the irrigation capacity so as to increase the productive capacity of the area. 7

19 Interventions have been undertaken by the community and individuals to address the environmental constraints there. Best practices observed in the kebele include the implementation of soil and water conservation, planting of trees, protection of closure areas and some soil fertility management practices (manure and use of chemical fertiliser) at the individual level. More attention needs to be paid to the waterlogging problem and the use of the groundwater to increase crop production. The improvement of the grazing land and animal quality will also need to be part of any intervention effort in the future. Socio-economic conditions Village boundaries with regard to social interaction and social services Community-based institutions are common in the kebele, serving the community in different ways. Important informal institutions in the kebele are Kire/Sara,Ofera and Equib. Kire/Sara is a kind of local institution established to undertake different self-help activities in the community. Every individual in the community is expected to be a member of this institution. Individual members are expected to contribute 1 Ethiopian birr each month. If an individual forgets to pay on time, he/she has to pay the principal and a penalty of 0.5 Ethiopian birr daily after the deadline. If an individual member of Sara plans to hold a wedding ceremony, every member is expected to provide a donkey load of firewood in addition to the 1 Ethiopian birr regular contribution. Sara takes care of all necessary materials. Ofera has to do with the mobilisation of labour to perform different agricultural activities such as ploughing, weeding, harvesting, threshing as well as house construction. Elderly and weak community members are served by organising youngsters. Depending on the economic status of the one who is organising the Ofera, he/she can serve the participants with injera, siwa/local beer/kolo/fried wheat or barley grain/ or hinbasha/local bread. Depending on the size of the farmland, people can participate at a time. These days, the community is waking up to the fact that it is costly to serve food and drinks to such a large number of people who participate in the Ofera. Hence, resource poor farmers prefer the kind of labour exchange known as lifnti. In this case, farmers simply offer their labour to each other on a rotational basis; serving with food and drink is optional. Equib is another community-based finance institution voluntarily established to serve the community members to help them save their money. The purpose of this local institution is to provide support for individuals who carry out social ceremonies or have obligations such as a wedding, timket and/or teskar. Each individual usually contributes 100 Ethiopian birr per year, and this varies depending on the nature of the saving institutions. Demographic characteristics The total number of farm households is 2,289 1,449 are male-headed households (MHHs) and 840 are female-headed households (FHHs) 1. The main economic activities Mixed crop-livestock production is the major activity of the farming system in the kebele. Crop production is primarily rain-fed. Livestock production is just as important a component of the farming system as that of crop production. In addition to crop and livestock production, there are some farmers who engage in petty trading in grain, animals and consumable items (on a small scale). Some farmers have homes in the small town of Hashenge, which they rent out for additional income. During the offseason a few farmers travel to the neighbour Amhara and Afar regions to buy animals such as oxen, shoat, and donkeys to sell at Korem, Meswae ti and Maychew markets. Livelihoods The crop-livestock farming system provides a reliable means of livelihood for all the community. However, the sending of remittances is also another source of income, because a significant number of 1 Ofla Woreda Office of Agriculture and Rural Development (OoARD) 2011 Ofla Woreda Office of Agriculture and Rural Development Report (unpublished), Tigray, Ethiopia. 8

20 households have family members abroad, especially in the Middle East (Arab countries). According to the participants, there are more than 100 households who receive remittances from abroad. Access to finance Nowadays, the number of formal credit users in cash or in kind (improved seed, fertiliser, live animals for dairy or fattening) is increasing. The number of local moneylenders providing money at unfair interest rate is decreasing. Dedebit Credit and Savings Institution (DECSI) is the main source of formal cash credit in the area. The participants of the FGD explained that there are two forms of credit from DECSI. The first form of credit, medebegna, is offered on a group basis. A minimum of 3 people form a group and everyone in the group is responsible for the timely repayment of the total amount of money taken by all the three people. If one of the three members of the group fails to pay back the amount he took, the other two are liable for that amount. They can put in a request for credit as once the groups are formed. The other form of credit available is offered on an individual basis in the form of a package. Most farmers like this kind of credit because of the amount of money they can borrow. A drawback however, is that it takes a long time to process the request. Farmers borrow this kind of credit mainly for fattening and dairy cows. Farmers can receive up to 8,000 Ethiopian birr from DECSI at an interest rate of 18%. Farmers can also obtain credit from their locally established credit and savings institution. FGD participants said that the members can borrow up to 6,000 Ethiopian birr at any time without delay. The interest rate offered by the local credit and savings institution is 12%, which is much lower than the interest rate offered by DECSI. The multipurpose cooperative operating in the area is also one of the major sources of credit. The cooperative provides credit in kind mainly in the form of improved seed, chemical fertiliser, beehives, drip irrigation accessories, etc., interest-free. Informal credit sources such as friends, relatives and neighbours also play an important role in providing cash credit to individuals in need of money. Members of the community use these sources mainly to finance urgent social obligations such as a wedding and other social and religious ceremonies. These loans are often interest free, this is in contrast to another informal source local moneylenders (who are currently almost non-existent), who lend money at unfair interest rates. Access to markets The community usually uses the Korem market to sell their agricultural commodities, as well as to purchase consumable items. They also use the small town markets of Meswae ti and Higumbirda to exchange small volumes of agricultural and non-agricultural commodities. As mentioned earlier, some farmers also travel to the neighbouring woredas of the Amhara and Afar region (Woldya, Harle, Kemisie, Sekota, etc.) to purchase primarily animals (oxen, shoat and camel) for trading, grains such as teff and maize are sometimes bought. The flow of market information is very informal. The community members get price information from friends, relatives, and traders who have visited the markets. Those engaged in petty trading of animals, grains and other commodities use mobile telephone so as to find out the prevailing prices in different markets. Economic constraints The main economic constraints in the kebele are a lack of storage, poor transport facilities and poor availability of credit. The storage facilities in this kebele are very traditional, and as a result, the quality of the produce deteriorates quickly. In general, storage facilities are in a poor state all along the production marketing channels and they are responsible for the heavy losses of vegetable crops suffered by farmers and traders. Tomatoes and leafy vegetables are difficult to store and are therefore sold at the time of harvest. Poor access to credit at reasonable interest rates is another economic constraint that hinders subsistence farmers from purchasing improved agricultural inputs. 9

21 Table 4: Socio-economic problems prioritised using pair-wise ranking (Hashenge PA) Problem type Market Storage Transport Credit Score Ranking Market (Mt) X ST TR CA 0 4 t Storage (ST) X ST ST 3 1 Transport (TR) X TR 2 2 Credit access (CA) X 1 3 Based on the pair-wise ranking method, the top ranked socio-economic issues, in order of importance, are storage, transport and credit. Solutions proposed by the farmers of the PA for the first three socio-economic constraints are: Storage o Rent storage from richer farmers o Diffused light store (DLS) made from local materials Transport Transport commodities using pack animals Transport using two wheel carts Credit access Strengthen local cooperatives Best practices Construction of a DLS Producer and marketing cooperatives Promoting village level savings and loan groups Summary of findings In assessing the socio-economic conditions of the village, a range of issues was explored such as social interaction and services rendered by the social institutions, demography, economic activities and livelihood, market access, finance and major economic constraints. The way in which people in the community live and their socio-economic interactions play a key role in supporting subsistence farmers. For example, Idir, Equib as well as other communal institutions are important in identifying the right beneficiaries and addressing root problems in the society. Communitybased institutions like Webera serve the community through mobilising labour and social cooperation. Participants in the FGD emphasised that the development of credit and savings institutions at the kebele level enables needy people to purchase improved agricultural inputs and makes them vulnerable to being exploited by local moneylenders. Mixed crop-livestock production is the major economic activity in the village and forms the basis of livelihood for the members of the community. Inadequate storage facilities, poor transport facility and a lack of credit at reasonable interest rates are the main economic constraints in the kebele. Constructing DLSs with local materials can help alleviate the storage problem. Other economic constraints can be addressed through establishing producer and marketing cooperatives and promoting village level savings and loan groups. These organisations will enhance the bargaining power of producers through the provision of finance and in arranging market access for their produce. 10

22 Actor landscape Organisations/institutions/groups that are working with the community The PRA participants said that the government institutions/organisations working in the community include the kebele administration, agricultural extension, AGP, land administration, school, health post, AARC, etc. Examples of local and international non-government organisations (NGOs) in community are REST and the World Bank, respectively. Most important institutions/groups According to the participants, the most important institution working in the community is the agricultural extension service. Staff train farmers formally and informally, distribute up-to-date market and other information, and facilitate the timely supply of agricultural inputs, etc. Groups addressing household food security and nutrition issues One of the organisations and/or groups directly addressing household food security in the kebele is the Office of Agriculture and Rural Development. WFP is one of the major NGOs focusing primarily on food security and nutrition issues. Organisations working together The farmers taking part in the PRA agreed that all organisations acting in the kebele work closely with the woreda and kebele administrations. Gender-based groups The only gender-based group in the kebele is a women s association, which addresses the interest of women in the community. Exclusion of groups or people from groups Both women and men participants of the PRA have agreed that so far no groups or any kind of people from groups are excluded. Everyone in the community is treated equally. No discrimination has been observed. Best practices Develop closer collaboration with relevant stakeholders like government organisations (GOs), NGOs and farmers organisations (FOs). Summary of findings Many organisations, both GOs and NGOs, work in the community. According to the participants, the extension service is considered to be the most important organisation. All organisations work closely with the woreda and kebele administrations. There is increasing collaboration between government research and extension organisations and NGOs. This has resulted in the formulation of agricultural and rural development strategies. Different organisations and institutions contribute to the food security problem and improving livelihoods and alleviating poverty in the community. Agricultural extension service is directly involved in addressing food security of the community and WFP is operating directly to address the food security and nutrition issues. The only gender-based organisation in the kebele is the women s association, which addresses the interest of women in the community. No one group or person is excluded in the community PRA participants pointed out that developing strong linkages with relevant stakeholders is vital in promoting rural and agricultural development. 11

23 Gender analysis Table 5: Distribution of labour by gender in the Hashenge kebele Type of activity % of total labour hours Men Women Land preparation 100 (8.00 am 1.00 pm) 0 Planting 100 (8.00 am 5.00 pm) 0 Weeding 56 (8.00 am 6.00 pm) 44 (8.00 am 4.00 pm) Harvesting 91 (8.00 am 6.00 pm) 9 (11.00 am am) Threshing 53 (9.00 am 6 pm) 47 (10.00 am 6 pm) Cattle feeding /Supplementary/ 100 (2 hrs) 0 Sheep and goat feeding/supplementary/ 0 0 Water fetching (1 hr) Firewood fetching Cooking and baking (3 hrs) Washing clothes 50 (3 hrs) 50 (3 hrs) Community productive participation Table 6: Control over and access to major household resources in the Hashenge kebele Types of resource Control over Access to Productive resources Male Female Both Male Female Both Land x x Cattle x x Horse x x Donkey x x Shoat x x Chicken x x Crop products Consumable x x Marketable x x Livestock products and byproducts Consumable x x Marketable x x Farm implements x x Natural resources Firewood x x Potable water x x Trees x x 12

24 Agricultural production conditions Main crops cultivated Wheat, maize, barley, faba bean and sorghum are the major crops grown in the village. During dry seasons, the coverage of barley is increased and follows that of wheat in area coverage. Cabbage, beetroot, potato and tomato are the major vegetables grown in the village. Few farmers have started planting apple in their homesteads. Table 7: Share of crops grown in the Hashenge kebele Major crop types Crop share (%) during a season of low rainfall Cereal crops Wheat Maize Barely Faba Bean 7 12 Finger millet Vegetables Irrigated Cabbage 47 Beet root 15 Potato 31 Tomato 7 During a good season Livestock The major livestock types reared in the Hashenge village are cattle, sheep and chicken. Donkeys, goats and honeybees are also reared in the village having lower shares. Prevalent practices (crops) In the Hashenge village, monocrops such as wheat, maize and barley are grown. Wheat is primarily grown on fertile fields. Pulses (e.g., faba bean) are grown in rotation with wheat so as to restore soil fertility. After harvesting the rain-fed crops, chickpeas are planted (until maturity) to take advantage of the residual moisture in the soil. Many wheat and barley varieties that used to be grown in the village are no longer being grown because of their susceptibility to diseases, their long growth periods requirement, and susceptibility to lodging. Farmers therefore depend on a few improved varieties (wheat in particular) and have fewer alternatives to choose from. Farmers apply N and P fertilisers in the form of urea and DAP. However, the rate of fertiliser applied per unit area is lower than recommended. Farmers also apply FYM and compost to farms located near to the homes. Weeding is usually performed a bit late, after the critical period for weed control. This is in part due to the low awareness of the farmers, it is also a way of saving on family labour. Prevalent practices (livestock) Cattle are the predominant livestock type that is reared as a source of traction power, for threshing crops and are considered to be household assets. Sheep are also important to the community and are the second largest livestock group, in actual numbers. The highlands of Hashenge are suited to the rearing of sheep. They graze in areas where there is no grass for cattle. They are in demand and fetch a good price. Goats are also important household assets and can easily be sold when necessary. Their numbers, however, are declining because there are limited areas available to browse many areas are 13

25 now enclosed. Chickens are becoming more popular because they do not require much care, furthermore, they also attract a good price at local markets. Unlike many of the kebeles in the woreda, Hashenge has pasture land near Lake Hashenge. Cattle graze in the pastureland throughout the year. In years gone by, the value of straw was low, because there was no feed problem in the kebele, particularly in the Endaboy Mosa sub-village. Now, the value of straw has increased and there is very little wastage. Organisation of agricultural inputs Agricultural inputs are imported by big unions and companies and distributed to each woreda based on their previous requests. At the village level, multipurpose cooperatives established by the village community distribute inputs like fertilisers. Seeds of improved varieties are distributed by village cooperatives and by the Woreda OoARD. Farmers can purchase agricultural inputs directly (by cash) or they can get the inputs using credit from the village cooperative or through an agreement entered into with DECSI. The interest rate offered by the village cooperative is lower than that of DECSI, so farmers prefer to purchase from their own cooperative. Other farm inputs like pesticides can be directly purchased from the woreda cooperatives. Agricultural crop production constraints The constraints identified by participant farmers in crop production in the village: Moisture stress Crop pests Frost Weeds Shortage of seeds of improved varieties Hail Crop diseases Moisture stress/drought According to the respondents, the Hashenge village was known for its bimodal rainfall and doublecropping system, based on kiremt rain between June September and a second period of rain in the winter. Now, there is only the kiremt rain, which means that there is only one production yearly. Even though there is early cessation of rains during the main kiremt season, farmers said that their village is not very much affected by moisture stress. The absence of rains during the winter season, however, is considered to be a constraint to crop production. Crop pests Rodents, caterpillars, beetles, birds and weevils reduce the potential yield of the crops both in the field and after being harvested. Rodents are a serious problem in the kebele. Insect pests such as aphids on faba bean reduce yield in the village. Frost This occurs from the start of October. Late-maturing and frost sensitive crops like beans, field peas, potatoes and maize are most affected by frost. Weeds Two parasitic weeds, namely Orobanche and Striga were cited as the most problematic weeds affecting faba bean/field pea and sorghum/maize, respectively. According to the farmers, Orobanche infested beans or peas are left sterile after it produces pods. This occurs in September when Orobanche weeds start to express themselves above the soil. The damage caused by Orobanche on beans and peas is greater than that of Striga on sorghum and maize. Farmers said that it is not until the Orobanche emerges out of the soil that they know that it is there, although it damages the crop much earlier. Wild oats is an important weed that affects wheat and barley. This weed resembles the crops and this makes 14

26 it difficult to control. Weed control does not take place on a timely basis for many reasons, for example, weeds are easier to pull out when they are grown. Farmers usually control weeds too late after they have significantly damaged the crops. Shortage of supply of seeds of improved varieties The village does not get an adequate supply of good quality seeds, resulting in a mismatch between demand and supply of selected seeds. Varieties which have been abandoned in other areas for various reasons, for example, are still being cultivated in the village (e.g., HAR 1685 wheat variety even though it is susceptible to rust). The farmers are therefore always on the lookout for improved varieties of the major crops grown in the village. Hail This natural hazard occasionally occurs in some parts of the village. Crop diseases Diseases like rust attacking wheat, mildew and chocolate spot attacking faba bean were identified as causes of yield reduction in the village. For example, during the 2003/2004 EC production season the crops grew well, but they suffered a 50% reduction in yield due to rust. Rains received during Meskerem saved the crop from being a total loss, otherwise it would have been a disaster. Rust also leads to a deterioration in straw. Cattle refuse to eat rust infected straw because of its odour. The priority problems of crop production in Hashenge village are: Crop diseases Pests Moisture stress Shortage of improved seed supply. Table 8: Crop production constraints prioritised using pair-wise ranking in Hashenge Problem Weed Crop diseases Frost Moisture stress (MS) Pest (PE) Improved seed Hail (H) Score Weeds (W) X CD F MS PE SISS H 0 7 Ranking Crop diseases (CD) X CD CD CD CD CD 6 1 Frost (F) X MS PE SISS F 2 5 MS X PE MS MS 4 3 PE X PE PE 5 2 Shortage of improved seed supply (SISS) X SISS 3 4 H X 1 6 Best practices Best practices and suggested solutions to the major problems in crop production are: Crop diseases o o Spray holy water Pray to God 15

27 o o o o o Crop pests o o o o o o Changing the crop type for the next year Fallowing (one or more years) Use of rust free clean seeds Use of rust resistant varieties The rust resistant variety (Digelu) introduced in the 2011 production season in to the village is praised by the farmers but it matures late. Hence, planting the variety earlier can result in a better yield. Smoking sheep/goat manure Mechanical control using plant branches Fumigating stores/granaries Letting chicken feed on worms Using natural pesticides Using chemical pest control. Moisture stress o o o o o Planting trees/improving vegetation cover of sloppy hillsides In situ moisture conservation using soil and stone bands, trenches, etc Using flash floods for spate irrigation Using early-maturing and drought-tolerant varieties Using supplementary irrigation by drilling medium to deep wells. Shortage of improved seed supply o o o Saving own seed Exchanging seeds with other farmers Renting out own land. Livestock production constraints The main constraints to livestock production are: Shortage of animal feed Animal diseases Use of animal breeds with low production potential Predators. Shortage of feed Currently, the availability of crop residue, the main source of feed in the village, is declining due to the small size of landholdings and recurrent drought. Most of the land previously used for grazing is now enclosed. Enclosed areas are good sources of animal feed, but the grasses that are grown there are part of income generating activity for youth groups. On top of this, farmers have cited the problem of wastage of feeds by some farmers. The second most important source of feed for their livestock is the communal pasturelands near Lake Hashenge. Livestock are allowed to graze there freely throughout the year because the cut-and-carry system has not yet been introduced. Use of animal breeds with low production potential The existing local cattle breeds are small in size with limited potential for producing milk. They also give birth after a long resting period. The newly born calves take some time to reach maturity. The oxen from this breed also have less traction power. Local cows give 1 2 litres per day; hybrid cows on the other hand produce 7 9 litres/day. The price of local breeds is low as compared with the crossbreeds. 16

28 Diseases The village has a vet post. However, the post is not well-equipped with the necessary medicine and equipment. Year-round free grazing of livestock in the pastureland has led it to become a breeding ground for liver fluke. Farmers are, however, reluctant to use a cut-and carry system to break the spread of the disease causing organism. Table 9 shows a calendar of livestock diseases. Table 9: Calendar of livestock diseases as provided by participant farmers Major disease types Season Summer Autumn Winter Spring Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Cattle Refrefta x x x x x x Degehabe x x x x x x x x x x x x Wezwez x x Derbota x x x Sheep Gurgut x x x Mymilat x x x Goat Shihur x x x x x x x x x x x x Tsihtsah x Horse/Donkey Abrik x x Chicken Kenbil x x x x x x x x x x x x Predators The two important predators attacking livestock are hyenas and foxes. Hyenas prey on donkeys, cattle, shoats. Foxes prey on sheep and goats. It is common to see cattle that have managed to escape predators with mutilated tails in the village. Table 10 shows the main constraints that affect livestock production in the village: Livestock diseases Shortage of animal feed Limited production potential of existing livestock breeds Predators. 17

29 Table 10: Livestock problems prioritised using pair-wise ranking in Hashenge Problem Livestock Disease (LD) Livestock disease Feed shortage Predator Poor breed Score X LD LD LD 3 1 Feed Shortage (FS) X FS FS 2 2 Predator (PR) X PB 0 4 Poor breed type (PB) X 1 3 Ranking Best practices (livestock) Animal diseases Use of herbal medicines Equip existing vet post with basic equipment and medicine. Shortage of animal feed Use existing cactus leaves as feed Introduce and plant cactus as a source of feed during the dry period Plant legume forage crops Use available crop residue efficiently. Limited production potential of existing livestock breeds Reduce the number of animals Introduce crossbreeds by reducing the size of the existing local breeds Use artificial insemination and the bull service to gradually upgrade the productivity of local breeds. Summary of findings Crop disease is a major constraint to crop production. For example, rust causes up to 50% reduction in the yield of wheat because most of the current varieties being used are susceptible to the disease. Varieties resistant to rust have been developed by EIAR and the only feasible solution now is to use these varieties. Crop pests like rodents, beetles, and caterpillars also adversely affect crop yields. Some suggestions on how to fight these pests include phyto-sanitation and integrated pest control strategies. Similarly, animal disease is the main problem in the livestock sector. Livestock from the village all graze on the single grazing land (near Lake Hashenge), and as a result are exposed to a range of diseases and parasites. To alleviate the problem, farmers need to stall feed their livestock and the existing vet post should be well-equipped with basic materials to deal with these problems. The shortage of animal feed is due to a combination of factors such as the diminished size of grazing lands, the mismatch between available feed sources and the number of livestock, free grazing and drought. Possible solutions to curb this problem include using available feeds efficiently, improving the nutritional quality of existing feeds by planting legume fodder crops and introducing zero grazing. In areas where catchments have been treated and protected from the reach of animals and people, farmers have been using a cut and grass system to feed their livestock. Hence, catchment treatment has multifaceted benefits. Other agricultural problems raised by the village representatives are moisture stress, low productivity of existing cattle breeds, a short supply of good quality seeds and livestock predators. 18

30 Results: Menkere Kebele Environmental conditions Trend analysis was carried out to determine changing land use in the kebele and the possible reasons for these changes. A group of representative farmers explained the changes, see Table 11 below. Table 11: Trend analysis of resources in the Menkere kebele over the past 10 Ethiopian years Environmental changes and the possible reasons for these changes are: Land: cultivated land has shown little decreasing trend within the last 10 years. The FGD participants indicated that some cultivable lands especially farms along the hillside have been changed into area closure and forest. Moreover, a new village establishment, the expansion of organisations and erosion have caused a slight decrease trend in cultivated land. Grazing area: The area of the rangeland declines from time to time with the expansion of Lake Hashenge due to siltation. Swampy area: Except during heavy rain seasons where some part of the rangeland becomes swampy the general trend of the swamp area during the last 10 years is constant. Forest area: The forest area in the kebele as a whole is increasing from time to time. Some areas which were covered in crops are now in forest. The major tree species found in the closure area are: Hyginia, Olia Africana, Podocurpus (Zigba), Juniperus (Tid), and eucalyptus. Abundant resources per community group In the Menkere kebele, arable land is one of the major resources that has been shared equally among households (at the time of distribution, land allocation was based on family size ). No extra resource has been given to any group. 19

31 Figure 6: Resource map of Menkere drawn by farmers and redrawn by IT Scarce resources per community group Shortage of arable land over time; youth are landless Number and type of cattle: lack of draught animals used to prepare the farmland. Problematic resources Waterlogging of arable land during heavy rains as well as the expansion of the lake Erratic rainfall: double cropping was practised by the community; however, now there is only one rainy season (kiremt) with late onset and early cessation of rainfall Shortage of arable land size Insufficient protection of forest areas Decrease the number and performance of livestock Inadequate supply of potable water. Access to land per community group Both men and women have equal access to arable land. Out of 1613 HHs, 602 FHHs (37%) have access to the land. Soil fertility Farmers classified arable soils based on soil colour and relative position in the catchment. The main soil classes are Walka (black clay) and White (white clay). Based on the farmers perception on the soil classes, Walk (black clay) has better water holding capacity than the White soil and frequently there is waterlogging in the White soils as a result of the relative position of the farmlands and the nature of the soil. 20

32 Figure 7: Map of arable soils in Menkere kebele Farmers use of mineral fertilisers depends on the soil type. Farmers explained that chemical fertiliser use on Walka soils (on which wheat, barley, maize and onion are grown) is at the rate of 100 kg/ha DAP and 100 kg/ha urea. On the same soil type, only DAP (100 kg/ha) is used to fertilise the bean crop. On White soils farmers are not interested in applying fertiliser, and if applied it causes production loss consequent on crop lodging. Farmers believe that turning back of crop residue immediately after harvesting of the crops is a common practice. Animal manure to fertilise farmlands around homesteads is hardly ever done. Table 12: Soil type and farmers fertility rating of soils in the Menkere kebele No Soil class Prop. (%) Best crops grown 1 Walka (black 75 Sorghum, wheat, bean, barley, clay) soil maize, field pea, teff and flax. 2 Tsaeda 15 Wheat, barley, maize, onion and (white clay) soil garlic Fertility Remark rating 1 Upper part of the catchment 2 Near the lake and bottom part of the catchment Decision-making on land allocation Just as in the Hashenge kebele, the land in Menkere belongs to the government, so every allocation of land is carried out by the local administrations. 21

33 Collection of water and firewood Women are responsible for the collection of water and firewood. Livestock grazing There is sufficient grazing land for the community to let their animals freely to graze around Lake Hashenge. The grass quality is poor and intervention is needed to improve its productivity. Environmental constraints Moisture stress: the kebele was dependent on biannual rainfall (kiremt and belg) for doublecropping, but now there is only one period of rainfall, the kiremt rain, and only one crop production per annum Waterlogging: the area affected by waterlogging in the village is small in size and is located near Lake Hashenge. However, the damage inflicted by waterlogging on crops is high Lack of adequate protection for enclosure areas: there is a vast protected forest area but there is some interference by neighbouring villages There is overstocking of grazing lands; grass productivity on these lands is declining Soil erosion: is manifested in farmlands being dissected by gully erosion, the sedimentation of fertile arable lands and in the washing away of the top soil from upper catchment areas. Best practices Incorporating crop residue after the immediate harvest of the crops Agroforestry such as fencing and shade around homesteads Soil and water conservation practices on arable and non-arable lands Use of closure areas for beekeeping. Summary of findings Just as in Hashenge, Menkere used to have bimodal rainfall (kiremt and belg) and farmers used to be able to produce crops twice a year. Nowadays, the pattern of the rainfall is such that the production season has changed there is only one main period of rainfall, kiremt, and as a result farmers produce once a year to take advantage of this. The kebele is situated in the highlands and is endowed with high surface and groundwater resources. It is bounded by Lake Hashenge, a source of fish for the community. Appropriate utilisation of water from the lake can also help the community to expand the irrigation capacity and so increase the productive capacity of the area. In addition to this, the area is also known for its vast natural forest cover, with dominant tree species such as Juniper, Hyginea abyssinica, Podocurpus, Acacia, Olea africana. Ostestega, Dodonia, Euphorbia, pines and cactus. The area is lush, with bush, grass, and marshlands. There are plantation sites where eucalyptus trees are grown and used as a source for construction materials. To reverse environmental degradation, the community is engaged in rehabilitation activities in the kebeles. Examples of these activities are soil and water conservation, plantation of trees, protection of closure areas and some soil fertility management practices (use of manure and chemical fertilisers) at communal and individual level. To resolve land scarcity problem, the local administration is trying to allocate parts of hillsides and gullies to landless youths so that they can cultivate crops. Incorporation of crop residue immediately after harvest is done to add back the nutrients into the land. Temporary waterlogging during the wet season is a challenge to the community members who cultivate crops close to the lake. To solve this problem, the introduction of plants that can tolerate waterlogging such as certain rice varieties in the future can help and at the same time increase agricultural productivity. 22

34 Socio-economic conditions Village boundaries with regard to social interaction and social services. Community-based institutions are common in the kebele, serving the community in different ways. Important informal institutions in the kebele are Kire/Sara, Ofera and Equib. Kire/Sara is a kind of local institution established to undertake different self-help activities in the community. Individual members are registered to contribute 2 shembers (local unit equivalent to 1.25 kg) of wheat or barley crops during harvest. If an individual member of the institution puts on a wedding ceremony, every member is expected to provide a donkey load of firewood. During mourning every member has to bring along one log of wood to construct a temporary shelter. Failure to do so results in a 10 Ethiopian birr penalty. All necessary materials are supplied by the Sara. The participants also said that there are new entrance charges ranging from Ethiopian birr per household. Ofera has to do with the mobilisation of labour to perform different agricultural activities such as ploughing, weeding, harvesting, threshing as well as house construction. Elderly and weak community members are served by the youngsters. Depending on the economic status of the one who is organising the Ofera, he/she can serve the participants injera, siwa/local beer, kolo/fried wheat or barley grain or hinbasha/local bread/. Depending on the size of the farmland, people can participate at a time. These days, many in the community have seen where it is costly to serve food and drinks to such a large number of people who participate in the Ofera. Resource-poor farmers prefer to this kind of labour exchange as lifnti, where farmers simply rotate their labour from one farmer s plot to the other. The serving of food and drink is optional. Equib is another community-based finance institution voluntarily established to serve the community members for saving their money. The purpose of this local institution is to provide support for individuals who have some social ceremonies or obligations such as wedding, timket and teskar. Members save from Ethiopian birr monthly. Demographic characteristics The total population of the kebele was estimated at 6,025. Males account for 48.7% (2,934) of the population, 3,091 (51.3%) are females. With regard to farm households, there were 899 MHHs and 496 FHHs, a total of 1,395 households 2. Main economic activities Mixed crop-livestock production is the major activity of the farming system in the kebele. Crop production is primarily rain-fed. Livestock production is as important a component of the farming system as is crop production. Some farmers also homes in the small town of Menkere, which they rent out for additional income. There are also about five persons selling eucalyptus logs. Livelihoods Crop/livestock farming system is the dependable means of livelihood for the community. Access to finance Nowadays the number of people requesting formal credit whether it is in cash or in kind (improved seed, fertiliser, live animals for dairy or fattening) is increasing. The number of local moneylenders, who often charge unfair interest rates, is therefore decreasing. DECSI is the main source of formal cash credit in the area. The participants of the FGD explained that there are two forms of credit from DECSI. One form of credit is called medebegna and this is offered on a group basis. At least three people form a group and everyone in the group is responsible for the timely repayment of the total amount of money taken by all the three people. If one of the three members of the group fails to pay back the amount, the other two are liable for that amount. Once the groups have been formed, they can apply for credit. 2 Ofla Woreda OoARD 2011 Woreda Office of Agriculture and Rural Development Report (unpublished), Tigray, Ethiopia. 23

35 The other type of credit that is offered on an individual basis is in the form of a package. Most farmers like this kind of credit because of the amount of money they can borrow. The only drawback is that it takes too long to process the request. Farmers borrow this kind of credit mainly for fattening cattle and for dairy cows. Farmers can receive up to 8,000 Ethiopian birr from the DECSI at an interest rate of 18%. Farmers can also get credit from the locally established credit and savings institution. There are about 300 members in the institution. They can obtain up to 10,000 Ethiopian birr credit from their institution any time, at short notice. The interest rate of the local credit and savings institution is 12%, which is much lower than the DECSI interest rate. The multipurpose cooperative operating in the area is also a major source of credit. The cooperative provides credit in kind, mainly in the form of improved seed, chemical fertiliser, beehives, drip irrigation accessories, etc., interest free. Repayment of the inputs is in the month of December and failure to pay then results in a 12% interest rate penalty. All the multipurpose cooperatives in the PAs fall under the Hashenge union in the woreda. Informal credit sources such as friends, relatives and neighbours play an important role in providing cash credit. Members of the community use these credit sources mainly to finance urgent social obligations such as a wedding and other social and religious ceremonies. The credit is interest free. Access to markets Community members usually use the Korem market in the capital town of the woreda (it is about 8 km away) to sell all agricultural commodities as well as to purchase consumable items. The flow of market information is very informal. Community members get their price information from friends, relatives, and traders who have visited the markets. Those engaged in the petty trading of animals, grains and other commodities, use mobile telephone to find out the prevailing prices in different markets. Main economic constraints The main economic constraints in the kebele are the increasing cost of fertiliser and a lack of improved crop varieties. Farmers find it very difficult to be able to buy fertilisers because of their increasing costs and the amounts needed (based on the blanket inorganic fertiliser recommendation). Lack of improved crop varieties (and their low yields) is also another economic constraint facing the community. Table 13: Socio-economic problems prioritised using pair-wise ranking in Menkere PA Problem type ICVS WS Mkt CF Score Ranking Improved crop varieties X ICVS ICVS CF 2 2 supply (ICVS) Water supply (WS) X WS CF 1 3 Market (Mkt) X CF 0 4 Cost of fertiliser (CF) X 4 1 s From the pair-wise ranking method, the top ranked socio-economic problems, in order of importance, are the cost of fertiliser, improved crop varieties supply and water supply. 24

36 Table 14: Socio-economic problems and proposed solutions in Menkere PA Constraints Causes Possible solutions Cost of fertiliser Lack of improved new varieties Water supply Command use Blanket recommendation Increasing cost trend Lack of supply Inadequate potable water supply Domestic fertiliser production Organic fertiliser use (Use of compost and FYM) Government subsidy for cost of fertilisers Interest-based inorganic fertiliser use Conducting further research activities ( adaptation trials) Intervention by different relevant organisations Best practices Area and time specific fertiliser recommendation Conducting research activities on improved varieties Local seed business enterprise. Summary of findings In assessing the socio-economic conditions of the village, a range of issues was explored such as social interaction and services rendered by the social institutions, demography, economic activities and livelihood, market access, finance and major economic constraints. The way in which people in the community live and their socio-economic interactions play a key role in supporting subsistence farmers. For example, Idir, Equib as well as other communal institutions are important in identifying the right beneficiaries and addressing root problems in the society. Communitybased institutions like Webera serve the community through mobilising labour and social cooperation. Participants in the FGD emphasised the point that the existence of credit and savings institutions at the kebele level enables needy people to purchase improved agricultural inputs and protects them from being exploited by local moneylenders. Farmers find it difficult to purchase adequate amounts of inorganic fertilisers because of their high costs. Participants of the PRA said that using inorganic fertilisers at the right time and place is vital for high crop production (this can be supported by the soil test base fertiliser recommendation). They also pointed out that using organic fertilisers /manure and compost/ can help offset the high cost of inorganic fertilisers. The other economic constraint is the inadequate supply of improved seeds this can be addressed in part by conducting research on producing improved crop varieties /adaptation trials/ and encouraging the development of sustainable local seed business enterprises. Actor landscape Organisations/institutions/groups that are working with the community. Governmental institutions/organisations that are working in the community are the kebele administration, agricultural extension, land administration, school, health post, AARC, village social court, etc. The World Bank and DECSI represent international and local NGOs respectively working with the community. 25

37 Most important institutions/groups The most important institutions in the village community, according to the participants of the PRA survey, are the Village Social Court, land administration and DECSI. The village court supports the underprivileged, ensures justice and supports women who have been harassed by men. Land administration handles issues related to land. It also takes cases to the social court in the event that a punishment is handed out by the court. DECSI is considered to be the third important institution in the village as it lends money to individuals or groups of farmers and allows them to save money there. Unlike the earlier days, an individual can borrow up to 15,000 Ethiopian birr from the institution. Groups addressing household food security and nutrition issues. According to the participants of the PRA, different organisations and institutions contribute directly or indirectly to ensure food security to bring about livelihood improvement and poverty reduction as a whole to the entire community. Organisations working together Just as in Hashenge (page 11), all organisations operating in this kebele work closely with the woreda and kebele administrations. Gender-based groups Similar to the Hashenge kebele (page 11) Exclusion of groups or kind of people from groups. Similar to Hashenge kebele (page 11) Best practices Closer links among stakeholders working in the kebele. Summary of findings PRA survey participants in the kebele pointed out that there are many organisations working in the community. The most important institutions according to them are the village court, land administration and DECSI. All organisations acting in the kebele work under the umbrella of the woreda and kebele administrations. There is increasing collaboration between government research and extension organisations and NGOs and this has resulted in the formulation of agricultural and rural development strategies. Different organisations contribute directly or indirectly to ensuring food security to improve livelihoods and reduce poverty. The extension service is directly involved in addressing food security within the community, however, with respect to nutrition, currently there is no known organisation addressing this issue directly. The only gender-based group in the kebele is a women s association, which addresses the interest of women in the community. No groups or persons are excluded from community life. Gender analysis Activity calendar Peak heavy workload periods for farmers in Menkere village are the time of planting (Sene and Hamle) and harvesting and threshing (Tikimti Tahsas). On the other hand, the relatively slack period is in the month of Tiri. The main activities performed by farmers in Menkere village within one year period are summarised in Table

38 Table 15: Summary of farmers main activities in Menkere kebele Month Type of activity Who performs it? Meskerem Tikimti Hidar Tahsas Tiri Lekatit Megabit Miyazia Ginbot Sene House painting Basket making Weeding Constructing grain storage structure Harvesting grass for direct green feed and hay Basket making Harvesting (barley (Saesea), lentil, peas, maize) Preparing threshing floors Threshing (barley, lentil, peas) Ploughing fallow land and harvested fields Grinding, preparation of local drinks Transporting straw and crop residue Preparing threshing floors Grinding, preparation of local drinks Harvesting (wheat, peas, maize, lentil, linseed) Threshing the harvested crops Transporting crop residue Threshing Harvesting sorghum and teff Transporting and collecting crop residue ploughing Soil and water conservation Participate in holidays (wedding, etc.) Ploughing (only after soil and water conservation) Planting whenever there is belg rain Soil and water conservation Ploughing Basket making Ploughing Fencing houses Basket making Planting (sorghum, maize) Ploughing fields for wheat and barley Basket making Planting maize Inter-cultivation of maize and sorghum Weeding belg crops, maize, sorghum Ploughing Threshing belg crops Ploughing Planting of barley, wheat, field peas, lentil, beans Basket making Transporting crop residues Women Women Both Both Both Women Both both Both Men Women Men Women women Both Both Both Both Both Women Men Both Both Men Men Both Men Women Men Men Women Men Men Women Men Both Both Men Both Men Men Women Both Hamle Planting (teff, barley, wheat) Men Nehase Planting Dekoko Weeding (all crops) Managing livestock Men Both Both 27

39 Table 16: Distribution of labour by gender in the Menkere kebele Type of activity % of total labour hours Men Women Land preparation 100 (9 am 2 pm) 0 (they share activities during fasting) Planting 100 (8 am 5 pm) 0 Weeding 59 (8 am 6 pm) 41 (9 am 4 pm) Harvesting 91 (8 am 6 pm) 9 (11 am 12 am) Threshing 62 (8 am 6 pm) 38 (12 am 6 pm) Cattle feeding /supplementary/ 100 (4 hrs) 0 Sheep and goat feeding/supplementary/ 0 0 Water fetching (1 hr) Firewood fetching 100 (6 hrs) 0 Cooking and baking (1.5 hrs) Cloth washing 50 (3 hrs) 50 (3 hrs) Community productive participation Table 17: Control over and access to major household resources in Menkere Types of resource Control over Access to Productive resources Male Female Both Male Female Both Land x x Cattle x x Horse x x Donkey x x Shoat x x Chicken x x Crop products Consumable x x Marketable x x Livestock products and byproducts Consumable x x Marketable x x Farm implements x x Natural resources Firewood x x Potable water x x Trees x x N.B: Control over and access to livestock resources is dependent on the agreement entered into between the partners for ownership usually during marriage. There are two types of resource registration: Common resources and individual resources. 28

40 Agricultural production conditions Main cultivated crops The major crops grown in Menkere village are wheat, barley, faba bean, field pea, maize and sorghum. Lentil, teff and fenugreek are also grown but cover less area. Cabbage, carrot, tomato, potato and pepper from vegetables and apple from fruits are cultivated in the kebele. Table 18: Share field crops cultivated in the Menkere kebele SN Crop type Share in % 1 Wheat 20 2 Barley 16 3 Faba bean 14 4 Field peas 12 5 Maize 10 6 Sorghum 10 7 Lentil 6 8 Teff 6 9 Linseed 4 10 Fenugreek 2 Source: Representative group of farmers from the kebele Change in crops and varieties over time According to the farmers interviewed, there has been a change in the type of varieties grown in the village over time. An example they raised was wheat varieties. The farmers remember that there used to be wheat varieties such as Alesa, Tomay Adane, Dokotsa and Zegaybeleo. Tomay Adane existed until the time of the Derg, while the others were abandoned even earlier. Reasons for this change include: Their susceptibility to diseases, particularly rust Lodging: they were tall, slender and easy to lodge Grains not producing as good a quality of bread as those currently in use The fact that they are long-maturing varieties. The existing wheat varieties in the village are: Moymaye Tsaeda Senday (HAR 1685) Tselim Senday Digelu (only introduced last year). 29

41 A comparison was made between the wheat varieties currently in use, in an effort to understand farmers preference and their selection criteria: Moymaye x HAR 1685 they selected Moymaye. They selected it for its resistance to rust, its higher yield, good market price (particularly in rural areas as town dwellers prefer white coloured varieties), good backing quality. This variety was introduced over five years ago. According to the farmers, HAR 1685 is susceptible to rust attack but produces good bread quality Moymaye x Tselim Senday they preferred Moymaye. Tselim Senday is susceptible to rust but has better market value and good injera and bread quality. The yield of Moymaye is, however, higher than Tselim Senday HAR 1685 x Tselim Senday they preferred HAR 1685 for its higher yield and better tolerance to rust than Tselim Senday Digelu was introduced in the 2003/2004 EC cropping season. Hence it was not easy for the farmers to evaluate it against the others. They said, however, that it is resistant to attack from rust. There are also barley varieties that are no longer planted in the village: Tselim Ekli Rie. The main reasons for their change: long-maturing varieties they are not compatible with the prevailing short rainy season susceptibility to diseases. Hence, the existing barley varieties are: Shiye Atena Saesea Barfndi. Farmers also compared the existing barley varieties: Shiye x Atena the farmers selected Atena for its higher yield, good quality of kolo (roasted barley grain) and sewa (local beer), and higher market price. Shiye x Saesea Saesea is preferred for its earliness and higher yield. The variety Shiye is better in the preparation of local beer Shiye x Barfndi Shiye is selected by the farmers Atena x Saesea Saesea is preferred Saesea x Barfndi Saesea is selected. Livestock The main livestock types are cattle, sheep, goats and donkey. Chicken, honeybees and mules are also reared to a lesser extent. The number of honeybees, according to the farmers is decreasing because of diseases. Table 19: Share of livestock types in the Menkere kebele SN Type of livestock Percentage share in the village 1 Cattle 22 2 Sheep 18 3 Goats 16 4 Donkey 14 5 Horse 12 6 Chicken 8 7 Honeybee 6 8 Mule 4 Change in livestock breeds over time 30

42 According to the farmers interviewed, changes in breed type as well as herd size have occurred on livestock in Menkere village. Cattle The Raya and Amhara cattle breeds were introduced to the village during the reign of Haile Selassie. Crossbreeds (local and exotic) were introduced in 1990 EC. Farmers estimate that there are about 30 households who own crossbreed cows. Both the local and Raya cattle are aggressive and their feet need to be tied during milking. Amhara and crossbreed cattle are docile. According to the farmers cattle herd size is decreasing. A comparison of existing breeds/types of cattle was made by the farmers: Raya type x Amhara type they preferred the Amhara type for their ability to adapt to local conditions, their higher production of milk. In addition to this, they are docile and come into heat early. The Raya types are bigger in size than the Amhara types and require more feed. They are also aggressive. Raya x local type they preferred the local highland types as they easily adapt to the local conditions; they produce more milk than Raya cows. Amhara x local the Amhara cows are selected because they are docile and produce more milk. Both have almost the same body size. Amhara x crossbreed the farmers preferred the crossbreeds for their higher milk production, high market value, fast growth, their docility and the fact that come into heat early. The crossbreeds, according to the farmers, are suitable for stall feeding, they need more feed and good management. Sheep and goats There has not been any change in the type of sheep and goats reared over the last years. However, their actual number is declining in response to the decrease in the availability of feed resources. Prevalent practices (crops) In Menkere village monocrops such as wheat barley and faba bean are grown. Wheat is grown in rotation with faba bean on fertile fields. Pulses field peas and lentil are also grown in the village. Pulses are grown in rotation with wheat or barley with the aim of restoring soil fertility. Chickpea is planted to take advantage of the residual moisture in September or when there is rain in October. Various wheat and barley varieties that were commonly grown in the village in the past are no longer being produced because of their susceptibility to diseases, their long growing periods, and susceptibility to lodging. Farmers therefore depend on a few improved varieties (wheat in particular) and have fewer alternatives to choose from. Prevalent practices (livestock) Cattle are the dominant livestock type. They are reared as a source of traction power and as a source of income. Sheep and goats are also reared in the village. Shoats are preferred because they do not require as much input as cattle and can be easily sold to cover immediate costs. Donkeys are also reared to help transport agricultural produce (grain and straw) taking grains to markets and flour mills and carrying farm implements, etc. They play an important role in helping households to carry out tasks. Chickens are becoming popular among many farm households in the village and attract a good price at local markets. With the reduction on feed supply, the number of both cattle and shoats owned by farmers is decreasing and some farmers have started to introduce exotic crossbreed cows focusing on small herd sizes. The village has a rangeland around Lake Hashenge on which only oxen and newly delivered cows graze. Organisation of agricultural inputs The organisation of agricultural inputs is similar to that of Hashenge (see page 14). 31

43 Agricultural production constraints Crop production contraints The main crop production constraints are: Crop diseases One of the constraints to crop production in the village is rust on wheat and chocolate spot on beans. Wheat varieties that were resistant to rust are being affected by the disease. This reduces the quality and quantity of the produce. Cattle are also said to have cough when fed with such type of straw and their preference to such straw is low. Rust usually occurs at the beginning of September. Weeds Two parasitic weeds, namely, Orobanche and Striga are cited as the most problematic weeds in faba bean/field pea and sorghum/maize respectively. Orobanche makes pods sterile. They occur mostly in September when they start to express themselves above the soil. Wild oat is a particular noxious weed, resembling wheat and barley crops until it flowers. Frost Frost occurs when the rainy season is short and affects only susceptible crop types, which matures late in the season. Moisture stress There is higher moisture availability in Menkere than in the other kebeles. Nevertheless, there has been a change in the rain pattern, moving from a bimodal one to having just one main rainfall period. Farmers are, therefore, now only able to plant once in a year, unless there is rain during the autumn or winter period. Waterlogging The area affected by waterlogging in the village is small in size and is located near Lake Hashenge. The damage inflicted on crops by waterlogging is high, because the area is flat and difficult to drain. Table 20: Crop production constraints prioritised using pair-wise ranking in Menkere Problem Crop diseases Weed Frost Moisture Waterlogging Score Ranking stress Crop diseases X W CD CD CD 3 2nd (CD) Weeds (W) X W W W 4 1 st Frost (F) X F WL 1 4th Moisture Stress (MS) Waterlogging (WL) X WL 0 5th X 2 3rd The results of the pair-wise ranking and overall consensus led us to prioritise the problems accordingly: Weeds Disease Waterlogging Frost Moisture stress 32

44 Best practices in crop production Weeds The suggested solutions to curb the Orobanche and Striga problem are: Crop rotation Abandon susceptible crops Use resistant varieties (Abshir and Gobiye for Striga and Walki for Orobanche) Improve the fertility status of soil by applying FYM, use compost, plant legume crops and improve fallowing Use sorghum transplants. Disease Use of rust free clean seeds Use of rust resistant varieties. Waterlogging Construction of deep drainage canals to avoid excess water from the field such as furrows constructed by the farmers cannot solve the problem. The source of excess water/flooding in farms comes from the neighbouring Hashenge village Conduct trials if rice can grow in such waterlogged areas. However, some farmers said that rice has been tried before but not successful as the area is too cold for rice to grow. Livestock production constraints The farmers identified only two constraints in the livestock production sub-sector: Shortage of animal feed The village has a rangeland near Lake Hashenge, however, its size has been diminishing because farmers have been expanding their farmlands on to this land. Oxen and newly delivered cows graze on this rangeland. Cut-and-carry system is not practised. These days free grazing is not recommended some farmers believe that it has contributed to the shortage of animal feed. Although there are ample area closures in the village, small ruminants are allowed to graze on forest lands, making the harvesting of grasses difficult. Table 21: Calendar on animal feed availability for the Menkere kebele Feed source/type Availability calendar Type of animal fed Straw Serves from February September All types of cattle Stalk of maize/sorghum January March lactating cow and oxen Hay March June Oxen and lactating cows Green weeds August October All cattle Crop residue October January All Grazing land January, May and September Only oxen Livestock diseases Farmers said that there is a reduction in the prevalence of livestock diseases in the village. However, there are still some diseases that need attention. The major livestock types in Menkere village, their diseases, and time of occurrence are presented in Table

45 Table 22: Major types of livestock type of disease and time of occurrence in Menkere Type of animal Type of disease Symptom Measures taken by farmers Time of occurrence Cattle Darobota Reduce appetite but animals continue eating Hot metal treatment May and September Sheep Diarrhoea Diarrhoea Medical treatment October Chicken Kimble Sudden death Medical treatment May and June Table 23: Livestock constraints prioritised using pair-wise ranking in Menkere Problem Livestock Disease Feed shortage Score Ranking Livestock diseases (LD) X FS 0 2 Feed shortage (FS) X 1 1 Best practices in livestock production Shortage of feed Improve the quality of the rangeland with better fodder varieties Practice cut-and-carry system Reduce herd size Replace existing breeds by few and productive crossbreed cows Use available feeds efficiently Plant fodder legume trees and shrubs near farm boundaries and irrigated fields. Livestock diseases Regular follow-up of livestock vaccination and medication programmes Cleaning sheds of livestock. Summary of findings In Menkere there are two major constraints to agricultural production weeds and yellow rust. Some of the key problem weeds are Orobanche minor (affects beans), Striga hermonthica (affects sorghum) and wild oat (affects wheat and barley). Orobanche and Striga are parasitic weeds that weaken the host plants by absorbing their nutrients. Orobanche is the most difficult weed to control. It affects the host crops before it emerges out of the soil. Striga can be controlled by improving the fertility (particularly nitrogen (N)) status of the soil, using transplants, crop rotation, intercropping cereals with legumes, pulling the weed by hand during flowering, using trap and catch crops and using resistant varieties. Similarly, Orobanche can be controlled through strict quarantine, crop rotation with non-host crops or with catch and trap crops, hand pulling, deep ploughing to expose the seeds to high temperatures, improving soil fertility, using resistant varieties and using chemicals. Wild oat weeds can be identified by experienced farmers even in their vegetative stages, but there are many farmers who cannot identify the weed at this stage. Training therefore needs to be given to farmers to be able to identify the weed at an early stage so that it can be removed at the right time. Yellow rust is becoming a devastating disease in the highland villages. Wheat varieties that were previously resistant to the disease are becoming susceptible. The disease thrives in moist windy weather and affects wheat during the flowering and grain filling stages. There is no feasible control measure except for the use of resistant varieties. Other constraints to production include the shortage of animal feed, waterlogging, and livestock diseases. 34

46 Community workshop Views of the community on the main findings After conducting the PRA survey in eight CASCAPE and two non-cascape kebeles in Southern Tigray, a similar scoping study was conducted in all the five CASCAPE woredas with relevant offices of the government and other NGOs active in the woreda. The information obtained from the communities was presented at the woreda level to stakeholders from the CASCAPE kebeles. The group comprised women, youth, model and non-model farmers, AGP focal person, Office of Agriculture and Rural development staff, Water, Mining and Energy office staff, Women s Affairs, Youth Affairs and the Woreda Administration. The consultation workshop took place in Korem, the centre of the woreda. During the workshop, the important information gathered from the community and that of the Woreda offices focusing mainly on the constraints and possible solutions was discussed and participants commented it both in plenary and in groups. The summarised thematic areas derived from the PRA survey and scoping studies was also presented. The aims of the consultation workshop were to: create a common understanding on the constraints and opportunities identified at all levels of the study triangulate the issues investigated in the PRA and scoping study refine the issues that have been identified and screen what has been missed during the survey and scoping identify the issues which require common attention in future intervention. Some of the comments and views of the participants were the following: prevalence of diseases affecting honeybees is becoming a serious problem in the woreda. Focus research into this area so as to address this problem soil types and their nutritional status in the woreda are not well studied. In the PRA study an attempt was made to classify the soils based on farmers classification criteria, but this is not scientific. The question is whether CASCAPE can participate in such an activity? After the group discussion, the following points were raised as themes to be considered by CASCAPE: Capacity building Small-scale agro-processing Strengthening FTCs Addressing siltation of Lake Hashenge Seed supply system Limiting free grazing. The blanket fertiliser recommendation for all crops across different agro-ecologies needs to be revisited. The same fertiliser types are available all the time. The support of research institutions is very important to solving some of the prevailing agricultural production problems. To this end, MU-CASCAPE is expected to involve them in this regard. Community plan After presenting the findings from the PRA survey and scoping studies, IT members presented possible thematic areas to be implemented by CASCAPE in the coming years. Working groups on natural resource management (NRM), socio-economic, and agricultural production were formed. Participants then 35

47 discussed and commented on the themes in these groups. They were also asked to come up with a list of themes that MU-CASCAPE needed to focus on in the coming years. Summary of findings The consultation workshop took place in Korem, the centre of the woreda. Participants comprised farmers from the two kebeles (Hashenge and Menkere), staff from different offices operating at the woreda level and the Woreda administration. The workshop helped the MU-CASCAPE team to further analyse the information collected and to make use of the opportunity to present to participants once again the objectives of the project and the areas to be focused on in the coming 3 4 years, bearing in mind the problems that farmers currently face in the field and contribute to improving agricultural production. Long list of potential innovation themes The following is the list of summarised interventions or innovation themes along with their justification. Table 24: Possible topics for thematic areas and their justification SN Theme Justification Source 1 In situ moisture harvesting practices 1.1 Construction of WHS on farm 1.2 Introduce modified Tie-ridger 2 Enhance water use efficiency for cash and fruit trees 2.1 Establish family Drips integrated with pond/ fertigation 3 Swampy area management option 3.1 Demonstration of rice varieties on swampy area in the highlands and lowlands 4 Demonstration on the use of biofertilisers 4.1 FYM and compost use on crop lands Soil moisture is taken as the prime problem in the production process especially with regard to the application of fertiliser. Moisture stress is commonly manifested during the onset and offset of the rain season. The application of WHS in individual farm can reduce the rescue of moisture stress During the dry seasons water shortage suffers cash and fruits tree in the low land kebeles where there is high potential of growing such crops. So that the establishment of drip irrigation where there is access of pond at house hold level will eliminate the moisture deficiency so that the farmers can attain continuous production throughout the year There are arable lands which could not be used to grow crops during the rainy season because of waterlogging as a result of the soil characteristics and relative position of the land. These arable lands are mostly considered as unproductive in rainy seasons so that farmers inefficiently use it by residual moisture at the dry season (end of the rainfall). The introduction of rice crop on such swampy areas where other major crops cannot be grown in excess moisture would be an opportunity to produce rice in the wet season The use of animal manure has been given less attention by the farmers and development agents. Meanwhile, there are some model farmers who apply manure to fertilise their farm and improve land productivity. Therefore, to demonstrate the proper application of manure in farmlands would be one of the solutions to reduce moisture stress and enhance soil fertility. Assessment of impact on productivity, Fertiliser cost is believed to be unaffordable by the farmers in the highland. They suggest subsidy from the government PRA PRA PRA 36

48 Table 24: Possible topics for thematic areas and their justification (continued) SN Theme Justification Source Inoculants for legume crops 5 Livestock health management 5.1 Vet post development Most farmers do not use chemical fertilisers to boost legume crop production and the land used to produce legume is considers as low fertile/poor. To increase the production of legumes the application of inoculants would be one way and farmers can easily adopt the technology that is low cost and environmentally sound. Some inoculants will be tried on faba bean and field pea, and Dekoko in the highlands. Dekoko is also possible on the highlands. Enhance soil fertility; low cost; rational crop Livestock diseases are identified as most important constraints; there is low distribution of health clinics and few trained people. Capacity building PRA 5.2 Training of para-vets at the tabia level 6 Small Scale Mechanisation 6.1 Small-scale tractor technology FHH farming support to enable them to cultivate their land PRA 6.2 Raw planter technology/plough mounted/ 7 Market value chain development for wheat, beans; vegetable; live animals; dairy 8 Enhancing access to credit and saving Organising local credit and saving institutions 9 Institutional interventions: Capacity building Lobbying There is expansion of high-value crop production and vegetables; Common interest groups (CIG) are involved on sheep and goat fattening; irrigation development is expanding. Marketing is a big challenge and needs to be addressed if surplus production is going to be mobilised. There is need for: Agri-entrepreneurship training Market information Strengthening cooperatives Negotiation power Storage Value addition Credit is very important to resource-poor farmers who cannot finance agricultural input purchase from their own savings. It is a source of cash for purchasing agricultural inputs such as inorganic fertiliser, farm implements, pesticides and improved seed varieties for those who cannot afford to finance from their own income sources. In the study area, there are different types of credit provision patterns that help the farmers avoid their problem with respect to purchasing power of inputs. The DECSI is the usual and mostly the only option for credit in many PAs of the woredas. Some locally established credit and saving institutions proved to be supportive to their members. They provide credit at a lower interest. to help the farmers purchase farm inputs Poor institutional development in marketing, support services PRA PRA PRA 37

49 Table 24: Possible topics for thematic areas and their justification (continued) SN Theme Justification Source 10 Empowering rural women through demonstration and capacitating on different potato food processing and preservation 11 Nutrient rich food formulation from local resources; Bio-fortified crop experimentation; Green leafy vegetables; 12 Crop diseases management 13 Improving seed supply system /partnership with LSB and other actors in the field) 14 Crop pests and weed management; crop husbandry There is knowledge gap on farmers both men and women on potato food processing and preservation technology in the highlands; The potato varieties (Jalleni and Gera) are known for their high production. Moreover they outsmart other varieties in their taste and colour. They are also suitable for many food processing Nutrition deficiency; iron deficiency The major crop disease raised is rust on wheat. Wheat varieties known to resist the disease are becoming susceptible and being abandoned. Loss of yield from this disease can go up to 50% Farmers are abandoning previously used local landraces because of their susceptibility to diseases, long growth periods, and susceptible to lodging. Hence, they are looking for new varieties of the major crops to solve these problems. There is need to enhance the negotiation capability of seed producers Crop pests like stalk borer threaten sorghum and maize, shoot fly attacks teff, rodents attack all cereals, having a detrimental impact on crop yields. Parasitic weeds like Orobanche (which affects pulses) and Striga (which affects sorghum) are serious problems in highland and lowland areas, respectively. Not weeding crops at the right time is also a problem. PRA PRA PRA PRA PRA 15 Training needs assessment and Livestock health management 16 Capacity building through training in animal husbandry and manual development to beneficiary Limited knowledge and skills on crop husbandry is raised as a problem for the overall reduction on crop yields. As the PRA survey result indicated livestock disease is identified as second major constraints of animal production next to feed shortage in Southern Tigray. Strengthening the vet service of the area through capacity building of experts and farmers in the area can also sustainably solve the problem The farmers have low awareness on animal husbandry and delivering training to farmers, DAS and expertise is the main issue PRA PRA 38

50 Evaluation of PRA process by the team The first step towards preparing a development strategy is the characterisation of the entire farming system and identification and prioritisation of constraints in active collaboration with the community, sector offices, and other key stakeholders. As a consequence, a PRA study was conducted in five woredas in the Southern Tigray region, namely, Raya-Azebo and Raya-Alamata, Ofla, Endamehoni and Emba Alaje woredas. Prior to the study, there was insufficient information available to be able to gain a good understanding of the different aspects of the farming system in Southern Tigray. In addition to this, there was very little information from the farmers perspective with respect to the key community problems given the social and economic dimensions. It is for this reason that the scope of the study was limited to farm- and community-level based information. All of the methods used to assess the agricultural sector were oriented towards getting information primarily on crops, livestock, natural resource management and socio-economic conditions. Two major data collection techniques were used: desk review of published and unpublished documents on the Tigray Region, Southern zone of Tigray and the study on woredas a range of PRA tools was used. See section on Introduction. Very little analysis was done on the beekeeping, forestry and horticulture sub-sectors. Also, not much analysis was carried out on women s groups (i.e. problem analysis) and institutions (i.e. institutional analysis). Nevertheless, information gathered from the Southern zone office, TARI, AARC, the woreda agriculture offices, the agricultural extension offices at the kebele level as well as from members of the communities from the kebeles served to strengthen overall farming system identification. To this end, the information in this report is believed to be indicative of the existing farming systems in Southern Tigray and will help shape future intervention and up-scaling of best practices. 39

51 Annexes Tools used during the study Environmental conditions 1. Abundant resources per community group Tool: Wealth ranking and soil mapping and characterisation Group composition: 3 MHH,1 FHH and 2 model farmers Facilitator(s): Abrehaley (rural development and agricultural extension (RDAE)) and Yemane (NRM) Observed limitations: the composition and representations was not balanced Problems during exercise: different understanding on stratifying the HH base on wealth/resources 2. Scarce resources per community groups. Tool: Wealth ranking and soil mapping and characterisation Group composition:3 MHH,1 FHH and 2 model farmers Facilitator(s):Abrhaley (RDAE) and Yemane (NRM) Observed limitations: the composition and representations was not balanced Problems during exercise 3. Problematic resources Tool: Resource mapping, transact walk, pair wise ranking and soil mapping and characterisation Group composition: 5 MHH, 3 FHH and 2 model farmers Facilitator(s): Yemane(NRM) and Abrhaley(RDAE) Observed limitations:no Problems during exercise: long dialog for mapping 4. Access to land per community group Tool: Focus group discussion Group composition: 2 FHH, 2 Male HH and 2 youth Facilitator(s): Abrhaley( RDAE) and Alem(Agr) Observed limitations: not quiet Problems during exercise: not quite 5. Fertility distribution of the land Tool: Soil mapping and characterisation and transact walking Group composition: 2 male HH and 2 model farmers Facilitator(s):Yemane (NRM) Observed limitations: soil mapping was only to arable land, does not consider other land use type Problems during exercise: No 6. Decisions making on land allocation Tool: Group discussion Group composition: 5 Male HH, 3 Female HH and 2 model farmers Facilitator(s): Abrhaley (RDAE) Observed limitations: No Problems during exercise: No 7. Collection of water and firewood Tool: Group discussion Group composition: 5 Male HH, 3 Female HH and 2 model farmers Facilitator(s):Abrhaley (RDAE) Observed limitations:no Problems during exercise: No 40

52 8. Livestock grazing Tool: Resource mapping, transact walking and soil mapping and characterisation(management of closure areas) Group composition: 5 Male HH, 3 Female HH and 2 model farmers Facilitator(s): Yemane(NRM) Observed limitations: No Problems during exercise: during mapping the grazing land is located as problematic area (swampy) and as potential for grazing but we take it as potential 9. Environmental constraints Tool: transact walking, resource mapping, soil mapping and group discussion Group composition: 5 Male HH, 3 Female HH and 2 model farmers Facilitator(s): Abrhaley and Yemane Observed limitations: it requires more tools to identify all possible constraint Problems during exercise: shorter time to see the constraints exhaustively Socio-economic conditions Village boundaries with regard to social interaction and social services Tool: FGD, Venn diagram, social mapping Group composition: 8 men and 3 women for Hashenge; 7 men and 6 women from Menkere Facilitator(s): RDAE expert Livestock expert; NRM expert Observed limitations: No Problems during exercise: No Demographic characteristics Tool: Key informant interview Group composition: 1 male (DA) Facilitator(s): RDAE expert Observed limitations: No Problems during exercise: No Main economic activities Tool: FGD, Venn diagram, social mapping Group composition: 8 men and 3 women from Hashenge; 7 men and 6 women from Menkere Facilitator(s): RDAE expert, Livestock expert, NRM expert Observed limitations: No Problems during exercise: No Livelihoods Tool: FGD, Venn diagram, social mapping Group composition: 8 males and 3 females for Hashenge; 7 males and 6 females from Menkere Facilitator(s): RDAE expert, Livestock expert, NRM expert Observed limitations: No Problems during exercise: No Access to finance Tool: FGD, Venn diagram, social mapping Group composition: 8 males and 3 females for Hashenge; 7 males and 6 females for Menkere Facilitator(s): RDAE expert; Livestock expert; NRM expert Observed limitations: No Problems during exercise: No 41

53 Access to markets Tool: FGD, Venn diagram, social mapping Group composition: 8 men and 3 women from Hashenge; 7 men and 6 women from Menkere Facilitator(s): RDAE expert, Livestock expert, NRM expert Observed limitations: No Problems during exercise: No Main economic constraints Tool: FGD, pair-wise ranking Group composition: 11 males and 5 females for Hashenge; 10 males and 6 females for Menkere Facilitator(s): RDAE expert, Livestock expert, NRM expert, Agronomist Observed limitations: No Problems during exercise: No Actor landscape Organisations/institutions/groups working in or with the community. Tool: FGD, Venn diagram, Social mapping, transect walk Group composition: 6 males and 2 females for Hashenge; 5 males and 3 females for Menkere Facilitator(s): RDAE expert, NRM expert, Livestock expert Observed limitations: No Problems during exercise: No Most important institutions/groups Tool: FGD, Venn diagram, Social mapping, transect walk Group composition: 6 males and 2 females for Hashenge; 5 males and 3 females for Menkere Facilitator(s): RDAE expert, NRM expert, Livestock expert Observed limitations: No Problems during exercise: No Groups addressing household food security and nutrition issues Tool: FGD, Venn diagram, Social mapping, transect walk Group composition: 6 males and 2 females for Hashenge; 5 males and 3 females for Menkere Facilitator(s): RDAE expert, NRM expert, Livestock expert Observed limitations: No Problems during exercise: No Which organisations work together? Tool: FGD, Venn diagram Group composition: 4 males and 2 females for Hashenge; 5 males and 3 females for Menkere Facilitator(s): RDAE expert, NRM expert, Livestock expert Observed limitations: No Problems during exercise: No Gender groups Tool: FGD Group composition: 4 men and 2 women from Hashenge; 5 men and 3 women from Menkere Facilitator(s): RDAE expert, NRM expert, Livestock expert Observed limitations: No Problems during exercise: No Exclusion of groups or kind of people from groups Tool: FGD Group composition: 4 men and 2 women from Hashenge; 5 men and 3 women from Menkere Facilitator(s): RDAE expert, NRM expert, Livestock expert Observed limitations: No Problems during exercise: No 42

54 Agricultural production conditions Main cultivated crops; livestock Tool: SSI, proportional piling, FGD Group composition: 1 elderly, 1 youth, 1 woman, 2 model farmers, 1 non model farmer Facilitator(s): Agronomist Observed limitations: No Problems during exercise: No Prevalent practices:crops / livestock Tool: SSI, seasonal calendar, FGD Group composition: 1 elderly, 1 youth, 1woman, 2 model farmers, 1 non model farmer Facilitator(s): Agronomist Observed limitations: No Problems during exercise: No Organisation of agricultural input Tool: SSI, FGD Group composition: 1 woman, 1 elderly, 1 model farmer Facilitator(s): Agronomist Observed limitations: No Problems during exercise: No Agricultural production constraints Tool: FGD, pair-wise ranking Group composition: 2 elderly, 3 youth, 4 women, 4 model farmers, 2 non model farmers Facilitator(s): Agronomist, RDAE, livestock expert Observed limitations: No Problems during exercise: No Community workshop Views of the community on the main findings Tool(s): Focus group discussion and group discussion Group composition: female, youth, model, non-model farmers and staff of Woreda offices, NGO Facilitator(s): Dr Girmay G/Samuel and Alem G/tsadik Observed limitations: No Problems during exercise: No Community plan Tool: FGD Group composition: as above Facilitator(s): Staff members from sector offices Observed limitations: there was more expectation from CASCAPE project by participants Problems during exercise: No 43