PARTICIPATORY RURAL APPRAISAL REPORT: OFLA WOREDA, TIGRAY REGION

Transcription

1 applie PARTICIPATORY RURAL APPRAISAL REPORT: OFLA WOREDA, TIGRAY REGION Girmay Tesfay Girmay Gebresamuel Alem Gebretsadik Abrhaley Gebrelibanos Yemane Gebremeskel Tesfay Hagos CASCAPE WORKING PAPER 2.6.3

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3 PARTICIPATORY RURAL APPRAISAL REPORT: OFLA WOREDA, TIGRAY REGION Girmay Tesfay Girmay Gebresamuel Alem Gebretsadik Abrhaley Gebrelibanos Yemane Gebremeskel Tesfay Hagos January 2014

4 The CASCAPE project is designed to assist the activities deployed under the Agricultural Growth Programme (AGP) by further strengthening the capacity of AGP stakeholders in identifying, documenting and disseminating best practices in agricultural production. CASCAPE is jointly executed by Ethiopian researchers from Jimma University, Haramaya University, Bahir Dar University, Hawassa University, Mekelle University, Addis Ababa University and Dutch researchers from Wageningen University and Research Centre. In each site researchers from the universities and from the RARIs from different disciplines work on the CASCAPE project. The CASCAPE project is financed by the Dutch Ministry of Foreign Affairs through the Embassy of the Kingdom of The Netherlands. CASCAPE technical report series are meant to document activities and findings of field work. They are reviewed by the CASCAPE management team and are available on the projects website: CASCAPE technical reports are numbered according to topic (level 1), region (level 2) and, where applicable, woreda (level 3). The topics include: 1 = Results of national support activities 2 = Results of the participatory rural appraisals (PRA) per region and woreda 3 = Results of the baseline survey per region 4 = Results of the innovation theme experiments per region 5 = Results of the MonQI toolbox per region More topics may follow during the course of the project. Level 2 headings refer to regions in alphabetical order viz. 1) Addis Ababa, 2) Bahir Dar, 3) Haramaya, 4) Hawassa, 5) Jimma and 6) Mekelle regions. For example technical report 3.2 refers to the series on the baseline survey for Bahir Dar region.

5 Contents List of abbreviations and acronyms... viii Executive summary... xi Introduction... 1 Description of the woreda and selected kebeles... 2 Results: Hashenge kebele... 3 Environmental conditions... 3 Abundant resources per community group... 3 Scarce resources per community group... 4 Problematic resources... 4 Access to land per community group... 4 Soil fertility... 4 Decision-making on land allocation... 6 Collection of water and firewood... 6 Livestock grazing... 6 Environmental constraints... 7 Best practices... 7 Summary of findings... 7 Socio-economic conditions... 8 Village boundaries with regard to social interaction and social services... 8 Demographic characteristics... 8 The main economic activities... 8 Livelihoods... 8 Access to finance... 9 Access to markets... 9 Economic constraints... 9 Best practices Summary of findings Actor landscape Organisations/institutions/groups that are working with the community Most important institutions/groups Groups addressing household food security and nutrition issues Organisations working together Gender-based groups Exclusion of groups or people from groups Best practices Gender analysis Agricultural production conditions Main crops cultivated Livestock Prevalent practices (crops) Prevalent practices (livestock) Organisation of agricultural inputs Agricultural crop production constraints Best practices Livestock production constraints Best practices (livestock) Summary of findings v

6 Results: Menkere kebele Environmental conditions Abundant resources per community group Scarce resources per community group Problematic resources Access to land per community group Soil fertility Decision-making on land allocation Collection of water and firewood Livestock grazing Environmental constraints Best practices Summary of findings Socio-economic conditions Village boundaries with regard to social interaction and social services Demographic characteristics Main economic activities Livelihoods Access to finance Access to markets Main economic constraints Summary of findings Actor landscape Organisations/institutions/groups that are working with the community Most important institutions/groups Groups addressing household food security and nutrition issues Organisations working together Gender-based groups Exclusion of groups or kind of people from groups Best practices Summary of findings Gender analysis Agricultural production conditions Livestock Prevalent practices (crops) Prevalent practices (livestock) Organisation of agricultural inputs Agricultural production constraints Crop production contraints Livestock production constraints Best practices in livestock production Summary of findings Community workshop Views of the community on the main findings Community plan Summary of findings Long list of potential innovation themes Evaluation of PRA process by the team Annexes Tools used during the study vi

7 List of figures Figure 1: Location of the Ofla woreda... 2 Figure 2: Resource map of Hashenge kebele... 4 Figure 3: Soil map of the Hashenge kebele... 5 Figure 4: Model farmer, Molla Shikuru, and his use of FYM... 6 Figure 5: Overstocking in the Hashenge kebele... 7 Figure 6: Resource map of Menkere drawn by farmers and redrawn by IT Figure 7: Map of arable soils in Menkere kebele List of tables Table 1: Summary of major agricultural production constraints in the Ofla woreda... xii Table 2: Trend analysis of resources in the Hashenge kebele over the past 10 Ethiopian years... 3 Table 3: Soil type and farmers fertility rating of arable land in the Hashenge kebele... 5 Table 4: Socio-economic problems prioritised using pair-wise ranking (Hashenge PA) Table 5: Distribution of labour by gender in the Hashenge kebele Table 6: Control over and access to major household resources in the Hashenge kebele Table 7: Share of crops grown in the Hashenge kebele Table 8: Crop production constraints prioritised using pair-wise ranking in Hashenge Table 9: Calendar of livestock diseases as provided by participant farmers Table 10: Livestock problems prioritised using pair-wise ranking in Hashenge Table 11: Trend analysis of resources in the Menkere kebele over the past 10 Ethiopian years Table 12: Soil type and farmers fertility rating of soils in the Menkere kebele Table 13: Socio-economic problems prioritised using pair-wise ranking in Menkere PA Table 14: Socio-economic problems and proposed solutions in Menkere PA Table 15: Summary of farmers main activities in Menkere kebele Table 16: Distribution of labour by gender in the Menkere kebele Table 17: Control over and access to major household resources in Menkere Table 18: Share field crops cultivated in the Menkere kebele Table 19: Share of livestock types in the Menkere kebele Table 20: Crop production constraints prioritised using pair-wise ranking in Menkere Table 21: Calendar on animal feed availability for the Menkere kebele Table 22: Major types of livestock type of disease and time of occurrence in Menkere Table 23: Livestock constraints prioritised using pair-wise ranking in Menkere Table 24: Possible topics for thematic areas and their justification vii

8 List of abbreviations and acronyms AGP AARC CA CASCAPE CD CF CIG DAP DECSI DLS EIAR F FAO FGD FHH FTC FYM GO H HH IT kg LD LSB masl MHH MS MU N NGO NRM OoARD P PE PA PB PR PRA RDAE REST S SISS SN TARI TR WFP WHS W Agricultural Growth Programme Alamata Agricultural Research Centre Credit access Capacity Building for Scaling up of Evidenced-based Best Practices in Agricultural Production in Ethiopia Crop diseases Cost of fertiliser Common interest group Diammonium phosphate Dedebit Credit and Savings Institution Diffused light store Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research Frost Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Focus group discussion Female-headed household Farmer training centre Farmyard manure Government organisation hail Household Innovation team kilogram Livestock disease Local Seed Business project metres above sea level Male-headed household Moisture stress Mekelle University Nitrogen Non-government organisation Natural resource management Office of Agriculture and Rural Development Potassium Pests Peasant association Poor breed type Predator Participatory rural appraisal Rural development and agricultural extension Relief Society of Tigray Storage Shortage of improved seed supply serial number Tigray Agricultural Research Institute Transport World Food Programme (United Nations) Water harvesting structure Weeds viii

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10 Executive summary A participatory rural appraisal (PRA) study was conducted by MU-CASCAPE innovation team (IT) members in five woredas (10 kebeles/villages) in Southern Tigray. The study covered the highland woredas of Alaje (Atsela and Ayba kebeles), Endamehoni (Mekan and Simret kebeles) and Ofla (Hashenge and Menkere kebeles) and the lowland woredas of Raya Alamata (Tumuga and Garjale kebeles) and Raya Azebo (Tsigea and Genete kebeles). The main objectives of the study were to gain an insight into the physical and socio-economic potential of the area, identify existing constraints and possible solutions, and suggest best practices and research questions. In carrying out the study, the elderly, men, women and youth from various woredas were consulted. They also included rich and poor farmers from model and non-model farms. The PRA tools used by the IT members to learn about the communities were: resource maps, transect walks, semistructured interviews, focus group discussions, timelines, wealth ranking, proportional piling, seasonal calendars, Venn diagrams, and pair-wise ranking. Ofla is richly endowed with surface and ground water. Agriculture is primarily rain-fed, relying on the kiremt rains. The woreda has fertile soils, a plain, and water resources. Mixed farming is widely practised in the kebeles, Hashenge and Menkere. The main crops grown are barley, faba bean, maize, sorghum and wheat. Cabbage, beetroot, potato and tomato are important vegetable crops grown there. Other activities include the rearing of cattle, sheep, chickens, donkeys, goats, horses and beekeeping. Lake Hashenge is a good source of fish for the two communities and there is the potential for the lake to be used for irrigation purposes. Waterlogging along the peripheries of the lake, however, poses somewhat of a constraint to crop production and solutions such as the identification of rice varieties best suited to this environment are being sought. The main environmental constraints facing the kebeles are deforestation, free grazing and soil erosion. Examples of best practices aimed at addressing these problems are the implementation of soil and water conservation measures, the planting of trees, area closure of upper catchments to reduce the degradation of natural resources, and improving soil fertility management practices. Socio-economic conditions such as demography, economic activities and livelihood, market access, financing and economic constraints were explored in the woreda. Community-based institutions are recognised as playing a vital role in the kebeles in terms of identifying the right beneficiaries and in solving the root causes of social problems within the communities. The main socio-economic constraints in the Hashenge kebele include poor storage and transport facilities as well as limited access to credit. The high cost of fertiliser is the main constraint in the Menkere kebele. Constructing diffused light stores with local materials and establishing savings and loan groups at the village level will help address storage and credit problems in Hashenge, while promoting the use of organic fertilisers in Menkere will help offset the cost of inorganic fertilisers. The major agricultural production constraints facing the Ofla woreda and recommended best practices are summarised in Table 1. xi

11 Table 1: Summary of major agricultural production constraints in the Ofla woreda Subsector Constraint Suggested best practices Crop Crop diseases Use resistant varieties and clean, disease-free seeds Livestock Crop pests Inputs Storage Weeds Low productivity of local breeds Shortage of feed for livestock Livestock diseases Allow chickens to feed on worms; use natural and chemical pesticides Use organic fertilisers Construct diffused light stores with local materials Crop rotation with non-host crops; train farmers to identify the weed wild oats Reduce herd size; introduce crossbreed Reduce herd size; promote the efficient use of available feeds; plant fodder crops; implement a cut-and-carry system Keep livestock sheds clean and properly ventilated; ensure timely vaccination and treatment of livestock; xii

12 Introduction Since June 2011, the MU-CASCAPE project has been active in the in the southern zone of Tigray (Southern Tigray) as part of efforts to support the Agricultural Growth Programme (AGP). The project is designed to demonstrate integrated best practices to the AGP implementation team so as to raise awareness on the need for an integrated farming systems approach to agricultural production. So as to address various dimensions of community problems, it is imperative to design technically sound, economically feasible and culturally acceptable research, extension and development strategies. To this end, MU-CASCAPE initiated a participatory rural appraisal (PRA) study in Southern Tigray. The main objectives of the study were to assess the farming systems, identify and prioritise agricultural production constraints and possible solutions, and suggest research directions. The study was conducted in five woredas, namely: Raya Azebo and Raya Alamata: lowland agro-ecology areas Ofla, Endamehoni and Alaje: highland areas To achieve the objectives, two main data collection techniques were used. A desk study of documents on Tigray, in particular, Southern Tigray and the woreda study area was carried out to provide a broad overview of the existing farming systems. The study also made use of different PRA tools to collect the required information from the communities and sector offices. A mix of different tools was used, depending on the context and type of information required, see Annexes. The tools were applied sequentially and included: Timelines: used to get a historical impression of the development of the area and learn about key changes in the kebeles. Within the context of the study, it was useful in making the changes over time visible, encouraged discussions on the reasons for these changes, drew out associated perceptions and values and raised questions about future trends. Elderly and long-term residents were involved in the discussions and accounts were taken from them about the area General resource and social mapping techniques: used to identify natural resource problems and opportunities. People who knew about the area and were willing to share their knowledge participated in the mapping process. The areas and boundaries of the kebeles were sketched on the ground using local materials such as sticks, leaves, sorghum stalks, and stones and copied on to papers using coloured markers Transect walks: these involved systematic walks with key informants through an area of interest. Here observation, the asking of questions, and listening were key activities performed during the process. The findings were mapped on to a transect diagram and strata formed based on governing parameters such as altitude and farm behaviour Wealth ranking: used to gain an understanding of the distribution of wealth in the community. It was based on how people within the community understand well-being and poverty. They set the criteria used for the ranking of the community Proportional pilling: used to determine the percentage of each wealth category among the households in the kebeles and to understand the share of crops grown, livestock, soil types, etc. Other tools used included focus group discussions (FGDs), pair-wise ranking, semi-structured interviews (SSIs) and Venn diagrams. 1

13 Description of the woreda and selected kebeles The Ofla woreda is geographically located between and north latitude and and east longitude, ranging in altitude from m. Long-term meteorological data indicate that the mean annual rainfall is between mm with mean daily temperatures ranging from ºC. It shares common borders with the Endamehoni woreda in the north, Raya Alamta to the south, Amhara regional state in the west and Raya Azebo to the east. Ofla comprises 19 kebeles and is characterised by two major agro-ecologies lowlands and highlands. Two of the 19 kebeles, namely Hashenge and Menkere, are located in the highland areas. Total land area in Ofla is estimated at 133,500 hectares. There are 25,275 hectares of arable land, 3,382 hectares are under forest, 44,000 hectares are grazing lands and 22,275 hectares fall under others. Arable land in the CASCAPE kebeles Hashenge and Menkere cover an area of 1,045 and 1,779 hectares, respectively. Both project sites touch on Lake Hashenge (which has an area of just under 1,378 hectares) and, as a result, fishing is an important activity in the communities. The lake also serves as a source of water for irrigated lands. This is done by directly pumping the water from the lake or by digging shallow wells on the farms bordering the lake. The woreda has a population of 141,585. MU-CASCAPE PROJECT WOREDAS N W E S OFLA WOREDA Kilometers Figure 1: Location of the Ofla woreda Major cereal crops grown in the woreda include barley, maize, sorghum and wheat. Faba bean, field pea and lentil are important pulses there. Monoculture is the dominant cropping system cereals, mainly wheat, are rotated with faba bean aimed at restoring soil fertility. Rainfall is bimodal, there is a short rainy season between February and May, and a long rainy season between June and September. The main livestock types are cattle, sheep and goats. They provide draught power, food and income. The main source of feed comes from communal grazing lands in the community and crop residue obtained from barley, maize, sorghum and wheat. 2

14 Results: Hashenge kebele Environmental conditions The village of Hashenge is nestled just under the mountain peaks and is bordered on one side by Lake Hashenge. Trend analysis was used to depict environmental changes over the past 10 years. The information was obtained from the farmers in the area and is presented in the table below. Table 2: Trend analysis of resources in the Hashenge kebele over the past 10 Ethiopian years Farmers explanations for the changes in the resources were: Land: cultivated land has shown little decrease in area over the last 10 years. Based on discussions in the FGD, participants believe that some of the cultivable lands, especially farms along hillsides, have been turned into either area enclosures or forest. These enclosures have been given to youths to act as a source of wood (to be used as firewood and for construction materials purposes) Grazing area: there is a vast area of rangeland bordering on Lake Hashenge. The area of the rangeland fluctuates from time to time during heavy rainy seasons parts of this land becomes swampy and as a result the area of grazing lands shrinks Swampy area: Except during heavy rain seasons where some part of the rangeland becomes swampy, the general trend is that swamp areas have been decreasing over the last 10 years and changing into grazing area Forest area: this area has been increasing as a whole. Some areas which were formerly covered in crops are now in forest. Abundant resources per community group At the time that arable land was being distributed in the kebele, it was shared equally among households (the amount of land that each family got was based on the size of the households). No group gets any extra resource. It is worthwhile noting that the kebele is endowed with water resources, i.e., Lake Hashenge, which is not yet fully used by the community. 3

15 Figure 2: Resource map of Hashenge kebele Scarce resources per community group Shortage of arable land over time and the problem of landless youth Number and type of cattle: lack of draught animals to prepare farmlands. Problematic resources Shortage of arable land Waterlogging of arable land Erratic rainfall: some time ago there was double cropping which took advantage of the biannual rainfall (kiremt and belg) Poor performance of livestock. Access to land per community group All community members have equal access to land. Soil fertility During soil characterisation and soil mapping, farmers classified the soil of arable land based mainly on its colour and depth. The main classes were: Walka (clay), Red soil and White soil. 4

16 Figure 3: Soil map of the Hashenge kebele The fertility of the arable land is assumed to be decreasing every year. Over 20 years ago productivity was high and chemical fertiliser was not used. Chemical fertiliser was first introduced in 1986 Ethiopian calendar (EC) year. Table 3: Soil type and farmers fertility rating of arable land in the Hashenge kebele No Soil class Prop. (%) 1 Walka (clay) soil 50 Best crop grown Wheat, barley, sorghum and teff 2 Keyih (Red) soil 32 Wheat, barley, maize and vegetables 3 Tsaeda (White) soil Fertility Rating 1 Remark 2 Deposited from hillside 18 Mostly vegetables 3 Dry part of the lake According to the farmers, the type of fertiliser used depends on the type of soils on farmlands. A mix of diammonium phosphate (DAP) and urea is used on Walka soils for crops like wheat, barley and sorghum. In Red soils only urea is used to protect against crop lodging. Where there is optimum soil moisture such as on White soils, a mix of DAP and urea is also used on wheat and barley crops. However, if there is excess moisture crop lodging and fast crop wilting can occur when there is a brief dry spell. The use of animal manure and compost to fertilise farmland is not widely done, however, a few farmers have been applying animal manure mostly on farmlands close to their homesteads. 5

17 Box 1: Case study on the use of FYM Molla Shikuru is a 50 year old farmer who is considered to be one of the innovative farmers in the Hashenge kebele. He has been using FYM over the last four years. Shikuru collects animal manure close to his homestead at three different locations. At each location or collection spot a different type of manure is stored, i.e. cattle, shoats and equines manure. In 2001 EC, Shikuru constructed an underground biogas tanker to provide fuel. Cow dung is used to produce the gas and the by-product is collected in a pit. This by-product is deposited into a heap and left to decompose until it is ready to be used as a fertiliser. Cattle manure is stored under a shed and left to decay during the winter period. The manure is then used on the homestead farm and on the farm far away from the homestead. FYM (about 40 donkey loads per hectare) is taken to these farms before the start of the main rains. It is evenly distributed and ploughed into the land there. On homestead farms, run-off from the roof and floor of houses is channelled to the manure heap and this FYM is later distributed on the farm. Figure 4: Model farmer, Molla Shikuru, and his use of FYM Decision-making on land allocation Land distribution is the task of both the kebele land administration and the kebele administration. They have the responsibility for allocating arable land (i.e., transferring arable land from one to the other) and partitioning the hillside to allocate land to landless youths. Collection of water and firewood Women are responsible for the collection of water and firewood. Livestock grazing The kebele has a vast area allocated for grazing and it has a high potential for grass that can feed animals all year round. Most of the lake is surrounded by grazing area. However, the quality of the grass is poor and needs to be improved. Overstocking was observed during the transact walk. 6

18 Figure 5: Overstocking in the Hashenge kebele Environmental constraints Moisture stress: double cropping on arable land was carried out by the farming community in the past. However, nowadays, there is only one cropping season (kiremt) and because there is also the early cessation of rains there is crop failure Soil erosion: there is run-off from the hills surrounding arable lands, there is erosion and sedimentation on the farmlands Waterlogging: during the summer season, arable lands along the periphery of Lake Hashenge become waterlogged, damaging crops to the extent that there is a total loss of production Overstocking: there are too many livestock on grazing lands, this is aggravated by the declining productivity of grasslands. Best practices Application of water harvesting techniques on catchments and arable lands Select late set crop type in waterlogged areas after the excess moisture is gone Plough the farm and plant chickpea in waterlogged areas Use manure on White soils as it is less responsive to chemical fertiliser Agroforestry provide fencing and shade around homesteads. Summary of findings Agricultural production is very dependent on the amount and seasonality of rainfall. Initially, there were two distinct rainfall periods kiremt and belg sufficient to produce crops twice a year. Nowadays, the production season has been altered and farmers are now forced to produce once a year. The change in the rainfall pattern has also adversely affected the productivity of grazing land, resulting in the poor performance of livestock (i.e., in terms of draught power and milk). The kebele is a highland community which has significant surface and groundwater resources. Lake Hashenge covers about 1,379 hectares and is a source of fish. The lake can also be used to expand the irrigation capacity so as to increase the productive capacity of the area. 7

19 Interventions have been undertaken by the community and individuals to address the environmental constraints there. Best practices observed in the kebele include the implementation of soil and water conservation, planting of trees, protection of closure areas and some soil fertility management practices (manure and use of chemical fertiliser) at the individual level. More attention needs to be paid to the waterlogging problem and the use of the groundwater to increase crop production. The improvement of the grazing land and animal quality will also need to be part of any intervention effort in the future. Socio-economic conditions Village boundaries with regard to social interaction and social services Community-based institutions are common in the kebele, serving the community in different ways. Important informal institutions in the kebele are Kire/Sara,Ofera and Equib. Kire/Sara is a kind of local institution established to undertake different self-help activities in the community. Every individual in the community is expected to be a member of this institution. Individual members are expected to contribute 1 Ethiopian birr each month. If an individual forgets to pay on time, he/she has to pay the principal and a penalty of 0.5 Ethiopian birr daily after the deadline. If an individual member of Sara plans to hold a wedding ceremony, every member is expected to provide a donkey load of firewood in addition to the 1 Ethiopian birr regular contribution. Sara takes care of all necessary materials. Ofera has to do with the mobilisation of labour to perform different agricultural activities such as ploughing, weeding, harvesting, threshing as well as house construction. Elderly and weak community members are served by organising youngsters. Depending on the economic status of the one who is organising the Ofera, he/she can serve the participants with injera, siwa/local beer/kolo/fried wheat or barley grain/ or hinbasha/local bread. Depending on the size of the farmland, people can participate at a time. These days, the community is waking up to the fact that it is costly to serve food and drinks to such a large number of people who participate in the Ofera. Hence, resource poor farmers prefer the kind of labour exchange known as lifnti. In this case, farmers simply offer their labour to each other on a rotational basis; serving with food and drink is optional. Equib is another community-based finance institution voluntarily established to serve the community members to help them save their money. The purpose of this local institution is to provide support for individuals who carry out social ceremonies or have obligations such as a wedding, timket and/or teskar. Each individual usually contributes 100 Ethiopian birr per year, and this varies depending on the nature of the saving institutions. Demographic characteristics The total number of farm households is 2,289 1,449 are male-headed households (MHHs) and 840 are female-headed households (FHHs) 1. The main economic activities Mixed crop-livestock production is the major activity of the farming system in the kebele. Crop production is primarily rain-fed. Livestock production is just as important a component of the farming system as that of crop production. In addition to crop and livestock production, there are some farmers who engage in petty trading in grain, animals and consumable items (on a small scale). Some farmers have homes in the small town of Hashenge, which they rent out for additional income. During the offseason a few farmers travel to the neighbour Amhara and Afar regions to buy animals such as oxen, shoat, and donkeys to sell at Korem, Meswae ti and Maychew markets. Livelihoods The crop-livestock farming system provides a reliable means of livelihood for all the community. However, the sending of remittances is also another source of income, because a significant number of 1 Ofla Woreda Office of Agriculture and Rural Development (OoARD) 2011 Ofla Woreda Office of Agriculture and Rural Development Report (unpublished), Tigray, Ethiopia. 8

20 households have family members abroad, especially in the Middle East (Arab countries). According to the participants, there are more than 100 households who receive remittances from abroad. Access to finance Nowadays, the number of formal credit users in cash or in kind (improved seed, fertiliser, live animals for dairy or fattening) is increasing. The number of local moneylenders providing money at unfair interest rate is decreasing. Dedebit Credit and Savings Institution (DECSI) is the main source of formal cash credit in the area. The participants of the FGD explained that there are two forms of credit from DECSI. The first form of credit, medebegna, is offered on a group basis. A minimum of 3 people form a group and everyone in the group is responsible for the timely repayment of the total amount of money taken by all the three people. If one of the three members of the group fails to pay back the amount he took, the other two are liable for that amount. They can put in a request for credit as once the groups are formed. The other form of credit available is offered on an individual basis in the form of a package. Most farmers like this kind of credit because of the amount of money they can borrow. A drawback however, is that it takes a long time to process the request. Farmers borrow this kind of credit mainly for fattening and dairy cows. Farmers can receive up to 8,000 Ethiopian birr from DECSI at an interest rate of 18%. Farmers can also obtain credit from their locally established credit and savings institution. FGD participants said that the members can borrow up to 6,000 Ethiopian birr at any time without delay. The interest rate offered by the local credit and savings institution is 12%, which is much lower than the interest rate offered by DECSI. The multipurpose cooperative operating in the area is also one of the major sources of credit. The cooperative provides credit in kind mainly in the form of improved seed, chemical fertiliser, beehives, drip irrigation accessories, etc., interest-free. Informal credit sources such as friends, relatives and neighbours also play an important role in providing cash credit to individuals in need of money. Members of the community use these sources mainly to finance urgent social obligations such as a wedding and other social and religious ceremonies. These loans are often interest free, this is in contrast to another informal source local moneylenders (who are currently almost non-existent), who lend money at unfair interest rates. Access to markets The community usually uses the Korem market to sell their agricultural commodities, as well as to purchase consumable items. They also use the small town markets of Meswae ti and Higumbirda to exchange small volumes of agricultural and non-agricultural commodities. As mentioned earlier, some farmers also travel to the neighbouring woredas of the Amhara and Afar region (Woldya, Harle, Kemisie, Sekota, etc.) to purchase primarily animals (oxen, shoat and camel) for trading, grains such as teff and maize are sometimes bought. The flow of market information is very informal. The community members get price information from friends, relatives, and traders who have visited the markets. Those engaged in petty trading of animals, grains and other commodities use mobile telephone so as to find out the prevailing prices in different markets. Economic constraints The main economic constraints in the kebele are a lack of storage, poor transport facilities and poor availability of credit. The storage facilities in this kebele are very traditional, and as a result, the quality of the produce deteriorates quickly. In general, storage facilities are in a poor state all along the production marketing channels and they are responsible for the heavy losses of vegetable crops suffered by farmers and traders. Tomatoes and leafy vegetables are difficult to store and are therefore sold at the time of harvest. Poor access to credit at reasonable interest rates is another economic constraint that hinders subsistence farmers from purchasing improved agricultural inputs. 9

21 Table 4: Socio-economic problems prioritised using pair-wise ranking (Hashenge PA) Problem type Market Storage Transport Credit Score Ranking Market (Mt) X ST TR CA 0 4 t Storage (ST) X ST ST 3 1 Transport (TR) X TR 2 2 Credit access (CA) X 1 3 Based on the pair-wise ranking method, the top ranked socio-economic issues, in order of importance, are storage, transport and credit. Solutions proposed by the farmers of the PA for the first three socio-economic constraints are: Storage o Rent storage from richer farmers o Diffused light store (DLS) made from local materials Transport Transport commodities using pack animals Transport using two wheel carts Credit access Strengthen local cooperatives Best practices Construction of a DLS Producer and marketing cooperatives Promoting village level savings and loan groups Summary of findings In assessing the socio-economic conditions of the village, a range of issues was explored such as social interaction and services rendered by the social institutions, demography, economic activities and livelihood, market access, finance and major economic constraints. The way in which people in the community live and their socio-economic interactions play a key role in supporting subsistence farmers. For example, Idir, Equib as well as other communal institutions are important in identifying the right beneficiaries and addressing root problems in the society. Communitybased institutions like Webera serve the community through mobilising labour and social cooperation. Participants in the FGD emphasised that the development of credit and savings institutions at the kebele level enables needy people to purchase improved agricultural inputs and makes them vulnerable to being exploited by local moneylenders. Mixed crop-livestock production is the major economic activity in the village and forms the basis of livelihood for the members of the community. Inadequate storage facilities, poor transport facility and a lack of credit at reasonable interest rates are the main economic constraints in the kebele. Constructing DLSs with local materials can help alleviate the storage problem. Other economic constraints can be addressed through establishing producer and marketing cooperatives and promoting village level savings and loan groups. These organisations will enhance the bargaining power of producers through the provision of finance and in arranging market access for their produce. 10

22 Actor landscape Organisations/institutions/groups that are working with the community The PRA participants said that the government institutions/organisations working in the community include the kebele administration, agricultural extension, AGP, land administration, school, health post, AARC, etc. Examples of local and international non-government organisations (NGOs) in community are REST and the World Bank, respectively. Most important institutions/groups According to the participants, the most important institution working in the community is the agricultural extension service. Staff train farmers formally and informally, distribute up-to-date market and other information, and facilitate the timely supply of agricultural inputs, etc. Groups addressing household food security and nutrition issues One of the organisations and/or groups directly addressing household food security in the kebele is the Office of Agriculture and Rural Development. WFP is one of the major NGOs focusing primarily on food security and nutrition issues. Organisations working together The farmers taking part in the PRA agreed that all organisations acting in the kebele work closely with the woreda and kebele administrations. Gender-based groups The only gender-based group in the kebele is a women s association, which addresses the interest of women in the community. Exclusion of groups or people from groups Both women and men participants of the PRA have agreed that so far no groups or any kind of people from groups are excluded. Everyone in the community is treated equally. No discrimination has been observed. Best practices Develop closer collaboration with relevant stakeholders like government organisations (GOs), NGOs and farmers organisations (FOs). Summary of findings Many organisations, both GOs and NGOs, work in the community. According to the participants, the extension service is considered to be the most important organisation. All organisations work closely with the woreda and kebele administrations. There is increasing collaboration between government research and extension organisations and NGOs. This has resulted in the formulation of agricultural and rural development strategies. Different organisations and institutions contribute to the food security problem and improving livelihoods and alleviating poverty in the community. Agricultural extension service is directly involved in addressing food security of the community and WFP is operating directly to address the food security and nutrition issues. The only gender-based organisation in the kebele is the women s association, which addresses the interest of women in the community. No one group or person is excluded in the community PRA participants pointed out that developing strong linkages with relevant stakeholders is vital in promoting rural and agricultural development. 11

23 Gender analysis Table 5: Distribution of labour by gender in the Hashenge kebele Type of activity % of total labour hours Men Women Land preparation 100 (8.00 am 1.00 pm) 0 Planting 100 (8.00 am 5.00 pm) 0 Weeding 56 (8.00 am 6.00 pm) 44 (8.00 am 4.00 pm) Harvesting 91 (8.00 am 6.00 pm) 9 (11.00 am am) Threshing 53 (9.00 am 6 pm) 47 (10.00 am 6 pm) Cattle feeding /Supplementary/ 100 (2 hrs) 0 Sheep and goat feeding/supplementary/ 0 0 Water fetching (1 hr) Firewood fetching Cooking and baking (3 hrs) Washing clothes 50 (3 hrs) 50 (3 hrs) Community productive participation Table 6: Control over and access to major household resources in the Hashenge kebele Types of resource Control over Access to Productive resources Male Female Both Male Female Both Land x x Cattle x x Horse x x Donkey x x Shoat x x Chicken x x Crop products Consumable x x Marketable x x Livestock products and byproducts Consumable x x Marketable x x Farm implements x x Natural resources Firewood x x Potable water x x Trees x x 12

24 Agricultural production conditions Main crops cultivated Wheat, maize, barley, faba bean and sorghum are the major crops grown in the village. During dry seasons, the coverage of barley is increased and follows that of wheat in area coverage. Cabbage, beetroot, potato and tomato are the major vegetables grown in the village. Few farmers have started planting apple in their homesteads. Table 7: Share of crops grown in the Hashenge kebele Major crop types Crop share (%) during a season of low rainfall Cereal crops Wheat Maize Barely Faba Bean 7 12 Finger millet Vegetables Irrigated Cabbage 47 Beet root 15 Potato 31 Tomato 7 During a good season Livestock The major livestock types reared in the Hashenge village are cattle, sheep and chicken. Donkeys, goats and honeybees are also reared in the village having lower shares. Prevalent practices (crops) In the Hashenge village, monocrops such as wheat, maize and barley are grown. Wheat is primarily grown on fertile fields. Pulses (e.g., faba bean) are grown in rotation with wheat so as to restore soil fertility. After harvesting the rain-fed crops, chickpeas are planted (until maturity) to take advantage of the residual moisture in the soil. Many wheat and barley varieties that used to be grown in the village are no longer being grown because of their susceptibility to diseases, their long growth periods requirement, and susceptibility to lodging. Farmers therefore depend on a few improved varieties (wheat in particular) and have fewer alternatives to choose from. Farmers apply N and P fertilisers in the form of urea and DAP. However, the rate of fertiliser applied per unit area is lower than recommended. Farmers also apply FYM and compost to farms located near to the homes. Weeding is usually performed a bit late, after the critical period for weed control. This is in part due to the low awareness of the farmers, it is also a way of saving on family labour. Prevalent practices (livestock) Cattle are the predominant livestock type that is reared as a source of traction power, for threshing crops and are considered to be household assets. Sheep are also important to the community and are the second largest livestock group, in actual numbers. The highlands of Hashenge are suited to the rearing of sheep. They graze in areas where there is no grass for cattle. They are in demand and fetch a good price. Goats are also important household assets and can easily be sold when necessary. Their numbers, however, are declining because there are limited areas available to browse many areas are 13

25 now enclosed. Chickens are becoming more popular because they do not require much care, furthermore, they also attract a good price at local markets. Unlike many of the kebeles in the woreda, Hashenge has pasture land near Lake Hashenge. Cattle graze in the pastureland throughout the year. In years gone by, the value of straw was low, because there was no feed problem in the kebele, particularly in the Endaboy Mosa sub-village. Now, the value of straw has increased and there is very little wastage. Organisation of agricultural inputs Agricultural inputs are imported by big unions and companies and distributed to each woreda based on their previous requests. At the village level, multipurpose cooperatives established by the village community distribute inputs like fertilisers. Seeds of improved varieties are distributed by village cooperatives and by the Woreda OoARD. Farmers can purchase agricultural inputs directly (by cash) or they can get the inputs using credit from the village cooperative or through an agreement entered into with DECSI. The interest rate offered by the village cooperative is lower than that of DECSI, so farmers prefer to purchase from their own cooperative. Other farm inputs like pesticides can be directly purchased from the woreda cooperatives. Agricultural crop production constraints The constraints identified by participant farmers in crop production in the village: Moisture stress Crop pests Frost Weeds Shortage of seeds of improved varieties Hail Crop diseases Moisture stress/drought According to the respondents, the Hashenge village was known for its bimodal rainfall and doublecropping system, based on kiremt rain between June September and a second period of rain in the winter. Now, there is only the kiremt rain, which means that there is only one production yearly. Even though there is early cessation of rains during the main kiremt season, farmers said that their village is not very much affected by moisture stress. The absence of rains during the winter season, however, is considered to be a constraint to crop production. Crop pests Rodents, caterpillars, beetles, birds and weevils reduce the potential yield of the crops both in the field and after being harvested. Rodents are a serious problem in the kebele. Insect pests such as aphids on faba bean reduce yield in the village. Frost This occurs from the start of October. Late-maturing and frost sensitive crops like beans, field peas, potatoes and maize are most affected by frost. Weeds Two parasitic weeds, namely Orobanche and Striga were cited as the most problematic weeds affecting faba bean/field pea and sorghum/maize, respectively. According to the farmers, Orobanche infested beans or peas are left sterile after it produces pods. This occurs in September when Orobanche weeds start to express themselves above the soil. The damage caused by Orobanche on beans and peas is greater than that of Striga on sorghum and maize. Farmers said that it is not until the Orobanche emerges out of the soil that they know that it is there, although it damages the crop much earlier. Wild oats is an important weed that affects wheat and barley. This weed resembles the crops and this makes 14

26 it difficult to control. Weed control does not take place on a timely basis for many reasons, for example, weeds are easier to pull out when they are grown. Farmers usually control weeds too late after they have significantly damaged the crops. Shortage of supply of seeds of improved varieties The village does not get an adequate supply of good quality seeds, resulting in a mismatch between demand and supply of selected seeds. Varieties which have been abandoned in other areas for various reasons, for example, are still being cultivated in the village (e.g., HAR 1685 wheat variety even though it is susceptible to rust). The farmers are therefore always on the lookout for improved varieties of the major crops grown in the village. Hail This natural hazard occasionally occurs in some parts of the village. Crop diseases Diseases like rust attacking wheat, mildew and chocolate spot attacking faba bean were identified as causes of yield reduction in the village. For example, during the 2003/2004 EC production season the crops grew well, but they suffered a 50% reduction in yield due to rust. Rains received during Meskerem saved the crop from being a total loss, otherwise it would have been a disaster. Rust also leads to a deterioration in straw. Cattle refuse to eat rust infected straw because of its odour. The priority problems of crop production in Hashenge village are: Crop diseases Pests Moisture stress Shortage of improved seed supply. Table 8: Crop production constraints prioritised using pair-wise ranking in Hashenge Problem Weed Crop diseases Frost Moisture stress (MS) Pest (PE) Improved seed Hail (H) Score Weeds (W) X CD F MS PE SISS H 0 7 Ranking Crop diseases (CD) X CD CD CD CD CD 6 1 Frost (F) X MS PE SISS F 2 5 MS X PE MS MS 4 3 PE X PE PE 5 2 Shortage of improved seed supply (SISS) X SISS 3 4 H X 1 6 Best practices Best practices and suggested solutions to the major problems in crop production are: Crop diseases o o Spray holy water Pray to God 15

27 o o o o o Crop pests o o o o o o Changing the crop type for the next year Fallowing (one or more years) Use of rust free clean seeds Use of rust resistant varieties The rust resistant variety (Digelu) introduced in the 2011 production season in to the village is praised by the farmers but it matures late. Hence, planting the variety earlier can result in a better yield. Smoking sheep/goat manure Mechanical control using plant branches Fumigating stores/granaries Letting chicken feed on worms Using natural pesticides Using chemical pest control. Moisture stress o o o o o Planting trees/improving vegetation cover of sloppy hillsides In situ moisture conservation using soil and stone bands, trenches, etc Using flash floods for spate irrigation Using early-maturing and drought-tolerant varieties Using supplementary irrigation by drilling medium to deep wells. Shortage of improved seed supply o o o Saving own seed Exchanging seeds with other farmers Renting out own land. Livestock production constraints The main constraints to livestock production are: Shortage of animal feed Animal diseases Use of animal breeds with low production potential Predators. Shortage of feed Currently, the availability of crop residue, the main source of feed in the village, is declining due to the small size of landholdings and recurrent drought. Most of the land previously used for grazing is now enclosed. Enclosed areas are good sources of animal feed, but the grasses that are grown there are part of income generating activity for youth groups. On top of this, farmers have cited the problem of wastage of feeds by some farmers. The second most important source of feed for their livestock is the communal pasturelands near Lake Hashenge. Livestock are allowed to graze there freely throughout the year because the cut-and-carry system has not yet been introduced. Use of animal breeds with low production potential The existing local cattle breeds are small in size with limited potential for producing milk. They also give birth after a long resting period. The newly born calves take some time to reach maturity. The oxen from this breed also have less traction power. Local cows give 1 2 litres per day; hybrid cows on the other hand produce 7 9 litres/day. The price of local breeds is low as compared with the crossbreeds. 16

28 Diseases The village has a vet post. However, the post is not well-equipped with the necessary medicine and equipment. Year-round free grazing of livestock in the pastureland has led it to become a breeding ground for liver fluke. Farmers are, however, reluctant to use a cut-and carry system to break the spread of the disease causing organism. Table 9 shows a calendar of livestock diseases. Table 9: Calendar of livestock diseases as provided by participant farmers Major disease types Season Summer Autumn Winter Spring Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Cattle Refrefta x x x x x x Degehabe x x x x x x x x x x x x Wezwez x x Derbota x x x Sheep Gurgut x x x Mymilat x x x Goat Shihur x x x x x x x x x x x x Tsihtsah x Horse/Donkey Abrik x x Chicken Kenbil x x x x x x x x x x x x Predators The two important predators attacking livestock are hyenas and foxes. Hyenas prey on donkeys, cattle, shoats. Foxes prey on sheep and goats. It is common to see cattle that have managed to escape predators with mutilated tails in the village. Table 10 shows the main constraints that affect livestock production in the village: Livestock diseases Shortage of animal feed Limited production potential of existing livestock breeds Predators. 17

29 Table 10: Livestock problems prioritised using pair-wise ranking in Hashenge Problem Livestock Disease (LD) Livestock disease Feed shortage Predator Poor breed Score X LD LD LD 3 1 Feed Shortage (FS) X FS FS 2 2 Predator (PR) X PB 0 4 Poor breed type (PB) X 1 3 Ranking Best practices (livestock) Animal diseases Use of herbal medicines Equip existing vet post with basic equipment and medicine. Shortage of animal feed Use existing cactus leaves as feed Introduce and plant cactus as a source of feed during the dry period Plant legume forage crops Use available crop residue efficiently. Limited production potential of existing livestock breeds Reduce the number of animals Introduce crossbreeds by reducing the size of the existing local breeds Use artificial insemination and the bull service to gradually upgrade the productivity of local breeds. Summary of findings Crop disease is a major constraint to crop production. For example, rust causes up to 50% reduction in the yield of wheat because most of the current varieties being used are susceptible to the disease. Varieties resistant to rust have been developed by EIAR and the only feasible solution now is to use these varieties. Crop pests like rodents, beetles, and caterpillars also adversely affect crop yields. Some suggestions on how to fight these pests include phyto-sanitation and integrated pest control strategies. Similarly, animal disease is the main problem in the livestock sector. Livestock from the village all graze on the single grazing land (near Lake Hashenge), and as a result are exposed to a range of diseases and parasites. To alleviate the problem, farmers need to stall feed their livestock and the existing vet post should be well-equipped with basic materials to deal with these problems. The shortage of animal feed is due to a combination of factors such as the diminished size of grazing lands, the mismatch between available feed sources and the number of livestock, free grazing and drought. Possible solutions to curb this problem include using available feeds efficiently, improving the nutritional quality of existing feeds by planting legume fodder crops and introducing zero grazing. In areas where catchments have been treated and protected from the reach of animals and people, farmers have been using a cut and grass system to feed their livestock. Hence, catchment treatment has multifaceted benefits. Other agricultural problems raised by the village representatives are moisture stress, low productivity of existing cattle breeds, a short supply of good quality seeds and livestock predators. 18

30 Results: Menkere Kebele Environmental conditions Trend analysis was carried out to determine changing land use in the kebele and the possible reasons for these changes. A group of representative farmers explained the changes, see Table 11 below. Table 11: Trend analysis of resources in the Menkere kebele over the past 10 Ethiopian years Environmental changes and the possible reasons for these changes are: Land: cultivated land has shown little decreasing trend within the last 10 years. The FGD participants indicated that some cultivable lands especially farms along the hillside have been changed into area closure and forest. Moreover, a new village establishment, the expansion of organisations and erosion have caused a slight decrease trend in cultivated land. Grazing area: The area of the rangeland declines from time to time with the expansion of Lake Hashenge due to siltation. Swampy area: Except during heavy rain seasons where some part of the rangeland becomes swampy the general trend of the swamp area during the last 10 years is constant. Forest area: The forest area in the kebele as a whole is increasing from time to time. Some areas which were covered in crops are now in forest. The major tree species found in the closure area are: Hyginia, Olia Africana, Podocurpus (Zigba), Juniperus (Tid), and eucalyptus. Abundant resources per community group In the Menkere kebele, arable land is one of the major resources that has been shared equally among households (at the time of distribution, land allocation was based on family size ). No extra resource has been given to any group. 19

31 Figure 6: Resource map of Menkere drawn by farmers and redrawn by IT Scarce resources per community group Shortage of arable land over time; youth are landless Number and type of cattle: lack of draught animals used to prepare the farmland. Problematic resources Waterlogging of arable land during heavy rains as well as the expansion of the lake Erratic rainfall: double cropping was practised by the community; however, now there is only one rainy season (kiremt) with late onset and early cessation of rainfall Shortage of arable land size Insufficient protection of forest areas Decrease the number and performance of livestock Inadequate supply of potable water. Access to land per community group Both men and women have equal access to arable land. Out of 1613 HHs, 602 FHHs (37%) have access to the land. Soil fertility Farmers classified arable soils based on soil colour and relative position in the catchment. The main soil classes are Walka (black clay) and White (white clay). Based on the farmers perception on the soil classes, Walk (black clay) has better water holding capacity than the White soil and frequently there is waterlogging in the White soils as a result of the relative position of the farmlands and the nature of the soil. 20

32 Figure 7: Map of arable soils in Menkere kebele Farmers use of mineral fertilisers depends on the soil type. Farmers explained that chemical fertiliser use on Walka soils (on which wheat, barley, maize and onion are grown) is at the rate of 100 kg/ha DAP and 100 kg/ha urea. On the same soil type, only DAP (100 kg/ha) is used to fertilise the bean crop. On White soils farmers are not interested in applying fertiliser, and if applied it causes production loss consequent on crop lodging. Farmers believe that turning back of crop residue immediately after harvesting of the crops is a common practice. Animal manure to fertilise farmlands around homesteads is hardly ever done. Table 12: Soil type and farmers fertility rating of soils in the Menkere kebele No Soil class Prop. (%) Best crops grown 1 Walka (black 75 Sorghum, wheat, bean, barley, clay) soil maize, field pea, teff and flax. 2 Tsaeda 15 Wheat, barley, maize, onion and (white clay) soil garlic Fertility Remark rating 1 Upper part of the catchment 2 Near the lake and bottom part of the catchment Decision-making on land allocation Just as in the Hashenge kebele, the land in Menkere belongs to the government, so every allocation of land is carried out by the local administrations. 21