Language & Education Issues Affecting Asian Pacific American Students

Transcription

1 Language & Education Issues Affecting Asian Pacific American Students Kathryn Lindholm-Leary San Jose State University August 2003 California Association for Asian and Pacific American Education and National Association for the Education and Advancement of Cambodian, Laotian, and Vietnamese Americans, Quality Public Schools For Every Child: Opportunities And Challenges For Asian And Pacific American Children And Educators, Woodland Hills, CA

2 Demographics: Asian Pacific American in the US Represent 12 million, 4% of US population Fastest growing group--95% increase ; 69% By 2050, 1 of every 10 Americans will be APA 70% recent immigrants/refugees 88% of APA students have at least 1 foreign-born parent 80% live in 10 states: Cal, NY, Hawaii, Texas, New Jersey, Illinois, Washington, Florida, Virginia & Massachusetts FASTEST growing states: Georgia, Nevada, North Carolina, Nebraska, Arizona, Delaware, New Mexico

3 Asian Pacific Americans in the US Census 2000 Chinese 22% Japanese 8% Asian Indian 16% Other 13% Other 8% Korean 11% Filipino 18% Laotian 1.6% Vietnames e 11% Hmong 1.7% Cambodian 1.7%

4 Pacific Island Americans in the US Census 2000 Mabuhay (greeting--long live) Samoan 23% Native Hawaiian 35% Guamanian 15% Other PI 11%

5 1.7 million APA selected 2 races: 52% chose white as their second race Almost 1/3 of Japanese Am were mixed race Vietnamese Asian Indian Korean Chinese Filipino Japanese

6 Asian Pacific Americans in California Census % of APA live in California Korean 9% Filipino 23% Vietnamese 12% Japanese 8% Asian Indian 8% Other 8% Cambodian 2% Hmong Laotian 2% 2% Pac Isl 3% Chinese 23%

7 Socio-Economic Background APA enjoy highest median income in country $45,000 - compared to White-nonHisp $41,000 Japan/Filip Thai/Pak/Guam Hawai/Polyn Korean Indon & Tongan Viet & Samoan Laotian Cambodian Hmong APA have one of the highest poverty rates in urban and rural areas.

8 Education: The Successes Higher proportion of APA males (42%) and females (39%) have BA than White (31% and 25%). Proportion of each group with BAs Asian Ind Chinese Korean Japan/Filip Viet Hawai/Guam Cambod/Lao/Tong/Sam Hmong

9 Education: The Failures India/Korea Philip/Russia GrBrit/Can Southeast As Colombian Vietnamese Guate/ElSalv Mexican High proportion of APA students who have less than high school diploma Lowest dropout rate compared to other groups, but increasing while dropout rate for other groups decreasing Average of high performing APA groups masks high dropout rates of many other APA groups

10 Languages in US & California Four of the 10 most prevalent languages other than English are now Asian: Chinese (#2), Tagalog (#5), Vietnamese (#6), and Korean (#8). Percent of adults speaking the language in their home are: US California English Spanish 0.8 Chinese Tagalog Vietnamese Korean 1

11 APA Languages and Linguistically Isolated Groups APA groups speak 100 languages and dialects. 1/4 of families live in a community where their language is not spoken. Percent who are linguistically isolated: Hmong (60%) Cambodian (55%) Laotian (52%) Vietnamese (42%) Taiwanese (37%) Korean/Chinese (34%) Thai/Indonesian (26%) Tongan (19%) Japanese/Pakistani (15%) Filipino, Asian Indian (10%) Samoan/Guamanian (7%) Hawaiian (1%)

12 Limited English Proficiency of Adults 2/3 speak a language other than English at home Percentage of APAs who do not speak English well (or at all): Hmong (76%) Laotian/Cambodian (69%) Vietnamese (61%) Taiwanese (54%) Korean (52%) Chinese, not Taiwanese (50%) Thai (46%) Indonesian/Tongan (39%) Pakistani (30%) Filipino/Japanese/Asian Indian (24%) Samoan (22%) Guamanian (16%) Hawaiian (3%) English proficiency of Pacific Islanders least limited and of Southeast Asians most limited

13 English Language Learning Children 1997: 40% of APA children enrolled in school were English language learners 2000 in California: 79% of APA report speaking a language other than English at home: of these, 52% rate their ability in speaking English as less than very well. Other than Spanish, five Asian languages were represented among the highest percentage of ELLs Spanish Vietnamese Hmong Cantonese Korean Laotian Navaho

14 Teachers Able to Provide Services to APA English Language Learners California Data 1997: number of certified bilingual teachers in comparison to student population Vietnamese: 72 teachers for 47,663 students Hmong: 28 teachers for 31,156 students Khmer: 5 teachers for 20,645 students 1999: number of certified bilingual teachers and paraprofessionals Cantonese: 212 teachers & 79 paraprofessionals Hmong: 44 teachers & 11 paraprofessionals Korean: 27 teachers & 3 paraprofessionals Mandarin: 11 teachers & 0 paraprofessionals Tagalog: 20 teachers & 3 paraprofessionals Vietnamese: 53 teachers & 18 paraprofessionals Lack of teachers in students native languages students do not have appropriate access to content area achievement while they learn English.

15 Educational Services for APA English Language Learners In one study of APA college students, most felt they had received sufficient services in previous schooling to help them learn English and content--through programs such as ESL or bilingual. Students who reported lower literacy proficiency in English were less likely to report having received academic assistance from teachers or special programs (S Lee, 2002). Research that included Asian American ELL students showed that students who had developed a solid language and academic foundation in their native language and arrived between the ages of 8-11 were able to close the achievement gap with English speakers. Those who arrived after age 13 did not have sufficient time to develop sufficient competency in English oral and written proficiency to achieve at grade level. (Collier, 1997) ELL students who receive no services have the most difficulty in achieving at grade level; students who are in ESL/ELD programs score higher than those receiving no services; students in bilingual programs are more likely to achieve at or above grade level (Thomas & Collier, 2000).

16 Educational Concerns Model minority stereotype leads schools to overlook the social, psychological and educational needs of Asian American students (Pang & Cheng, 1998). Many Asian immigrant students with limited English skills area passed from one grade level to another without an adequate level of English proficiency (Ima & Nidoff, 1998), which can lead to an inability to pass graduation exams (Bennett, 1995).

17 Implications of English Proficiency for APA English Language Learners While English proficiency leads to higher grades in English and social science courses, it is not related to grades in math and science with East Asian students (S Lee, 2002). English proficiency is associated with higher achievement scores in English reading and language, but is not related to achievement scores in math (Ima & Rumbaut, 1995) for Southeast Asian students. English proficiency has the same relationships to grades and achievement scores for Latino ELLs (Lindholm-Leary, 2001). Lack of English language proficiency students do not have opportunities to develop sufficient English oral & literacy competencies for higher education.

18 Impact on College & Career Choice And in Providing Services to ELL Students English proficiency, especially reading and writing skills, has a significant effect on students choice of a college major (Pang, 1995; Wong, 1990). About 3/4 of less-proficient students said they would have chosen a different major (and a different college to attend) if they had more English proficiency. (S Lee, 2002) Even college students who are successfully pursuing a degree feel that one of their greatest challenges in school related to language barriers. (S Lee, 2002). Learning to write well in English had been a problem and is still a problem. Removing accent from my English and learning to speak professionally in English. If students lack English proficiency and do not go into majors that prepare them to be teachers APA students will continue to be underserved because of the scarcity of teachers who are proficient in their native language

19 Educational Aspirations Research suggests that APA students overcompensate for their minority group status by overachieving (Sue & Okazaki, 1990). Park (1998) found that the educational aspirations of Chinese, Japanese, Korean, Filipino, and Vietnamese students were very high, and higher than whites. Aspirations were highest among Koreans. Among Southeast Asian students, Park (2001) reported group differences: educational aspirations were high for Cambodian, Hmong, and Vietnamese students, but lower for Laotian students. Students educational aspirations were related to perceived parental influence and their aspirations mirrored their parents aspirations for them (Park, 1998, 2001). Lindholm-Leary and Borsato (2001) also reported high educational aspirations for Latino ELLs who had participated in a bilingual program. These students indicated that their parents had high expectations for them, despite having very low educational backgrounds.

20 Discrimination Issues Curriculum reflects distorted images/stereotypes of Asian Americans, or neglects their history and contributions, which can have negative influences on the self-concept of Asian American students (Suzuki, 1986). Many Asian immigrant students report experiencing prejudice and discrimination from other students (S Lee, 2002; Pang, 1995). I was bullied by my classmates for looking different and talking different. Not being accepted was also hard. Punjabi high school students reported racial hostility, including prejudicial attitudes and behaviors of schoolmates as their main difficulties at school (Gibson, 1988). Many Asian immigrant students reported prejudice & discrimination from school personnel (Hobbs, 2000; S Lee, 2002; Pang, 1995). Hostility from teachers lessened college students enthusiasm for learning, which can hamper academic performance and social adjustment (Young & Takeuchi, 1998).

21 Children and English Language Proficiency: Native Language Loss APA children speak English at home at higher rate than Latino children of same generation APA Latino 1st Generation 2nd generation 3rd generation Use of only English among 2nd generation children: 4/5 of Filipino, 1/2 of Asian Indian, 2/5 of Korean, 2/3 of Japanese Even in the 1st generation, only 1/2 of the Asian students who immigrated prior to 12 years of age considered themselves proficient in their mother tongue compared to 81% who immigrated after age 12 (S Lee, 2002).

22 Native Language Loss Statements about language loss are common from students who began school as ELLs and were taught only in English: Now the only thing that is still Chinese in my mind is the multiplication table. I wish I had kept up with my reading skills in Chinese. It felt as though my Chinese heritage was fading away with my Chinese literacy. Even with the Chinese I speak, I am limited to the normal yet shallow everyday conversations I have with my parents and do not have enough of a vocabulary to have meaningful talks with them. Such was the case just the other night when they asked me what my major at Berkeley was, but I did not know the phrase for biology, much less molecular and cellular biology. The best I could manage was science in Chinese and explained the rest in English; I could not communicate to them why I selected this major, what I was going to do with it, and so forth--we ended the discussion by changing the subject.

23 Implications of Native Language Loss Family Relationships Research with APA students has shown that failure to develop proficiency in the native language can result in a loss of strong family connection and access to one s culture and history (Gall & Natividad, 1995; Olsen, 1997). A growing body of literature suggests that there are large emotional and communication gaps between Asian immigrant students and their parents (Huang, 1989; Miura, 1997; S Lee, 2002; Rumbaut, 1997, 1999; Yee, Huang & Lew, 1998). Jo (1999) found Korean parents felt inadequate when they could not teach their values or help their children with homework due to a breakdown in communication with their children. When parents lack proficiency in English and require their child to translate for them, there can be a parent-child role reversal (Ho, 1987; Yee et al, 1998) which can threaten parents authority (Jo, 1999). I am fairly westernized. My parents and older brother unsuccessfully tried to instill traditional Vietnamese values into me. I found these values archaic, narrow, sexist, racist, and unjust.

24 Language and Self Identity Native language is a powerful factor in forming an ethnic identity (Yee, Huang & Lew, 1998). I think I am different from Americans and Koreans. It was very difficult to break stereotypes I could not be fully Korean or American and was looked down upon by both for not fully complying to one standard. I wish I hadn t given up my Korean speaking skills cause I think I could have fit in better with my Korean friends. In a study of US-born Korean and Chinese high school students, SK Lee (2002) found that the students who wanted to preserve their Asian culture & language achieved at higher levels. Students who had attended Chinese or Korean school and attended cultural events had higher GPAs than students who were more interested in assimilating to the dominant society. Oketani (1997) found that among 2nd generation Japanese Am students, being educated and developing proficiency in Japanese was associated with higher English proficiency and educational outcomes. These results are consistent with research among Latino students. Children and youth who are educated in their home language and develop an appreciation for their cultural background have more positive educational and socio-emotional outcomes: bilingual, biliterate and bicultural individuals who achieve at higher levels in schools and have more positive views of themselves

25 Promoting Language & Cultural Proficiencies Chinese Heritage Language Education Chinese heritage community language schools respond to the problem of native language loss, higher parental expectations, and more parent control and authority. 1997: approximately 82,675 students taking Chinese in 634 language schools across the country; 102 Chinese language schools in southern California. Different categories of classes: Mandarin Chinese only classes Mandarin Chinese as a 2nd language Chinese language high school credit Most classes include both language and culture Developments: An increasing number of Chinese language school students are studying Chinese in US colleges; many school districts granting credit to students who study at Chinese language schools.

26 Promoting Language & Cultural Proficiencies Two-Way Bilingual Immersion Education Two Way Bilingual Education AKA: Dual language education, two way immersion Integrates language minority & language majority students for academic instruction that is presented through two languages Language majority (English speakers) Language minority (Target language speakers) Programs in 250 public schools in 24 states 5 Chinese-English (4 Cantonese, 1 Mandarin) -- northern Calif 6 Korean-English -- Los Angeles, California 1 Japanese-English -- Los Angeles, California Other programs may exist in New York, Illinois & other states

27 Two-Way Bilingual Immersion Education Goals High levels of bilingual proficiency Biliteracy read and write at or above grade level in TWO languages Achievement in content areas (math, science, social studies) at or above grade level Multicultural competencies

28 Underlying Assumptions: Premise #1 Second language is best acquired by language minority students when their first language is firmly established Second language is best developed by language majority students through immersion in that language WHY? Difference between Additive & Subtractive Bilingualism Need to build up non-societal language

29 Additive & Subtractive Bilingualism ADDITIVE Students add a second language to their first (Heritage Language) SUBTRACTIVE Students replace their first language with a second language L1 + L2 = Bilingual Higher: achievement, language proficiency, motivation, self esteem L2-L1=Monolingual Lower: achievement, language proficiency, motivation, self esteem

30 Underlying Assumptions: Premise #2 Knowledge learned through one language paves the way for knowledge acquisition in the second language Students who learn math in L1 can demonstrate knowledge in L2 once they acquire academic language skills in L2 L1 L2

31 Implementation: Instructional Design 90:10 GRADES K-1 90% English Target 10% Language Arts/Reading Mathematics Science Social Studies Language Arts GRADES % Language Arts/Reading Mathematics Science English Target 20% Social Studies Language Arts Reading

32 Implementation: Instructional Designs 90:10 & 50:50 90:10 Grades :50 All grades 50% 50% Language Arts/Reading Mathematics Science Social Studies English Target 50% 50% Language Arts/Reading Mathematics Science Social Studies English Target

33 English Reading Achievement Tests: Koreans in Korean Immersion [Scores in Percentiles] Korean ELLs score at least at grade level (percentile=50) to very high. Students at all schools score at least as high as EO students in the state Korean 1 Korean 2 Korean 3 State 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th

34 English Reading Achievement Tests Chinese Students in Two-Way Chinese Immersion [Scores in Percentiles] 100 Chinese ELL students score 90 very high in 80 English reading 70 Students score 60 much higher than 50 EO students in 40 the state, and 30 similar to the EO students in the 20 school and the 10 district 0 Chinese EL District EO 2nd School EO State EO 3rd

35 English Reading Achievement Tests APA in Spanish Immersion [Scores in Percentiles] In a two-way Spanish immersion program, APA non-ells score average to above average, and similar to EO students in the state Asian in Span State 0 1st 2nd

36 Spanish Reading Achievement Tests APA in Spanish Immersion [Scores in Percentiles] In a two-way Spanish immersion program, APA non-ells score average to slightly above average in Spanish reading achievement st Asian in Span 2nd

37 English Math Achievement Tests: Koreans in Korean Immersion [Scores in Percentiles] Korean ELLs score at least at grade level (percentile=50) to very high. Students at all schools score higher than EO students in the state Korean 1 Korean 2 Korean 3 State 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th

38 English Math Achievement Tests Students in Two-Way Chinese Immersion [Scores in Percentiles] Chinese students score very high in English math Students score much higher than their EO peers in the state, and as high as their EO peers in their school and the district Chinese EL District EO 2nd School EO State EO 3rd

39 Parent Education Level Latino Spanish ELLs & 5050 Level of Education Similar to Many Southeast Asian Groups Large program difference: v 9010: 88% parents have LOW education (elem or junior hi/some HS) v 5050: 52% & 24% parents with LOW 40 education level. 30 More 5050 parents 20 (53% & 35%) than (8%) with college education #2 5050#1 5050#2 Elem Some HS HS Grad Some College College Grad

40 English Reading Growth -- Latino ELL vs. FEP ELL English Language Learner -- FEP Fluent English Proficient 7th EL th FEP 9010 ELL students start at much lower level than FEPs Growth of ELLs > Growth of FEPs th EL th FEP 5050 FEP ELL 0 Pre Post Might anticipate that Southeast Asian students from families with low educational backgrounds would achieve similarly to Latino students in a two-way program

41 Attitudes Benefits of Bilingualism & Program lang smart 2 lang think 2 lang better Confidence Challenge Valued Glad in Prog Euro Hisp-EB Hisp-SB

42 Attitudes Toward College and Education Students agree that they want to go to college, that getting a good education is important, and that good grades are important Spanish English 0 Want College Good ED Imp Good Grades Imp

43 English and Spanish Reading Redesignated 9010 Schools Students redesignated as Fluent English Proficient (FEP) score (close to) average in English reading and high in Spanish reading Note similar patterns between English and Spanish reading English read Spanish read 4th 5th 7th 8th

44 English and Spanish Mathematics Redesignated 9010 Schools Students redesignated as Fluent English Proficient (FEP) score around average in English mathematics and high in Spanish mathematics Note similar patterns between English and Spanish mathematics English math Spanish math 4th 5th 7th 8th

45 The Relationship Between L1 & L2 Math Achievement & Bilingual Proficiency For all Spanish speakers (those on free lunch and not on free lunch), high bilingualism is associated with slightly higher math achievement for both languages. v Spanish speakers who are not on free lunch and who are high bilinguals score above average in English reading L1 FREE Mid Hi L2 LUNCH L1 L2

46 Conclusions Considerably more research is needed on APA students from different backgrounds to determine factors associated with successful educational and psychological outcomes. However, from the research that has been done, and drawing implications from language education research with Latino students, the following conclusions are plausible: APA students benefit from heritage language instruction. ELL students who are instructed through their native language develop higher levels of English language proficiency and academic achievement, and develop more positive educational attitudes and aspirations. Later generation APA students who are not proficient in their heritage language benefit from instruction through that language. They develop a more positive ethnic and self identity, which has been associated with higher achievement as well. Students who are bilingual will have considerable advantage in the job market given the current and expected increases in the APA population over the next 50 years.