Student-Centered Leadership By Viviane Robinson (Jossey-Bass, 2011)

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1 File: Educational Leadership Student-Centered Leadership By Viviane Robinson (Jossey-Bass, 2011) S.O.S. (A Summary of the Summary ) The main idea of the book is: ~ This book provides guidance on what school leaders need to know and be able to do based on research that will help them make a bigger difference to the learning and achievement of their students. Why I chose this book: Like Viviane Robinson, I believe that generic management books are not as useful to school leaders as those books that emphasize the specific knowledge and skills leaders in schools need to improve student learning. This is one of those books that describe the types of educational leadership practices that will result in improved teaching and learning. While the five leadership practices the author describes are not new (goal setting, resource use, teaching quality, effective teacher learning, and a safe environment), the nuances she brings to the discussion are important. I also like that this is a book for all leaders in the school from the principal and the assistant principal to the department chairs and other teacher leaders. In fact, she argues that educational leadership is too complex to assume that the principal alone can be an expert in all five areas. Note that this is not a step-by-step, how-to book, but rather it helps leaders think about their practice and the subtle changes, even small ones, that will improve student outcomes. The Scoop (In this summary you will learn ) The five leadership practices that research says will have a positive impact on student outcomes The three skills (or capabilities) leaders need to develop in order to implement the five leadership practices How to use resources more strategically without needing additional funds Four key questions you can use to judge the quality of instruction during classroom observations Criteria you can use to judge whether your professional development is effective Discussion questions to get leaders to think about, discuss, and implement these leadership practices The Main Idea All rights reserved. By Jenn David-Lang

2 Chapters 1 and 2: The What and the How of Effective Educational Leadership The What of Effective Educational Leadership Recent research shows just how important the quality of leadership is in affecting student achievement. However, research on school leadership has historically focused on whether the school leader is successful at school management (the school is orderly), building relationships (the principal is popular), and getting on board with the latest innovations (the principal adopts the latest innovation). Instead, school leadership should be deemed effective if it has an impact on student learning. However, it is difficult to isolate the contribution of leadership to student outcomes. Robinson combed through the research to find those factors that relate directly to student achievement and put forth a student-centered definition of effective leadership that disrupts the notion that what is good for the adults is necessarily good for the students. Of the hundreds of thousands of studies on educational leadership, only a handful have empirically examined the impact of leadership on student outcomes. Based on these studies, Robinson calculated the effect size for different leadership practices and organized them into the top five leadership practices that have the most impact on student outcomes: The Five Dimensions of Effective Educational Leadership Leading teacher learning and development Establishing goals and expectations Ensuring quality teaching Resourcing strategically Ensuring an orderly and safe environment It is important to note that these five dimensions of effective educational leadership work in concert. For example, if student learning goals are clear, then leaders will have a better idea of what teachers need to learn to improve their teaching. Also, a number of these dimensions focus on instructional leadership a theme that recurs throughout the research on educational leadership. Finally, the focus on leadership need not only include the principal developing expertise in the five dimensions will help both formal and informal leaders improve their impact on student outcomes. In fact, the scope of the five dimensions is so large, and the expertise to be successful in all of them is too great for one person, that leadership in those five areas should be spread throughout the school. The five core chapters of this book explain the types of specific leadership practices that make up each of the five dimensions. While readers are likely to be familiar with these dimensions, the goal is to go beyond the broad concepts of goal setting or quality teaching. Knowing about these concepts in general is not sufficient for effective leadership. There are subtle differences between what works and what does not work for each practice, and while the scope of this book does not cover every detail of leadership, instead, it will present a few powerful nuanced ideas in more depth. The chapters are organized in a way that leadership unfolds, rather than from greatest impact to least. First leaders set clear goals, then provide resources for those goals, and all the way down the line. The How of Effective Educational Leadership In the previous section, Robinson outlines the what of effective educational leadership the five dimensions leaders should focus on to have a greater impact on student learning. This section focuses on the how the three capabilities that describe the knowledge and skills a school leader needs in order to successfully implement the five dimensions. There has been much more research done on the what of effective leadership (leadership practices) than the skills necessary to implement them. However, based on the seminal research that does exist, these three capabilities are: 1) applying relevant knowledge, 2) solving complex problems, and 3) building relational trust. It is important to note that all three capabilities are necessary for each of the five dimensions, as is shown in the graphic below. For example, for the dimension of goal setting, leaders need to know: 1) what goals to set, 2) how to address the problems that arise when attempting to set goals, and 3) how to build trust so staff buy into the goal-setting process. The 3 Leadership Capabilities 1. Applying relevant knowledge 2. Solving complex problems 3. Building relational trust Leadership Dimension 1: Establishing goals and expectations Leadership Dimension 2: Resourcing strategically Leadership Dimension 3: Ensuring quality teaching Leadership Dimension 4: Leading teacher learning and development Leadership Dimension 5: Ensuring an orderly and safe environment 1 (Student-Centered Leadership, Jossey-Bass) The Main Idea 2012

3 The First Capability: Applying Relevant Knowledge to One s Leadership Practice This skill is about using knowledge about effective teaching, teacher learning, and school organization to improve student outcomes. For example, one principal realized that her checklist to evaluate teachers did not focus on developing students thinking and therefore encouraged unresponsive teaching. She changed the checklist based on her knowledge of what leads to student thinking and understanding. In another example of how a leader s knowledge about teaching and learning changed administrative practice, as one principal learned more about mathematics instruction he changed the process of textbook selection. Instead of choosing a textbook based on cost and attractiveness, he was able to provide a series of questions to better guide the selection committee in their choice of textbooks. The Second Capability: Solving Complex Problems This skill involves knowing what the challenges are in solving problems and creating solutions that effectively address those issues. In other words, there are two parts to the problem-solving process: identifying the conditions that need to be met and then addressing those conditions. For example, imagine a principal who wants her teachers to use common assessments. At a meeting, she hears a variety of staff comments that point to the conditions they would like to see met for this new initiative: Staff comments Parents could misinterpret the results. It must be useful for my teaching. I think we overassess students already. The software needs to be easier to use. Implied conditions or solution requirements Accuracy of interpretation Usefulness to classroom teachers New assessments must not add to total assessment burden Efficient technology However, the leader must determine the validity of these different claims and know how to give some of them more weight than others. In order to do this, the leader must have an attitude that embraces all reasonable solutions and the cognitive skills to understand how all of the different requirements to the solution affect each other and the school as a whole. In his research, Kenneth Leithwood describes how effective principals go about the two parts of the problem-solving process. Below is an excerpt: EXPERT PRINCIPALS are more likely to TYPICAL PRINCIPALS are more likely to Problem Formulation Explicitly check their own assumptions about the problem Assume others share their assumptions Actively seek the interpretations of others Not seek the interpretations of others Relate the problem to the wider mission of the school Treat the problem in isolation Anticipate obstacles and how they could be overcome Anticipate fewer obstacles and see them as major impediments Problem-Solving Process Carefully plan a collaborative problem-solving process Do less planning of the process Openly disclose own views without restraining others Not disclose own view or disclose in a controlling way Overtly manage the meeting process, for example, summarizing Do less active meeting management and synthesizing staff views Express little or no frustration Experience unexpressed frustration The Third Capability: Building Trust to Improve Teaching and Learning Trust is necessary in the difficult work of improving teaching and learning. Even if leaders understand theories of effective leadership, they need to develop trust among all stakeholders in order to practice these theories. Leaders build trust by modeling and expecting: Respect valuing the ideas of other people Personal regard caring about the personal and professional lives of staff Competence especially in dealing with those who undermine the group s effort Integrity walking the talk and keeping their word The issue of trust often arises over the challenging topic of teacher performance. Leaders need to address poor teaching and yet also attend to the relationship with the teacher. For example, if a leader observes a class and comes away with deep concerns about the teacher s reading instruction, typically the leader takes one of the following two ineffective approaches: Soft Sell: How is your reading program going? When I was in the other day the children seemed to be really enjoying themselves. Do you have any recent assessments of their progress? Hard Sell: I m concerned about your reading program. I d like you to go and observe Jane s program and let me know how you are going to make changes so your class catches up. 2 (Student-Centered Leadership, Jossey-Bass) The Main Idea 2012

4 Both of these approaches discourage debate. Instead, Robinson recommends an Open-to-Learning Conversation (OTC) as a way to build trust and address the performance issue. In this approach, the leader relies on three interpersonal skills pursuing valid information, showing respect, and pursuing a shared process. Rather than sell her own view, the leader discloses it honestly without expecting the teacher to share it or accept it. Then she checks if the information is valid and listens. Below is an example of a preferable response: When I came into your class the other day I got the impression from the book levels being used that many of your students were well behind where I would expect them to be. So I thought I should tell you that and check it against your understanding of their current and expected levels. While there is no set approach to an OTC, below are some of the key components (for the full list, see pp ) Sample Components of an Open-to-Learning Conversation About a Performance Issue Sample Key Components What You Might Say Describe your point of view without assuming its I don t know whether I m right in this but I was worried when I saw truth. I realize this may not be how you see it but I Invite the other person s point of view. What do you think, you haven t said much so far Do you see it differently? Detect and check important assumptions. What leads you to believe that the children aren t yet ready to read? What would be an example of that? Establish common ground and make a plan. We both agree this is unacceptable. So, how would you like to learn more about? Chapter 3: Dimension One Establishing Goals and Expectations Schools receive competing agendas from a variety of sources and have the potential to become fragmented. To prevent this fragmentation, leaders of effective schools have clear goals that outline the school s priorities. Although research points to the importance of goals in impacting student outcomes, note that this is only the case when goal setting is done effectively. Goals remain empty words unless certain conditions are present. Goal setting involves more than simply choosing goals. It involves gaining commitment from the staff to implement them, determining whether staff have the capacity to achieve the goals, and setting goals that are appropriately specific. Without these three conditions, it is unlikely that goals will be met. Gaining Goal Commitment In order to be effective, goals need to be the result of a truly collective effort. It is not the same thing as a leader giving an inspirational speech. Rather than simply sharing their own values and ideas, leaders need relational skills to connect the goal with the passions of staff who implement the goals. If the goal does not fit with what they value, staff will be less likely to support it. Furthermore, staff need to become aware of the school s current situation and the gap that exists between this and a desired future. Without an awareness of this gap, staff may feel satisfied with the status quo and will not understand why the goal is needed. Determining Capacity One of the common pitfalls in goal setting is underestimating the capacity staff will need to implement a goal. Sometimes effort alone is not enough to meet a goal. For example, if teachers do not have sufficient skills to teach narrative writing, then it makes no sense to set a goal like the following: 80% of students at grade level X will meet the standard in narrative writing by X date. This is a performance goal. When staff lack a certain skill, it may be more appropriate to set a learning goal rather than a performance goal. A learning goal focuses on the strategies, processes, or procedures needed to perform a task sufficiently. Leaders need to determine the capacity of their staff members and set the appropriate type of goal. When a performance goal is set without staff having the requisite skills to meet that goal, the leader has created the type of conditions under which teachers manipulate the targets rather than focus on the teaching and learning. This does not mean leaders need to spend months doing research, but they need to know whether their staff have sufficient capacity before holding them accountable for performance targets. Goal Specificity Vague goals do not indicate when improvement has been accomplished. For example, how can a principal know if he has accomplished the following goal, to improve relationships in the senior leadership team. As a result, many leaders create what have become known as SMART goals specific, measurable, achievable, realistic, and time bound. While SMART goals can be extremely useful, it is important for leaders to know when they are inappropriate. In order to create a SMART goal you need to know a great deal about how to accomplish it. However, in dealing with a new challenge you very well may not know how to accomplish it or how long it will take. In these cases, it is best to set a learning goal or a broader performance goal. A final word of caution is to set no more than three or four goals. Setting too many goals prevents leaders from sending a message about what should be prioritized at the school. 3 (Student-Centered Leadership, Jossey-Bass) The Main Idea 2012

5 Chapter 4: Dimension Two Resourcing Strategically Resourcing strategically is easy to explain, but not so easy to do. Principals who are effective in this dimension know how to use money, time, and people to support the school s priority goals. For example, if a school aims to improve boys love of reading, then decisions about resources should fit this: texts should be chosen with this aim in mind, professional development should be planned to enhance teachers abilities to carry this out, and staff should be hired who can support this goal. Many educators assume that additional funding is the answer to school improvement issues. However, the research is mixed as to whether additional funds lead to improvement. Instead, this chapter focuses on how to better use a school s existing resources. To make best use of a school s current resources, the leadership team needs all three capabilities outlined earlier. Since most goals are about student improvement, leaders need to apply what they know about what improves student learning to their decisions about resources. Second, problem solving is needed to evaluate current resource use and to determine alternative options. Third, since resource reallocation may mean changes in people s jobs, relational skills are needed to handle the accompanying emotional reactions. A leadership team with these three skills will be able to make more influential resourcing decisions in the three areas outlined below. Strategic Decisions About STAFFING The quality of teaching is one of the most important factors that influence student learning. Leaders can significantly impact this factor based on how well they recruit, retain, and replace their teachers. Professional development of teachers also contributes to the quality of teaching, but this is discussed later in the book. What happens in the school has a major impact on the retention of teachers. Schools that have a lower staff turnover rate provide support for new teachers, give staff more discretion over teaching, curriculum, and professional development decisions, and report having fewer discipline problems. The good news is that leaders have influence over these areas, and therefore can impact staff retention. Leaders can also improve the school s ability to recruit and hire effective staff members by being proactive and comprehensive. Schools that improved their student achievement formed partnerships with local teacher-education programs as well as alternative certification programs to increase their pool of applicants and then provided strong induction, mentoring, and incentives to attract teachers. Furthermore, rather than using generic teacher job descriptions they tailored these to the specifics of the job and required candidates to teach demo lessons and partake in additional conversations rather than just sit for an interview. Strategic Decisions About INSTRUCTIONAL RESOURCES Instructional resources include items such as texts, curriculum documents, standards, assessments, instructional software, and worksheets. Although this may not appear obvious, the influence leaders exercise by choosing instructional resources far outweighs their influence from face-to-face interactions because instructional resources affect the work of so many people. Given the importance of instructional resources, it is vital that leaders ascertain the quality of these materials. Below are two criteria to evaluate the quality of instructional resources. Note that Robinson calls resources that meet both criteria smart tools and those that don t, dumb tools. 1. How valid are the ideas on which the resource or tool is based? 2. How good is the design of the resource? 1. The Validity of the Ideas To determine if the ideas behind a resource are valid, these ideas first need to be surfaced. Once made explicit, leaders can determine if they are valid. For example, if a text claims to teach mathematical thinking, leaders should ask whether the theory behind the text fits the best evidence for how children learn to problem solve. Does it fit with the teachers experience about the types of activities that foster problem solving? Is the balance between computational fluency and problem solving appropriate for developing mathematical reasoning? In addition to asking questions like these, another way to determine validity is to look for evidence of the actual effectiveness of a resource. One reliable source to use for this is the Best Evidence Encyclopedia ( run by Bob Slavin out of Johns Hopkins and York University. This website contains numerous instructional resources and includes the impact (in terms of effect size) these resources have had on student achievement. Another interesting aspect of the website is that it lists instructional resources for which there are no rigorous studies of effectiveness. 2. The Quality of the Design An instructional resource can be based on a valid theory, but be difficult to use. Leaders should listen to and get feedback from current or prospective users. Below is also a list of six criteria to use when evaluating most instructional resources: Is the purpose clear? Are the abstract ideas clearly connected to examples and details? Are misunderstandings directly addressed? Is the need for change clearly explained and justified? Does it have high coherence and low complexity? Is the language of the text reinforced by aligned visuals? Strategic Decisions About TIME Leaders need to treat instructional time as a valuable resource. There is a great deal of variation in the amount of time students spend in school across the United States and also how that time is used. The first step is for leaders to assess how instructional time is currently being used in their school. One way to do this is to look at the categories of time below and determine what percentage of the time students spend in each activity: 4 (Student-Centered Leadership, Jossey-Bass) The Main Idea 2012

6 A. Instructional time 1. Instructional time in core subjects time in English, science, math, social studies, and foreign languages 2. Instructional time in noncore academic subjects time in all other courses B. Support and enrichment supervised study time such as tutorials, enrichment, advisory periods C. Maintenance and unassigned time lunch, breaks, unsupervised study time D. Release time time when students are excused from school The results can be shocking. One source suggests that overall, students spend less than 75% of their time on instruction and at the secondary level this number drops to less than 50% of their time on core subjects. Once they see these results, leaders can begin to think of ways to reorganize time so that there is more high-quality instruction for students who need it and whether larger blocks of time would help teachers increase their instructional time. Leaders should also investigate whether time is eroded due to special events, test preparation, end of semester slowdowns, or even by teachers choices about what to teach and find ways to protect instructional time. Of course one way to extend instructional time is through after school and summer school. However, these programs need to be tightly aligned to the curriculum and have high-quality teaching in order for this to work. Chapter 5: Dimension Three Ensuring Quality Teaching The third dimension of effective instructional leadership is ensuring quality teaching. Research shows that this leadership dimension is important in influencing student outcomes. This chapter outlines three ways leadership can ensure quality teaching: (1) by developing a coherent instructional program, (2) having a defensible theory of effective teaching, and (3) building a culture of inquiry that is evidence-based. (1) Leadership That Develops a Coherent Instructional Program Research shows that in schools in which there is a coherent instructional program, students achieve more. What exactly does a coherent instructional program include? Note that this is not about having a tightly scripted program because teacher skill is needed to diagnose student problems against the coherent instructional program. Instead, it includes: a curriculum, instructional strategies, and assessments that are coordinated within and between grade levels a culture and organization that supports the instructional framework including professional development and evaluation the resources to support the implementation of the coherent instructional program Why does having a coherent instructional program lead to increased achievement? Because it supports what we know about both student and teacher learning. If there is a clear curriculum, teachers will all reinforce the same ideas, use similar vocabulary, and support links between subjects. In addition, the logical progression, from grade to grade, enhances student learning. Furthermore, when it is clear what teachers must teach, there can be a more coherent approach to professional development, and teacher learning can be much more focused, shared, and sustained. However, it is complex to develop a coherent instructional program. To begin, leaders should begin with a few priority subjects to coordinate (such as math or language arts). Leaders usually start with areas in which proficiency is lower. In addition, leaders must begin to develop a more public teacher culture as a way to begin sharing and coordinating the instructional program. The historically autonomous approach to teaching is not conducive to developing a curriculum, strategies, or assessments that are consistent regardless of the teacher. (2) The Need for a Theory of Quality Teaching Every time leaders engage in acts of instructional leadership do classroom observations, give feedback, make plans for instructional improvement they operate based on a theory of effective teaching whether it is explicit or implicit. Because this theory affects virtually every instructional leadership practice, it is important that leaders have a theory of quality teaching that is valid. Robinson suggests a theory of teaching that emphasizes the importance of both the quantity and quality of teaching. High-quality teaching maximizes the time that learners are engaged with and successful in the learning of important outcomes. The focus here is on how teachers use their time. There are four ways this time can be eroded. First, time can be lost to waiting for transitions, routines, or resources that are not in place. Second, if there is a mismatch between the important learning outcomes and the class activities, this also detracts from quality teaching time. Third, even if the above two items are avoided, students will still not learn if they are not engaged. While students might be behaviorally engaged, they may not be cognitively engaged, that is, actively thinking. Finally, if the activities are not matched to students levels and designed for success, learning will also be lost. Leaders can use the questions below to judge the quality of instruction based on Robinson s theory of quality learning above: 1. What are the intended learning outcomes for this lesson/unit and are they important for these students at this time? 2. How are these activities intended to help students achieve the learning outcomes? 3. How did the activities build on the prior knowledge, experience, and interests of the students? How well were the students focused on the big ideas in the lesson? 4. How successful were students with the intended learning outcomes and what were their misunderstandings? 5 (Student-Centered Leadership, Jossey-Bass) The Main Idea 2012

7 (3) Building a Culture of Inquiry That is Evidence Based The third aspect of ensuring quality teaching involves creating a culture that is open to questioning and data. Creating a culture in which evidence is used for the purpose of improvement requires a tricky balance between advocating the use of data and responding to teacher concerns about its use. The capabilities introduced earlier (relationship building and problem solving in particular) are vital in achieving this balance. The use of data is mentioned so frequently, that leaders assume everyone knows why it is important. However, data can be used for a variety of reasons, many of which are not to improve student learning. Because of this, leaders must go out of their way to discuss why data is important. They need to emphasize that data is to be used as a resource to support decision-making. However, in no way does it replace professional judgment. To help teachers use data in a way that the data supports rather than replaces decision-making, leaders need to make sure that: Only data that are relevant are used eliminate all data not being used Data are accessible both the format (technology) and the timing (data entry is not overwhelming) They provide adequate time for teachers to collaborate around data use They ensure teachers have the capacity to interpret data A more subtle aspect of creating a culture open to data involves helping teachers to become more open to challenging their own assumptions based on the data. Studying data won t change your practice as a teacher unless, in addition to having the skills to interpret the data, you also have the desire to use the data to test the validity of your ideas. People are more likely to ignore data results if they conflict with their own preconceived notions. In teaching, these preconceived notions might be about the students, how to teach them, or the effectiveness of current practice. Leaders need to use their skills such as the open-to-learning conversations introduced earlier to help teachers question their assumptions. For example, if educators see students running around the classroom they often jump to the judgment that the children are not engaged in learning and the teacher has not taught effective classroom management routines. However, creating a culture that is both inquiry-based and data-driven would encourage the educators to observe and report the evidence rather than jump to judgments. Below are some questions leaders can use to check the quality of their own thinking (and these can be adopted to help others do this as well): What have I noticed? What might I have missed? Am I reporting the situation accurately? What other possible interpretations are there? What information or logic led me to my conclusion or judgment? While data that is high quality, relevant, and accessible is vital, quality decision-making requires that educators bring the appropriate knowledge, openness to questioning their assumptions, and interpersonal respect to the discussion and interpretation of the data. Chapter 6: Dimension Four Leading Teacher Learning and Development Recent research gives a good idea of what kinds of professional development actually change teacher practice in a way that improves student learning. Of the five dimensions of leadership described in this book, research shows that strong leadership skills in promoting and participating in the professional development of teachers has the greatest impact on student outcomes. Note that much of the evidence emphasized the importance of leaders themselves participating in the professional learning as well, not just promoting it. By personally participating in the professional learning, the leader can see, firsthand, the challenges teachers face and the conditions necessary for the teachers to succeed. Why Teacher Learning as a Collective Endeavor Benefits the School There are numerous reasons for a leader to organize professional learning as a collective rather than individual endeavor. First, research shows that a student s performance is linked to what the student has achieved in previous years with previous teachers. This means a teacher s success is literally tied to the efforts of other teachers and this forms a rationale for all teachers in a school to work together to improve. Second, teaching is complex and by collaborating with other teachers, we can bring a greater variety of perspectives to the solving of teaching dilemmas. A third reason teacher learning should be collaborative is that it adds to the coherence of the instructional program (introduced in Chapter Five). Fourth, teacher collaboration leads teachers to hold each other accountable for student learning without needing external enforcements. Finally, research shows that having teachers take collective responsibility for student learning is predictive of higher levels of student achievement. While there are many reasons that effective professional development is a collective endeavor, it is important to note that not just any type of collaborative teacher work will be effective. In fact, there are many types of collective teacher learning that are ineffective. 6 (Student-Centered Leadership, Jossey-Bass) The Main Idea 2012

8 Conducting Effective Professional Development Based on the Research Professional development is effective if it impacts student learning. Leaders who are effective in designing professional learning use evidence about student learning to help them make decisions about what professional learning is needed, whether it is working, and when to end it. Below is a brief description of six characteristics of effective professional learning that research shows are more likely to change teacher practice in a way that improves student outcomes. 1. Serves identified student and teacher learning needs The driving question should be, What do we as teachers need to learn to promote the learning of our students? Because all needs cannot be met at once, leaders must decide which student needs will drive the next professional development. 2. Focuses on the relationship between teaching and student outcomes Teachers need to conduct intensive collaborative inquiry into the connection between teaching and learning that focuses on evidence of relevant student work. 3. Provides worthwhile content Teachers focus on learning content that evidence shows has improved student learning. 4. Integrates theory and practice Teachers need to both understand the underlying principles of new approaches as well as be given ample opportunity to practice teaching in new ways in their own contexts. 5. Uses external expertise When teachers share similar difficulties they need to turn to external expertise. 6. Provides multiple opportunities to learn To challenge their existing practice and understandings, teachers may need one to two years to put new teaching skills into practice in their own classrooms. Addressing Teacher Resistance to Professional Learning Robinson is frequently asked for advice about what to do when teachers don t want to change. The literature on this topic is filled with the language of resistance and how to address it. However, Robinson argues that this approach is misdirected. When using the term resistance this implies the leader is right and the teacher is wrong. Instead, leaders need to develop the skills to understand that the disagreement is about a difference in theories of action. A theory of action consists of the values and beliefs an individual holds which explain why that person acts in a certain way. Effective leaders understand that a disagreement is often the result of conflicting theories of action. For example, in one case a leader expected teachers to use assessment results to improve their teaching of reading but one teacher refused. The leader believed that by using assessment results, teachers would be better able to tailor their lessons and student reading would improve. However, the teacher who did not comply had a competing theory of action. She believed that the students poor reading progress was due to factors beyond her control. Once the leader understands a teacher s theory of action then the teacher s actions make sense based on their beliefs. In this case, providing more assistance on the technical aspects of how to use data to improve instruction would not help. Many leaders make this mistake and focus on the actions they want to change without understanding the teachers thinking behind their actions. Because leaders don t ask enough questions of the teachers, Robinson calls this approach the bypass strategy of change leadership because it bypasses understanding the theory of action that led to the behavior. Instead, the leader should take an approach to leading change by engaging theories of action. This means the leader must take time to not only share her own theory of action but to ask a lot of questions and listen carefully as teachers share their own theories. Chapter 7: Dimension Five Ensuring an Orderly and Safe Environment If students and staff do not feel safe, it is unlikely that any learning will occur in a school. So why is this section discussed last? Because it is not effective to focus on creating a safe environment in a way that is disconnected from the quality of curriculum and instruction. School leaders always need to keep educational ends in mind when addressing issues of discipline. Otherwise they are likely to create policies that impose external sanctions which will only serve to alienate students and create a punishing environment for both students and staff. This means leaders need to take a holistic approach to discipline rather than simply focus on student behavior. Leaders must create the type of environment in which students willingly engage in their own learning. Student engagement is about more than appropriate behavior; it involves three components: behavioral, emotional, and cognitive engagement. Behavioral engagement can be seen through students attendance and presence in class. Emotionally engaged students identify with their school and like at least some of their teachers, classes, or activities. Cognitive engagement occurs when students are thinking about their learning. In a truly orderly and safe environment all three types of engagement should be high and lead to increased student learning. Students own perceptions of their experiences at school determine how well they engage at school. Leaders can look to these perceptions as evidence of what is working and what to improve about the school culture. Furthermore, research shows that student engagement can be increased by providing opportunities for students to fulfill their psychological need for competence, autonomy, and relatedness. Students feel competent when school activities are structured in a way that helps them succeed. Autonomy allows students some degree of influence on what and how they learn. Students experience relatedness when they feel affiliation and trust such as when teachers know and care about their students. Below are two broad leadership strategies for fostering the types of engagement introduced above. 7 (Student-Centered Leadership, Jossey-Bass) The Main Idea 2012

9 1. Increasing Engagement Through a Safe School Environment The first part of improving student engagement involves getting students to school and in class. Leaders can begin with a survey asking students how safe they feel in hallways, bathrooms, and on the way to school as well as asking about their experiences with bullying and intimidation. Then leaders must take the results of this survey seriously. Secondly, in schools that are safe, the principals do much more than tighten discipline and increase punishments for violent actions. Instead, leaders in safe schools take a proactive approach to create a positive vision of a peaceful school, tied to increased educational gains, and rally staff around this vision. This goes well beyond violence prevention and remediation and gives staff a more attractive vision to hold onto rather than ideals of mass searches and expulsions. It means the leader takes the initiative to engage the whole school community in building trust and respect supplemented with high-quality opportunities to learn within classes as well. 2. Increasing Engagement Through Strong Parent-School Ties Students thrive in school when there are more bridges built between school and home. This can happen in two ways. Leaders and staff can learn about and show respect for the local community in the instruction and extra-curriculars at the school. In addition, the school can encourage parental involvement in the educational work of the school. The wider the gap is between the students community and the school culture, the more important it is to make those connections. Teachers can incorporate important aspects of students backgrounds into lessons and can show students they have the desire to learn and be open about other cultures. In terms of involving families in the school, it is important to note that there is no evidence that increasing parent involvement in the PTA will translate into improved student academic gains. Instead, school leaders should focus on ways to create educational partnerships between the school and home in order to improve student achievement. In order to do this, school leaders must begin by developing trust between the school and the families. Research shows that there is greater parent trust in schools when children report a strong sense of belonging in the school. Therefore, working to improve teacherstudent relationships is one way leaders can increase trust between families and the school. Then to design a program to increase parent involvement that focuses on student learning, leaders should use the design characteristics below: make student learning the primary focus of the program provide parents with explicit information and training (e.g., modeling strategies for reading tutoring) supply academic materials for use at home help families access resources such as books align school-home practices so parents actions support school learning raise parents expectations for their children s achievement use data on parent reactions and student progress to monitor the program Chapter 8: Conclusions This book has described the five evidence-based dimensions and three capabilities of leadership practice that will make the biggest difference in the learning and achievement of students. While these practices may not seem so original, and many educators already promote the idea of principal as instructional leader, it is important to look closely at the nuances described in the book. For example, Dimension Three is about ensuring the quality of teaching the core of instructional leadership. However, while some principals may interpret this to mean they should conduct more classroom visits, provide more feedback, and discuss teaching and learning at more staff meetings, all of this is unlikely to improve teaching and learning if it is based on a faulty theory of teaching quality or if feedback is delivered without an Open-to-Learning Conversation (OTC) as is described in the book. It is also important to note that depending on their stage of development, different schools will need to emphasize different components of the five dimensions. Schools need to adapt the practices in the book based on their specific contexts. The book is not meant as a set of rules to be followed rigidly. Finally, leaders need to feel comfortable acting with conviction to implement ideas that will improve student learning. For far too long schools have had a culture of teacher autonomy that has caused leaders to feel reluctant to exercise their influence for fear of being called bossy or disrespectful of those with more seniority. When school leaders become deeply informed by knowledge of how to improve learning and teaching, they need to act on this knowledge and maximize their influence on the education of their students. 8 (Student-Centered Leadership, Jossey-Bass) The Main Idea 2012

10 DISCUSSION QUESTIONS from the book Below are some reflective questions the principal can answer alone or with a leadership team at the school. Note that these questions are excerpted from the book. For more questions, please see the suggested pages. Dimension One Reflective Questions: Establishing Goals and Expectations (excerpted from p. 58) Below are some questions that staff can answer to provide feedback to the leadership about how effectively they approach goal setting in the school. How effectively does [insert name of principal, subject head, team leader, leadership team, etc.] ensure that There is agreement in this school, department, or team about the importance of the current learning goals Teachers are clear about the learning goals for which they are responsible Teachers feel particularly committed to achieving the goals for which they are responsible Teachers have the knowledge and skills they need to achieve the goals for which they are responsible Dimension Two Reflective Questions: Resourcing Strategically (excerpted from p. 79) How open are you, the school leaders, to rethinking traditional patterns of allocating time, staffing, and money? Is staff recruitment based on an analysis of the match between student needs and current staff capacity? Have school and district leaders rigorously evaluated the effectiveness of instructional programs/resources when they chose them? Have you, as the leaders, analyzed the consequences of the decisions that have led to the amount of instructional time students receive in their areas of highest need? Dimension Three Reflective Questions: Ensuring Quality Teaching (excerpted from p. 101) To what extent is the teaching of [specify subject] coordinated both within and across grade levels? To what extent is the teaching of [specify subject] informed by a common instructional framework? Do teachers and the leadership group have shared views about effective teaching and learning? What research or other evidence are those views based on? What are the barriers our teachers experience to using assessment data for instructional purposes? What are leaders doing to reduce these barriers? Dimension Four Reflective Questions: Leading Teacher Learning (excerpted from pp ) To what extent is the research on the characteristics of effective professional learning used in the design and selection of teacher professional learning opportunities at your school? To what extent does teacher collaborative learning focus on understanding the relationship between what has been taught and what students have learned? Is school professional development planning systematically linked to analysis of students learning needs? How effectively does the school identify teachers with the expertise needed to help colleagues address specific teaching problems? Is the impact on students used as an important indicator of the effectiveness of professional learning opportunities? To what extent do you employ bypass or engagement strategies in your leadership of change? Dimension Five Reflective Questions: Ensuring an Orderly and Safe Environment (excerpted from pp ) Are students surveyed regularly about their attitudes toward the school and their learning? Are the results used? How well does school leadership support teachers in using relevant community resources in their teaching? To what extent are parent-involvement efforts focused on increasing parental engagement with the educational work of the school? To what extent does school leadership coordinate and monitor the effectiveness of parent-involvement efforts? 9 (Student-Centered Leadership, Jossey-Bass) The Main Idea 2012