Boundary crossing activities in higher professional education to enhance students professional identity formation

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1 Boundary crossing activities in higher professional education to enhance students professional identity formation Suzanne Vrancken Research Project (45 ECTS) Research and Development in Science Education Utrecht University Supervisor: Gjalt Prins Research site: Koninklijke Nederlandse Chemische Vereniging 27 January 2012 Journal of Education and Work 1 The Journal of Education and Work is an international forum for academic research and policy analysis which focuses on the interplay of the education and economic systems. The journal examines how knowledge, skills, values and attitudes both about and for work and employment are developed within the education system. The journal also explores the various forms of industrial training and accreditation in the economic system, including changes in the economic and industrial infrastructure which influence the type of employees required. Work in the informal economy is also included. The Journal of Education and Work has a particular interest in comparative studies of skill formation and especially the transition from education to employment, how this process is structured and managed, and its effects on the young people, schools, colleges, universities and employers. The journal publishes interdisciplinary papers which reflect the multifaceted nature of the journal s concerns. Articles are welcome from economists, psychologists, sociologists, educationalists, and policy analysts. The journal publishes case studies from practitioners which present innovation grounded in relevant literature and debate. 1

2 Boundary crossing activities in higher professional education to enhance students professional identity formation This study discusses to what extent boundary crossing activities between higher professional education and work contribute to students professional identity formation. Students professional identity is shaped through engagement in different activities and practices. It is argued here that interaction with the work field during education through guest lectures, internships and work field projects contributes to this identity formation by enhancing students domain-specific conceptual knowledge, procedural knowledge, dispositional knowledge and their understanding of the future profession. Semi-structured interviews and questionnaires among teachers and students of fourteen Dutch Applied Science courses are used to gain information about intended and perceived effects of these boundary activities. The results of the empirical research suggest that guest lectures, internships and work field projects have positive effects on students professional identity, but how and how much it is affected differs per activity. This is important to keep in mind for curriculum developers before implementing these kinds of activities in a higher professional education course. Keywords: boundary crossing, boundary activities, higher professional education, professional identity formation Introduction In the globalised and changing world, where the role of universities is changing and being debated, and where the world of work is also changing through the rapid development of new technology, the question has been raised of how higher education prepares its students for unknown future demands. (Reid, Abrandt Dahlgren, Petocz and Dahlgren, 2011, p.11) Preparing students for professional work is one of the most important goals of higher professional education. Reid and her colleagues pose an interesting question about this: how can higher education prepare its students for unknown future demands? In today s rapidly changing knowledge society there is uncertainty about the knowledge and skills that will be required from future professionals, so how can higher education prepare students for their future as professionals? It is generally agreed upon in literature that students leaving higher education should be employable. Reid et al. (2011) propose that education can prepare students for future employment by helping them define their own professional identities. Professional identity is an idea of oneself as a professional which is constantly shifting and developing through contact with others and engagement in different activities and practices. Education contributes to students views of the future profession which influences their professional identity formation. How students see themselves as professionals is important for their engagement in education and vice versa: how engaged students are with their education and what they learn, influences their professional identity (Abrandt Dahlgren, 2011). The importance of identity formation in education is also emphasized by Wenger (1998). According to Wenger, identity formation occurs through participation in different communities of practice. All communities of practice have their own distinct knowledge, skills, tools and discourses and due to these specific features all communities offer different opportunities for learning and identity formation. In the process of change from student to professional, students have to move from one community of 1

3 practice to another, from an educational institute to a workplace. This move can be difficult, because of the socio-cultural differences between the two practices, termed the boundary (Akkerman & Bakker, 2011). However, not only participation in a certain community of practice, but also crossing the boundary between two practices can offer opportunities for learning and identity formation (Tuomi- Gröhn & Engeström, 2003; Wenger, 1998). Professional identity formation at the boundary Professional identity formation does not have to be postponed until students transition from their educational institute to work after graduation: students can also be involved in boundary crossing during education. Activities at the boundary between higher professional education and workplaces offer opportunities for identity formation and learning (Abrandt Dahlgren, 2011; Billet, 2009; Guile & Griffiths, 2001; Hmelo-Silver, 2004; Konkola, Tuomi-Gröhn, Lambert & Ludvigsen, 2007; Tuomi-Gröhn & Engeström, 2003; Wenger, 1998). Reid et al. (2011) suggest that there should be a deliberate blurring of boundaries between the academy and professional work (p.133) during professional education. In their view, blurring of boundaries will provide students with knowledge for the profession and knowledge of the profession which will enhance students personal connections to the profession. This will make professional identity formation more likely and students engagement with their studies and their work later on will increase. Reid et al. (2011) propose four options to include boundary crossing in the course of a student s education (p.137): (a) The involvement of professionals with higher education (b) The involvement of students in work situations (c) The alignment of learning with authentic work practices (d) The approach of interprofessional learning The involvement of professionals with higher education (a) aims to result in a curriculum that is more relevant for professional formation and work, for example through the involvement of work field professionals in curriculum development (Garraway, 2010) or invitation of professionals into the classroom to share experiences about their work or profession. Involvement of students in work situations (b) and the alignment of learning with authentic work practices (c) might increase students intrinsic interest in and motivation for learning and the profession. In addition, these two activities contribute to students practical know-how which is highly valued when entering working life. Learning through experiencing a workplace context (b) is regarded to be more valuable than only learning for and about contexts, because learning is considered to be a highly contextual process (Wenger, 1998). Simulating professional forms of work at the educational institute (c) will enable students to draw from previous experiences when they encounter new situations after crossing the boundary from education to work. Learning about, from and with other professions (d) can contribute to identity formation because it may introduce students to new meanings, practices and modes of learning that are common in other professions. Interaction and discussions with people from other professions may also enrich students views of their own profession and identity (Reid et al., 2011). Boundary crossing activities The four options for boundary crossing proposed by Reid and her colleagues should facilitate students identity formation and result in a smooth transition from student to novice professional, from education to work. The first three options directly concern the boundary between education and the workplace whereas the fourth option is about the boundary between different disciplines. This study will zoom in on the first three options for learning at the boundary from Reid et al. and explore how students perceive boundary crossing activities based on these ideas: (A) Guest lectures (B) Internships 2

4 (C) Work field projects Guest lectures (A) entail the invitation of workplace professionals into the classroom to lecture students and share experiences about their work or profession. During an internship (B) students are involved in a professional practice and do research and/or development work there for an extended period of time. Work field projects (C) are assignments students work on at the educational institute in a group setting. These projects concern authentic problems that occur at a workplace where research and/or development is needed to find a solution. All three boundary activities offer students opportunities to engage with workplace professionals and learn from them. These boundary activities are particularly interesting because they all involve a different kind of boundary crossing: guest lectures (A) involve boundary crossing from the workplace to the educational institute by a professional; internships (B) involve boundary crossing from the educational institute to a workplace by a student; work field projects (C) create an intermediate boundary practice between the educational institute and a workplace and involve boundary crossing from both sites. Theoretical framework In order for students to successfully form a professional identity and make a smooth transition from higher professional education to work, different kinds of knowledge are required. Billet (2009) identifies three kinds of knowledge needed for successful boundary crossing from education to work: Domain-specific conceptual knowledge knowing that Domain-specific procedural knowledge knowing how Dispositional knowledge knowing for Reid et al. (2011) identify a fourth kind of knowledge: Understanding of the future profession knowing about Domain-specific conceptual knowledge comprises facts and concepts from a particular discipline that can be learned from books or lectures. Procedural knowledge is knowledge about how to do things and is necessary for engagement in professional practice. Dispositional knowledge consists of behaviour, attitude, interests and generic skills and abilities necessary to function successfully in a professional environment. This is mostly tacit knowledge that is most likely to be developed through personal experiences with professional practice. Reid et al. (2011) argue that students also need knowledge about their future profession, because it will broaden their view of the discipline and subsequently broaden their approach to learning. Without knowledge about the profession, students have a limited view of their future profession and subsequently a narrow approach to learning: students will focus on the individual components of their course without grasping the whole. Knowing that, knowing how, knowing for and knowing about contribute to students professional identity formation and therefore ease their transition from higher professional education to the work field. This theoretical framework will elaborate how the boundary crossing activities during higher professional education, being guest lectures (A), internships (B) and work field projects (C), can contribute to the four types of knowledge identified by Billet and Reid et al. (A) Guest lectures In crossing the boundary from work to education, guest lecturers can bring information, knowledge and practices from a workplace into the classroom. Students learn most from these workplace professionals in social interaction since one of the driving forces behind individual development is 3

5 communication and transfer of knowledge between people (Konkola et al., 2007). Professionals bring years of workplace experience into the educational institute and in their lectures they can align education and workplace practices. A guest lecturer can explain the demands of professional practice to students and provide them a view of what their future profession might be like (Berner, 2010). In a study on students transitions from higher education to work, Abrandt Dahlgren (2011) found that students welcome guest lectures from workplace professionals: students view them as professional role models who can translate which theories and methods learned at the educational institute are important for professional work and why. Students learn different kinds of knowledge from guest lectures by workplace professionals. According to Abrandt Dahlgren (2011) and Konkola et al. (2007), students gain conceptual and procedural knowledge from interaction with professionals in their discipline, because the professionals introduce new knowledge and practices from the work field to the students. The guest lecturers also explain what knowledge and skills are needed to function effectively in professional practice, giving students more knowing how. Berner (2010) emphasises that students learn about their future profession from workplace lecturers, enhancing their understanding of the profession. (B) Internships Learning at the educational institute and learning at work both have distinct features that can contribute to students educational experiences. Billet (2009), Eames and Coll (2010), Guile and Griffiths (2001) and Hodkinson (2005) argue that the integration of internships in higher professional education courses is most likely to generate effective identity formation. Internships provide students with an opportunity to engage in professional practice, to experience the requirements for effective work practice and to develop workplace competence (Eames & Coll, 2010; Guile & Griffiths, 2001; Harteis & Billet, 2008; Reid et al., 2011). Through this kind of workplace experiences students learn the knowledge, skills and discourses required for professional work in their discipline and how to engage in professional practice (Konkola et al., 2007). Workplace experiences can thereby ease the process of change from student to workplace professional (Eames & Coll, 2010). During internships students can remake or renegotiate the knowledge and skills they acquired at their educational institute, which leads to the development of a richer view of previously learned knowledge and skills (Abrandt Dahlgren, 2011; Billet, 2009; Guile & Griffiths, 2001; Reid et al., 2011). The development of a critical attitude towards the knowledge, skills and dispositions required at the educational institute are also considered important by Billet because of the constantly changing practices, technologies and requirements at workplaces. Criticality will contribute to students adaptability to different workplaces and unknown future demands (Abrandt Dahlgren, 2011; Billet, 2009; Guile & Griffiths, 2001; Reid et al., 2011). Internships can contribute to the four kinds of knowledge as identified by Billet and Reid et al. However, how much the different kinds of knowledge are affected during an internship depends on several aspects, like the workplace, assignments, involvement of supervisors, contact with colleagues and a student s perceptions of these different aspects. Participation in authentic workplace practice and encounters and relationships with people at work can not only enhance students procedural and dispositional knowledge (Hodkinson, 2005), but also their understanding of the profession (Guile & Griffiths, 2001; Reid et al., 2011). Additionally, students can gain new conceptual knowledge. For example, students can perceive a need for new knowledge in order to function effectively in a professional practice which encourages them to learn new conceptual knowledge. (C) Work field projects Working on authentic workplace problems in a group setting offers great learning opportunities for students (Abrandt Dahlgren, 2011; Abrandt Dahlgren, 2003; De Graaff & Kolmos, 2003; Hmelo-Silver, 2004; Jadin et al., 2008; Reid et al., 2011; Wai Hung, Choi & Chan, 2003). Work field projects use a student-centred approach to learning which focuses on experiential learning organized around the 4

6 investigation, explanation and resolution of meaningful problems (Hmelo-Silver, 2004, p.236). Work field projects are constructed from real-world problem scenarios which students perceive as challenging and motivating, because they are complex and there is not just one correct solution (De Graaff & Kolmos, 2003; Hmelo-Silver, 2004). An advantage of using this project approach to learning is that various subject areas within a higher professional education course can be integrated into one project (De Graaff & Kolmos, 2003; Wai Hung, Choi & Chan, 2003). Working on real-world work field projects has various advantages for students according to Hmelo- Silver (2004). Students can (p.240): construct an extensive and flexible knowledge base develop effective problem-solving skills develop self-directed, lifelong learning skills become effective collaborators become intrinsically motivated to learn According to this enumeration, work field projects can contribute to students knowing that, knowing how, knowing for and knowing about. First, students need to acquire domain-specific knowledge to understand the problem at hand. Subsequently they have to identify learning issues and acquire new knowledge to find a solution to the problem, which expands students conceptual knowledge even further. The students discuss the new knowledge in their group which enhances their understanding and possibly leads to the identification of new learning issues (Abrandt-Dahlgren, 2003). According to De Graaff (2003), students can reach a deeper level of understanding and comprehension of subject knowledge using work field projects compared to conventional classroom learning. Students develop procedural knowledge when they learn to apply domain-specific knowledge in order to solve a real-life problem. The students learn effective problem-solving skills necessary for workplace professionals, like creativity and inventiveness (Abrandt Dahlgren, 2011; Abrandt Dahlgren, 2003; Hmelo-Silver, 2004; Jadin et al., 2008). Dispositional knowledge is addressed during work field projects when students gain lifelong learning skills and collaboration skills and become intrinsically motivated learners. The project-based approach to learning helps students become independent, self-directed learners who take responsibility for their own learning (Abrandt Dahlgren, 2003). This increases students adaptability and flexibility which are important characteristics for workplace professionals in order to adapt to different workplaces and unknown future demands (Abrandt Dahlgren, 2011; Guile and Griffiths, 2001; Jadin et al., 2008; Reid et al., 2011; Wai Hung, Choi & Chan, 2003). By working in a group, students learn to cooperate with others on a joint task, to communicate and listen, to show understanding and respect for peers and to explain their knowledge to others (Abrandt Dahlgren, 2011; Abrandt Dahlgren, 2003; De Graaff & Kolmos, 2003; Hmelo-Silver, 2004). This dispositional knowledge is essential for students to become effective practitioners in a professional practice. The fourth kind of knowledge knowing about is covered by work field projects because students work on authentic problems from real workplaces. This gives them a view of what kind of work is performed at workplaces by professionals in their discipline, hence increasing students understanding of their future profession (Abrandt Dahlgren, 2011; Abrandt Dahlgren, 2003; Reid et al., 2011). Table 1: Contribution of boundary activities to students knowledge Knowing that Knowing how Knowing for Knowing about A. Guest lectures x x x B. Internships x x x x C. Work field projects x x x x 5

7 In summary, the three boundary activities, guest lectures (A), internships (B) and work field projects (C), can all contribute to students knowledge needed for professional identity formation. Table 1 shows what kinds of knowledge can be addressed during the different boundary crossing activities. Research aim and questions The theoretical framework does not clarify which boundary activity is most suitable for what kind of knowledge. However, because of the different characters of the three activities it is assumed here that in practice differences are experienced by teachers and students. The aim of this study is to identify to what extent the three boundary crossing activities between higher professional education and the work field contribute to students knowing that, knowing how, knowing for and knowing about and thereby contribute to their professional identity formation. The following research questions are addressed for discussing the three boundary crossing activities: (1) What are teachers intended effects of boundary crossing activities on students identity formation? (2) What are students perceptions of boundary crossing activities and their contribution to identity formation? The first research question (1) aims to result in an overview of the intended outcomes for students participating in the three boundary crossing activities, according to teachers. This might provide insight into why higher professional education institutions include these activities in their curriculum. The second question (2) will discuss students perceptions of the three boundary crossing activities and illustrate if and how these activities facilitate students identity formation. This question will also consider if the boundary crossing activities contribute to a smooth transition from education to work. The results are particularly interesting for those involved in curriculum development for higher professional education considering to include boundary crossing activities in the curriculum to stimulate students professional identity formation. This study will provide information about what kinds of knowledge are enhanced most effectively through guest lectures, internships and work field projects: conceptual knowledge, procedural knowledge, dispositional knowledge or understanding of the profession. Method Semi-structured interviews and online questionnaires were used for data collection (Creswell, 2007). Teachers were interviewed to identify the intended effects of guest lectures (A), internships (B) and work field projects (C) on students professional identity formation (1). Students and a graduate were interviewed about their experiences with the boundary crossing activities (2) and the transition from education to work respectively. The protocols for the semi-structured interviews were composed using three different data sources: general information on boundary crossing and boundary activities was extracted from literature; specific information about the three boundary activities at the research setting was gained from a teacher and the researcher s personal experience as a student at the research setting. This personal experience contributes to the researcher s understanding of the setting and the research findings. The information gathered in the interview sessions was used to construct online questionnaires for teachers and students about the intended effects and perceptions of boundary crossing activities 6

8 respectively. The purpose of the questionnaires was to investigate whether a larger group of respondents share the points of view as expressed in the interviews. The data gained from the semi-structured interviews and the questionnaires combined provide an overview of the intended and perceived effect of guest lectures (A), internships (B) and work field projects (C) on students identity formation in higher professional education. Setting All interviewed teachers and students are affiliated with the course Applied Science at Fontys University of Applied Sciences in Eindhoven, the Netherlands. Applied Science is a four year course which leads to a degree as a Bachelor of Applied Science. The course prepares students for a wide variety of workplaces and jobs, like an analyst position at a hospital laboratory, quality controller at a food producer or chemical engineer at a paint factory. The subjects and laboratory practicals in the course cover many areas and techniques in order to equip students with basic knowledge and skills. The coverage is necessarily general, because it is not possible to cover all specific knowledge and skills that students might need during their internships or future jobs, as was already noted by Garraway, Volbrecht, Wicht, and Ximba (2011). Besides the subjects and laboratory practicals that cover the basics, students are involved in various boundary crossing activities organized by the educational institute in close collaboration with the work field, such as internships, work field projects, company visits, guest lectures and job fairs. During the first and second year of the Applied Science course students spend about 30% of their time on work field projects (C); in the third year students spend 50% of their time on an internship (B); guest lectures (A) only take up a relatively small amount of time, like a few hours or days during the four year course. The online questionnaires were distributed among teachers and students of fourteen Universities of Applied Sciences in the Netherlands with Applied Science courses. Not all educational institutes offer guest lectures, internships and work field projects to their students, but they all organize at least one of these activities. The exact interpretations of the three boundary activities are different at each of the educational institutes, but the basic principles are similar. Sample The teachers (T1 to T5) for the interviews were selected based on their involvement with the boundary crossing activities. All teachers were involved in different activities or involved in a different way. For example, one teacher was responsible for the coordination of work field projects while another teacher mentored student groups working on these projects. The interviewed students (S1 to S4) had just finished the first, second, third or fourth year of the Applied Science course at Fontys University; the graduate (S5) finished the course five months ago and was working at his first job for four months. The students were selected at random i.e. a teacher asked in his mentor groups for volunteers to participate in the study and the first students to respond from each year were selected. The graduate was selected by the teacher, because he had contact with only a few graduates. The three boundary crossing activities were all discussed with at least one teacher and one student. Table 2 gives an overview of what activities were discussed with whom. Table 2: verview of boundary activities discussed in interviews Teachers Students A. Guest lectures T2 - T3 S2 B. Internships T2 - T4 - T5 S3 - S4 - S5 C. Work field projects T1 - T2 - T3 - T4 - T5 S1 - S2 S5 7

9 From the online questionnaires, additional data on intended and perceived effects of guest lectures, internships and work field projects was gained from 43 teachers and 82 students. An overview of the respondents per activity is provided in Table 3. The number of respondents per boundary crossing activity differs because most teachers and students are not involved in all activities. It should be noted that only eight students filled out questions about work field projects. Table 3: verview of questionnaire respondents per boundary activity Teachers Students A. Guest lectures B. Internships C. Work field projects 18 8 Interviews and questionnaires The interviews with the teachers were intended to identify the intended effects of boundary crossing activities on students professional identity formation (1). Teachers were asked questions about the intended learning outcomes for students participating in these activities and if they might contribute to a student s process of change from student to professional. Interview questions are given in Table 4: Table 4: Interview questions asked to teachers Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8 Q9 Q10 Q11 Q12 Q13 Could you tell something about guest lectures? How are they organized? What kinds of topics are discussed during guest lectures? Why is it more valuable to invite workplace professionals to give lectures than just giving the lectures yourself? What kind of knowledge do students gain during an internship? What is the most important learning outcome for students during an internship? Are there any aspects of internships that need improvement, according to you? What are the most important learning outcomes for students involved in work field projects, according to you? Is there something about the work field projects that could be improved in order to optimize its effects? Do you think that students realize why they are involved in boundary crossing activities, like work field projects and internships? What is the role of boundary crossing activities in your students education? Is it a large role, a small role? What could this educational institute or you do to improve the boundary crossing activities? What could workplaces that are involved in boundary activities do to improve those activities? Do you think that the boundary crossing activities in the course, such as the work field projects and the internships, contribute to a smooth transition for students from education to work? The student interviews focused on their perceptions of boundary crossing activities (2) they encountered during the foregoing year, so the third year student was only asked questions about his third year and not about the first and second year of his studies. This way students could talk about their most recent experiences and did not have to think back too far into the past. The students were asked questions shown in Table 5: Table 5: Interview questions asked to students Q14 Q15 Q16 Q17 Q18 Q19 Q20 Q21 Q22 Q23 Q24 Why do you think guest lecturers are invited to give lectures? What did you learn from that guest lecture? How do you feel about getting lectures from someone other than your regular teacher? Could you say something about what you learned during your internship? What was the most important thing you learned from that internship? Is there anything that was not addressed, but that you wanted to learn during your internship? What did you learn from that work field project? According to you, what was the most important learning outcome from that work field project? Are there any other things you wanted to learn from that work field project that were not addressed? Is there anything about the work field projects that could change in order to increase your learning outcomes? Do you think that the boundary crossing activities, like excursions, guest lectures and projects, make a valuable contribution to your learning? 8

10 Q25 Q26 What could your educational institute do to improve the boundary crossing activities? What could workplaces that are involved in boundary activities do to improve those activities? The interview with the graduate focused on his transition from student to novice professional and how boundary crossing activities during his education influenced this process of change. Questions asked to the graduate are given in Table 6: Table 6: Interview questions asked to a graduate Q27 Q28 Q29 Q30 Q31 How did you experience the transition from education to work? What boundary activity do you consider to be most valuable to prepare you for working in the work field? What are the strongest characteristics of your education concerning the preparation for working life? During your education, did you know why boundary crossing activities were included in the curriculum? What could the educational institute do to improve students preparation for the transition to the work field? The aim of the questionnaires was to gain information about the intended outcomes and perceptions of the boundary crossing activities from a larger sample of teachers and students respectively, in order to identify whether the results from the interviews apply to larger groups of respondents. The questionnaires consisted of multiple-choice questions and some open-ended questions. Figure 1: Multiple-choice question from the teacher questionnaire According to you, what should students learn from guest lectures from workplace professionals? Select three answers. Theoretical knowledge Practical skills in the lab General skills and abilities (New) applications of theoretical knowledge Information about topics and developments that are currently important in the work field Information about the work field Information about the profession and possible future jobs Information about knowledge and skills that are required from graduates by the work field ther: An example of a question about guest lectures presented in the teacher questionnaire is shown in figure 1. Table 7 presents an example of a multiple-choice question from the student questionnaire. In this question students indicated to what degree they agree or disagree with posed statements about learning outcomes of guest lectures. It should be noted that the questions in both questionnaires are designed differently which leads to different types of results. ther questions from the teacher and student questionnaires are shown in appendix A and B respectively. Table 7: Multiple-choice question from the student questionnaire From guest lectures from workplace professionals I learn 1 Disagree 2 Disagree a little 3 Agree a little theoretical knowledge practical skills in the lab general skills and abilities (new) applications of theoretical knowledge information about topics and developments that are currently important in the work field 4 Agree information about the work field information about the profession and possible future jobs information about possibilities for students at a workplace 9

11 Data analysis All interviews were recorded and transcribed by the researcher. The transcripts were read, interpreted and summarized to get an overview of the most important topics that were discussed during the interviews. The interview transcripts and summaries were sent to the respondents for a member check (Creswell, 2007). Some respondents made small adjustments to the summaries, but overall there was agreement on the interpretations and summaries of the interviews. The most important topics identified from the interviews were arranged in an analysis scheme that was used for the qualitative analysis of the interview transcripts. Table 8 shows an excerpt of the analysis scheme. Table 8: Excerpt of the scheme used for qualitative interview analysis Topic Theme Label 2. Boundary encounters 1. Guest teacher Broker: 1. Workplace professional ther: 2. Workplace, 3. Teacher, 4. Educational institute, 5. Student 3. Boundary practices 1. Work field projects Broker: 1. Student ther: 2. Teacher, 3. Educational institute, 4. Workplace, 5. Workplace professional 6. Internship Broker: 1. Student ther: 2. Teacher, 3. Workplace professional, 4. Educational institute, 5. Workplace Quotes from the interviews concerning actions, experiences or ideas relating to boundary crossing activities or the transition from education to work were labelled using this analysis scheme. An example of a labelled excerpt of an interview transcript is shown in Table 9. Table 9: Example of labelled interview transcript Interviewer T1 Interviewer T1 Let s start with the work field projects for first year students. Could you say something about the kind of workplaces that are involved in these projects? The workplaces that I encounter in these projects are mostly chemical companies, like cé and TN. I supervised these projects. In general, do I know what companies are involved? I guess mostly the somewhat larger companies. The work field projects for first year students do not really entail knowledge exchange from the students to the companies, but more the other way around I think: from the companies to the students. The first year students mostly learn what these kinds of companies do and where they can go to work eventually. It is mostly a first acquaintance for the students with workplaces. What do students mostly learn from these work field projects? For example what kind of research is done at a company The students get a guided tour through the laboratories most of the time, so they can see what kind of materials they [the company] work with, the equipment they work with, but also what kind of research they do. The students get a complete view of the company actually, a very broad view. This way a student can screen is this a company where I want to work or is this definitely not for me? That s mostly it. Label A second assessor used the same analysis scheme to analyse 20% of the data which resulted in an intercoder agreement of 84,5%. This degree of intercoder agreement is sufficient (Creswell, 2007). The differences in the analyses were mostly on the third level of the analysis scheme due to the ambiguous nature of the interview quotes. This quote from one of the students (S2) provides a good example of this ambiguous nature: During that work field project, the hospital taught me a lot of new knowledge. (Fragment from interview with student S2) This quote is clearly about work field projects, label 3.1, but the third level is not that clear since it could be appointed to workplace ( the hospital ) or student ( me ). This ambiguousness was the 10

12 most common cause of labelling differences. The differences were discussed between the researcher and the second assessor in order to reach consensus about the most appropriate labels. The outcomes of the questionnaires were lined up in a table per boundary activity to get an overview of the results. The results from the teacher and student questionnaires were compared to get a view of differences between intended and perceived effects of the boundary crossing activities. The results of guest lectures, internships and work field projects were also compared with each other to see whether there are different intended and perceived effects per activity. Results The results of the semi-structured interviews with the teachers and the teacher questionnaires will be discussed first, followed by the results of the student interviews and questionnaires. Some conditions for success of the three boundary crossing activities will be discussed too. Teachers intended effects of boundary crossing activities An interesting result of the interviews is that all teachers agree on the intended effects of guest lectures, internships and work field projects. The questionnaire respondents also fairly agree: the top three intended effects of all activities score significantly higher than other effects. Table 10 shows the results of the teacher questionnaires. There is a high degree of overlap between the outcomes of the interviews and the questionnaires. Table 10: Intended effects of boundary activities according to teacher questionnaires (bold = over 50%) Guest lectures Internships Work field projects 1 Theoretical knowledge 24 45,5 33,3 2 Practical skills in the lab 4 78, General skills and abilities 8 51,5 55,6 4 (New) applications of theoretical knowledge 72 36,4 61,1 5 Information about topics and developments that are currently important in the work field 88 27,3 55,6 6 Information about the work field 52 12,1 16, Information about the profession and possible future jobs Information about knowledge and skills that are required by the work field from graduates Information about possibilities for students at a workplace 20 18, ,2 27,8 8 6,1 0 Number of respondents Note: All respondents selected the three intended effects of a boundary activity that they considered most important from a list of multiple-choice answers i.e. 24 on theoretical knowledge for guest lectures indicates that 24% of the respondents considers this to be an important effect. (A) Guest lectures Guest lectures are intended to teach students new domain-specific conceptual knowledge, according to the interviewed teachers T2 and T3. The professionals can also show how theoretical knowledge is applied in practice and they can discuss topics and developments that are currently important in their area of expertise. The results of the interviews and the questionnaire agree on these points. ne of the interviewed teachers (T3) gave the following response to the question why workplace professionals are invited to give guest lectures (Q3): I think it is really interesting for students to get information directly from a professional practice because it can provide the most up-to-date information. This is especially important for new and fast developing topics like biopolymers, because there are often no books or something about these kinds of topics where students can learn about them. (Fragment from interview with teacher T3) 11

13 Another point that scores high in the questionnaire is that guest lecturers can provide students with information about the work field. More than half of the respondents consider this to be an important topic that should be discussed in guest lectures. However, this topic is not mentioned in the interviews. (B) Internships Internships were discussed in three teacher interviews. All three teachers agree on the intended effects of internships on students professional identity formation: students need to learn new domainspecific knowledge, practical skills and general skills and abilities, like how they can function in a professional environment. The results of the questionnaire confirm that those are the most important effects, as shown in Table 10. ne of the interviewed teachers (T2) emphasizes that internships are also important for students to get acquainted with a certain disciplinary field or profession (Q5): Domain-specific knowledge is important, but also orientation on the profession. Internships can help students to figure out what they want. For example, a student can feel that a certain disciplinary field is very interesting and do an internship in that field. If that internship turns out to be a disappointment, than the student knows he did not choose the right disciplinary field so he can change his specialization or focus on a different aspect of that field. So orientation is important, orientation on the profession. But they also learn a lot of new domain-specific knowledge. (Fragment from interview with teacher T2) (C) Work field projects All interviewed teachers consider orientation on the work field and the profession to be the most important effect of work field projects. They state that working on authentic work field problems can help students to confirm that they chose the right course. It can also help students to figure out what disciplinary field they want to specialize in, because work field projects offer students a chance to work on authentic problems in different disciplinary areas. Teacher T1 states about this: Project assignments for first year students are provided by technological, chemical or biological workplaces or the food industry, so there is a large variety. We try to stimulate students to choose different projects, for example one chemical, one biological and one technological project. This way, students can see and try out different disciplinary fields, so they can figure out what they like and what they dislike. (Fragment from interview with teacher T1) The results of the questionnaire in Table 10 show that the questionnaire respondents do not consider orientation on the work field and the profession to be important effects of work field projects. However, both the interviewed teachers and the questionnaire respondents indicate that learning generic skills and abilities is a meaningful effect. As a response to question Q7 about the most important learning outcomes of work field projects teacher T2 states: Students learn a certain method of working. They start with thinking about the problem: what is the problem? How can we handle that? How can we solve the problem? The students communicate about it, discuss it, brainstorm about it. I feel like that is a good thing, absolutely. (Fragment from interview with teacher T2) The interviewed teachers also consider it to be important that students learn to apply their theoretical knowledge; the questionnaire respondents even indicate that this is the most important effect of work field projects for students. Teacher T3 s response to question Q7: It is important that students can see I learned this in my biology course and I can apply that knowledge in this project, you know? That way, students can see why they learn certain things and so on. (Fragment from interview with teacher T3) 12

14 However, not only the application of theoretical knowledge is important according to the interviewed teachers: students should learn new theoretical knowledge from work field projects too. This effect is considered reasonably important by the questionnaire respondents. In the interviews, the teachers also indicate that students learn new practical skills in the lab, for example because projects include practical work that is not included in the standard lab practicals. The questionnaire respondents also think that this is an important effect on students professional identity formation. verall it can be stated that all three boundary crossing activities are intended to affect students professional identity formation, but how and how much it is affected differs per activity. Both the interviewed teachers and the questionnaire respondents agree that boundary activities contribute to a smooth transition for students from education to work. Teacher T5 gave the following response to question Q13 about the contribution of boundary activities to students transition from education to work: I think that the transition from education to work has become much smoother since students have so much contact with workplaces and workplace professionals during their education. From their first year on students know, or at least can know, what is going on in the work field. (Fragment from interview with teacher T5) From the interviews it additionally becomes clear that boundary activities in cooperation with workplaces contribute to keeping the Applied Science course up-to-date, because students learn about and work on topics that are currently important in the work field. Boundary crossing activities are also a good means to motivate students for their studies, according to the interviewed teachers. Table 11: Intended effects of boundary crossing activities according to teachers Knowing that Knowing how Knowing for Knowing about A. Guest lectures x v o x x v o B. Internships x v o x v o x v o x v C. Work field projects x v o x v o x v o x v o Note: x = according to theory, v = interviews, o = questionnaires Table 11 provides an overview of teacher s intended effects of the three boundary crossing activities for students related to the four kinds of knowledge needed for professional identity formation. The table shows that the results from the interviews are in accordance with the possibilities for knowledge acquisition as discussed in the theoretical framework, except for knowing how in the category guest lectures. This is probably because guest lectures at the Applied Science courses only consist of classroom lectures; they do not include lab practicals. There is only one obvious difference between the interview and questionnaire results. According to the interviewed teachers, internships should contribute to students knowing about, but the questionnaire respondents disagree with the interviewed teachers on this point. The disagreement could be caused by differences in how the boundary crossing activities are executed at the different educational institutes. It could also be due to the design of the questionnaire question. Teachers were asked to choose three intended effects that they considered most important from a list of multiple-choice answers whereas in the interviews teachers could talk about all possible effects, including the ones they considered less important. Students perceptions of boundary crossing activities The results from the interviews show that the students agree fairly well with each other, concerning their perceptions of guest lectures, internships and work field projects. There are however some differences between the interview results and the outcome of the questionnaire. Table 12 provides an overview of the perceived effects of the three boundary crossing activities among the questionnaire respondents. 13

15 Table 12: Perceived effects of boundary activities according to student questionnaires Guest lectures Internships Work field projects 1 Theoretical knowledge 3,4 3,7 3,8 2 Practical skills in the lab 2,5 3,7 3,8 3 General skills and abilities 2,7 3,9 3,4 4 (New) applications of theoretical knowledge 3,4 3,6 3,8 5 Information about topics and developments that are currently important in the work field 3,6 3,7 3,9 6 Information about the work field 3,5 3,8 3,4 7 8 Information about the profession and possible future jobs Information about possibilities for students at a workplace 3,2 3,7 3,1 2,6 3,7 3,4 Number of respondents Note: The respondents indicated whether they perceived a certain effect from a boundary activity on a scale of 1 to 4 with 1 being a low perception and 4 being a high perception i.e. 3,4 on theoretical knowledge for guest lectures indicates that students perceive that they learn quite some theoretical knowledge from that activity. (A) Guest lectures Guest lectures were discussed with only one of the interviewed students. According to her, guest lecturers can inform students about topics and developments that are currently important in the work field. She also perceives to learn new theoretical knowledge and how this knowledge can be applied in professional practice. Student S2 states about this: I think that guest lectures are included in subjects to make a connection between the subject and the work field. A workplace professional can discuss real life examples and explain things in a different way than a regular teacher. I don t think that guest lectures really contribute to my view of the work field, because the lectures were really a part of the subject. (Fragment from interview with student S2) The results of the student questionnaire in Table 12 show that the questionnaire respondents perceive similar effects as the interviewed student, except on the topic of information about the work field. The quote from student S2 clearly indicates that guest lectures do not contribute to her view of the work field, but the questionnaire respondents state the opposite. (B) Internships Three of the interviewed students state that they learned domain-specific knowledge, practical skills in the lab and a variety of generic skills and abilities, like working independently, making plans, organizing meetings and discussions, presenting research findings and working under time pressure. The interviewed students consider these generic skills and abilities to be the most important effect of internships. Student S4 responded as follows to the question what she learned during her internship (Q17): I mostly learned to work independently, because they let me make my own choices in what I wanted to do with my assignment. I learned to solve problems on my own, check my own calculations et cetera. I also learned new theoretical knowledge and practical skills that came with my assignment. Most of the knowledge was new [ ] and I learned to work with the lab equipment at the workplace [ ]. I also had to think very creatively sometimes to solve some problems I encountered. (Fragment from interview with student S4) Student S3 responded to that same question (Q17) that internships offer a unique experience to learn more about a workplace: I really learned a lot from my internship, especially because you can personally experience the culture within a workplace. That is something you can t learn at the educational institute. 14

16 (Fragment from interview with student S3) Table 12 shows that the student questionnaire respondents perceive all effects of internships fairly intense since all categories score high on the 1 to 4 scale. Learning general abilities is rated the highest in the student questionnaire which agrees with the responses of the interviewed students. (C) Work field projects Work field projects were discussed during three student interviews. All three students described similar effects of this boundary crossing activity. They think that work field projects make a valuable contribution to their professional identity formation since students learn new theoretical knowledge, practical skills and general skills and abilities, like communicating and working with others, making work and time plans, discussing and presenting results. Student S2 responded as follows to a question about what she learned from a work field project (Q21): I learned domain-specific knowledge, also practical skills. I also learned to communicate with others, because sometimes we had to work really close together in the lab and a lot of things had to be done at the same time. You really need to have a good overview of everything. I learned that you have to be well prepared and make good plans and communicate well with others. (Fragment from interview with student S2) Additionally, work field projects offer students an opportunity to apply their knowledge to solve authentic workplace problems. The interviewed students consider this to be motivating to become more involved with their studies. Two of the interviewed students also stated that working on realworld work field projects gives them a view of the work field, the profession and new developments in their discipline. Student S1 indicated that the work field projects helped her to figure out what disciplinary field she wants to specialize in: I chose a wide variety of work field projects because I didn t know what disciplinary field I wanted to specialize in, so I thought it was a good idea to try out all different kinds of things. [ ] This gave me a broad view of the different disciplinary fields within the course. (Fragment from interview with student S1) The questionnaire respondents agree well with the interviewed students, since all effects mentioned in the interviews show high scores on the 1 to 4 scale in the questionnaire results, except for information about the profession which scores only a moderate 3,1 (Table 12). All interviewed students value the boundary crossing activities they participate in during their studies. The students state that the activities provide variation in the curriculum and keep them motivated to study; especially internships and work field projects give students a sense of studying something worthwhile. Student S2 states: The most important effect of boundary activities? I think it is that you start feeling comfortable in your discipline and know that you are in the right place. [ ] You learn that it is important that people work in this disciplinary field. (Fragment from interview with student S2) The interviewed students think that the various boundary activities keep the Applied Science course up-to-date. According to them, most professional practices are continuously developing and innovating and through the boundary crossing activities students get in touch with what is going on in the real world in their disciplinary field. The graduate student S5 indicates that the various boundary activities in the Applied Science course made a valuable contribution to his education to make a smooth transition from higher professional education to work: 15

17 I think that the Applied Science course is a good starting point to go to work. Especially the experiences I had during my internship and during the work field projects are valuable. Like I said before, I think that those are really important. (Fragment from interview with student S5) verall it can be stated that all three boundary crossing activities affect students professional identity formation, but how and how much it is affected differs per activity. An overview of students perceived effect of the three boundary crossing activities is shown in Table 13. The table shows that the results from the interviews and the questionnaire both fairly agree with the possibilities for knowledge acquisition as discussed in the theoretical framework. There are two exceptions. The first is that none of the students perceive effects of guest lectures on their knowing how. This is in accordance with the results from the teacher interviews and questionnaire which show that there are no intended effects of guest lectures on this kind of knowledge. The second exception is that the interview results indicate that students gain no knowing about from guest lectures. However, only one student was interviewed about this boundary crossing activity. Table 13: Students perceived effects of boundary crossing activities Knowing that Knowing how Knowing for Knowing about A. Guest lectures x v o x x o B. Internships x v o x v o x v o x v o C. Work field projects x v o x v o x v o x v o Note: x = according to theory, v = interviews, o = questionnaires Conditions for success of the boundary crossing activities Besides the positive effects on students professional identity formation, teachers and students also express some critical remarks about the boundary crossing activities. All interviewed teachers and students think that the amount of boundary activities should not be too high. They think that it is also important for students to learn basic domain-specific knowledge about chemistry, biology, technology et cetera. Boundary crossing activities are not the most appropriate means to teach students this basic knowledge; standard subjects and practicals remain most important for this. Concerning guest lectures (A), teacher and student questionnaire respondents state that the visiting lecturers should posses some basic didactical skills, so they know students knowledge level and how to address students to get them interested. They think that without these didactical skills, guest lectures are rather ineffective. This topic is not discussed in the interviews. For internships (B), the results from both the teacher and student interviews and questionnaires indicate that good guidance and supervision from a workplace professional are important. The professional can introduce a student to the workplace and the knowledge, skills and discourses needed to function effectively in that particular professional environment. Also, the internship assignments should match a student s level of expertise. According to the teachers and students, these are very important conditions for an internship to become a meaningful learning experience. Similar concerns as for internships are expressed about (C) work field projects, both in the interviews and the questionnaires. Students state that assignments for work field projects should be clear and unambiguous so students know what is expected of them, otherwise students do not know what to do. This will have a negative effect on the learning outcomes of a work field project. Also, the workplace professional supervising a project should be available to guide the project group and answer students questions, according to the teachers and students. The workplace professional can provide students with knowing that, knowing how, knowing for and knowing about ; without this input work field projects will have less effect on students professional identity formation. 16

18 Conclusion The aim of this study is to identify to what extend the three boundary crossing activities between higher professional education and work contribute to students professional identity formation. In the theoretical framework it is argued that students need four kinds of knowledge for successful identity formation: domain-specific conceptual knowledge, procedural knowledge, dispositional knowledge and their understanding of the future profession. Two research questions on the contribution of guest lectures, internships and work field projects to students knowledge acquisition and identity formation are addressed: (1) What are teachers intended effects of boundary crossing activities on students identity formation? The results from the teacher interviews and questionnaire show that guest lectures, internships and work field projects are all intended to affect students professional identity formation in a different way. An overview of teachers intended effects is provided in Table 11. Guest lectures are mainly intended to give students more knowing that and knowing about and internships to increase students knowing how and knowing for. During work field projects, learning knowing that, knowing how, knowing for and knowing about are considered equally important effects on students identity formation. (2) What are students perceptions of boundary crossing activities and their contribution to identity formation? The results of the empirical research among students show that they perceive effects of guest lectures, internships and work field project on their professional identity formation, but how and how much it is affected differs per activity. Table 13 gives an overview of students perceived effects of the three boundary crossing activities. Students perceive guest lectures to be important for increasing their knowing that and knowing about. Internships are perceived to increase students knowing for and knowing about and work field projects mostly enhance students knowing that, knowing how and knowing about. Table 14: Intended and perceived effects most emphasized by teachers and students respectively Knowing that Knowing how Knowing for Knowing about A. Guest lectures T S T S B. Internships T T S S C. Work field projects T S T S T T S Note: T = teachers, S = students An overview of the most important intended effects (T) and the most strongly perceived effects (S) of the three boundary crossing activities is shown in Table 14. The results of the questionnaires are leading, as they represent the largest groups of teachers and students. Two notable differences occur between teachers and students perspectives of internships and work field projects. The first difference is that teachers state that internships should most strongly enhance students knowing how, but students do not confirm this. Students on the other hand perceive strong effects on their knowing about during internships although this effect is not intended by teachers. This difference is most likely due to what students focus on during their internships. The interviewed students indicated that one thing they liked most about their internships was that they were personally involved in a professional environment where they could experience the culture of a workplace and get a view of what their professional future might be like. Students thus focus on getting more knowing about and consequently pay less attention to learning knowing how. The second difference between teachers and students perspectives is that according to teachers, work field projects are intended to increase students knowing for, but students do not perceive this. 17

19 ne of the interviewed students (S4) explained that most of the knowing for from work field projects she learned subconsciously. She stated that it was not until her internship later on in her education that she realized how much dispositional knowledge she had already gained from those projects. This most likely explains the difference between teachers and students perspectives: teachers know that students gain knowing for from work field projects, but students do not realize that they do. From Table 14 it can be concluded that guest lectures, internships and work field projects emphasize different kinds of knowledge. Implementing all activities in a curriculum will affect students professional identity formation most strongly. However, it is important to find a good balance between boundary activities and other educational activities, as was already noted in the interviews. Three of the interviewed teachers stated that it takes some trial-and-error to find the right balance. Table 14 is interesting for those involved in curriculum development in higher professional education, because it provides information on what boundary activity can best be used to let students learn particular kinds of knowledge. For example, if students need to increase their knowing for and knowing about an internship is a suitable activity. If an increase in students knowing that and knowing about is required on the other hand, guest lectures and work field projects both seem equally suitable. However, there is a difference between these activities: from Table 12 it can be concluded that students perceive effects of work field projects more strongly than effects of guest lectures, so work field projects are a better means to increase students conceptual knowledge and understanding of the profession. Work field projects thus have stronger effects on students professional identity formation than guest lectures, but it is also important to keep in mind that students spend significantly more time working on projects than participating in guest lectures. Furthermore, work field projects require more effort to implement in a curriculum. All these aspects should be considered when implementing boundary crossing activities in a higher professional education curriculum: effects on students professional identity formation, magnitude of the effects, time spent on an activity and effort of implementation. The implementation of boundary crossing activities in higher professional education enhances students preparation for the work field by increasing their knowledge, skills and discourses and thereby their professional identity needed for professional work. A well-rounded professional identity contributes to a smooth transition from student to professional and enhances future employability. Discussion This study analyzes the effects of guest lectures, internships and work field projects in Dutch Applied Science courses on students professional identity formation. It is argued that the three boundary crossing activities contribute to students domain-specific conceptual knowledge, procedural knowledge, dispositional knowledge and students understanding of their future profession. The results of the empirical research suggest that the three boundary activities have positive effects on students employability and transition from higher education to work. The results also show that the boundary activities have to meet certain conditions in order for them to be effective. However, these conditions are not thoroughly researched in this study; more research will be necessary to get a complete overview of the conditions for successful boundary crossing activities. Dutch Applied Science courses were chosen as exemplary courses in this study. The results indicate positive effects of boundary crossing activities on students of these particular courses; however, it is not clear whether these activities have similar effects when they are integrated in other higher professional education curricula. For example, a characteristic feature of Applied Science courses is that they prepare students for a wide variety of workplaces and jobs, so students need to gain knowing about to get a view of this broad variety. ther higher professional education courses however, like physiotherapy, nursing or teacher training, prepare students for specific workplaces and 18

20 jobs, so these students might not need to gain much knowing about. Further research is needed to identify if students in other courses than the Applied Science courses also benefit from boundary crossing activities. Another limitation of this study is that it is unclear in what year of a four year higher professional education curriculum the boundary crossing activities can best be implemented. More research is necessary to identify if students in earlier years of their education for example benefit more or less from guest lectures, internships and work field projects than students in the later years of a course. The used research method is appropriate for this kind of study. The interviews provided a clear view of teachers and students perspectives of the three boundary crossing activities and this information constituted a good starting point for composing the questionnaires. The questionnaires, however, had one disadvantage: some questions in the teacher and student questionnaire were designed differently which led to different kinds of results. This made it difficult to compare those results. The sample is sufficient: five teacher and five student interviews led to a point of saturation in information gained from both groups and the questionnaire respondents scaled up the sample size sufficiently, with the exception that only eight students filled out questions about work field projects. By including teachers perspectives on the three boundary crossing activities, this study distinguishes itself from previous research on these kinds of activities. Teachers views are rarely included in studies on boundary crossing and boundary activities: students perspectives are discussed most extensively in literature. 19