GE 2022 TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT

Transcription

1 GE 2022-TQM IV/VII MECHANICAL ENGINEERING A Course Material on GE 2022 TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT By Mr. E.R.SIVAKUMAR ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING SASURIE COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING VIJAYAMANGALAM E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF

2 GE 2022-TQM IV/VII MECHANICAL ENGINEERING QUALITY CERTIFICATE This is to certify that the e-course material Subject Code Subject Class : GE2022 : Total Quality Management : IV Year MECHANICAL Being prepared by me and it meets the knowledge requirement of the university curriculum. Signature of the Author Name: Designation: E.R.Sivakumar Assistant Professor This is to certify that the course material being prepared by Mr. E.R.Sivakumar is of adequate quality. He has referred more than five books among them minimum one is from aboard author. SEAL Signature of HD Name: E.R.Sivakumar E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF

3 GE 2022-TQM IV/VII MECHANICAL ENGINEERING GE2022 TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT L T P C 30 3 UNIT I INTRODUCTION 9 Introduction - Need for quality - Evolution of quality - Definition of quality - Dimensions of manufacturing and service quality - Basic concepts of TQM - Definition of TQM TQM Framework - Contributions of Deming, Juran and Crosby Barriers to TQM. UNIT II TQM PRINCIPLES 9 Leadership Strategic quality planning, Quality statements - Customer focus Customer orientation, Customer satisfaction, Customer complaints, Customer retention - Employee involvement Motivation, Empowerment, Team and Teamwork, Recognition and Reward, Performance appraisal - Continuous process improvement PDSA cycle, 5s, Kaizen - Supplier partnership Partnering, Supplier selection, Supplier Rating. UNIT III TQM TOOLS & TECHNIQUES I 9 The seven traditional tools of quality New management tools Six-sigma: Concepts, methodology, applications to manufacturing, service sector including IT Bench marking Reason to bench mark, Bench marking process FMEA Stages, Types. UNIT IV TQM TOOLS & TECHNIQUES II 9 Quality circles Quality Function Deployment (QFD) Taguchi quality loss function TPM Concepts, improvement needs Cost of Quality Performance measures. UNIT V QUALITY SYSTEMS 9 Need for ISO ISO Quality System Elements, Documentation, Quality auditing- QS 9000 ISO Concepts, Requirements and Benefits Case studies of TQM implementation in manufacturing and service sectors including IT. TOTAL: 45 PERIODS i E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF

4 GE 2022-TQM IV/VII MECHANICAL ENGINEERING TEXT BOOK: 1. Dale H.Besterfiled, et at., Total Quality Management, Pearson Education Asia, Third Edition, Indian Reprint (2006). REFERENCES: 1. James R. Evans and William M. Lindsay, The Management and Control of Quality, 6th Edition, South-Western (Thomson Learning), Oakland, J.S. TQM Text with Cases, Butterworth Heinemann Ltd., Oxford, 3rd Edition, Suganthi,L and Anand Samuel, Total Quality Management, Prentice Hall (India) Pvt. Ltd., Janakiraman,B and Gopal, R.K, Total Quality Management Text and Cases, Prentice Hall (India) Pvt. Ltd., ONLINE RESOURCES Lonely-Edition VIII%20semester/MG1301%20TOTAL%20QUALITY%20MANAGEMENT.pdf 6. info.psu.edu.sa/psu/cis/.../is370- Sameh%20Lecture%20Notes-links.htm ii E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF

5 GE 2022-TQM IV/VII MECHANICAL ENGINEERING TABLE OF CONTENT S.No Description Page No. UNIT I INTRODUCTION 1.1 Introduction Prerequisite Discussions of Quality Concept Need for Quality Evolution of quality Defining quality Dimensions of quality Dimensions of service quality Definition of TQM Characteristics Of TQM Basic Concepts of TQM TQM Frame work or (ELEMENTS OF TQM) Principles of tqm Obstacles (barriers) in implementing tqm Benefits of tqm Contributions of Deming The juran trilogy Contributions of Crosby Crosby s fourteen points 9 UNIT II TQM PRINCIPLES 2.1 Leadership Characteristics for leadership Leadership roles Leaders Characteristics of quality leaders Leadership concepts The 7 habits of highly effective people Role of senior management Quality council Strategic quality planning Seven steps to strategic quality planning Quality statements Customer satisfaction Customer complaints Tebouls Model of customer satisfication Customer retention Employee involvement Motivation Maslow s hierarchy of needs Herzberg s two factor theory 25 iii E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF

6 GE 2022-TQM IV/VII MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 2.21 Empowerment Job enrichment vs job empowerment Teams Types of teams Characteristics of successful teams Recognition and reward Effects of recognition and reward system Performance appraisal Benefits of employee involvement Continuous process improvement The pdca cycle s: housekeeping Implementing 5-s Kaizen Kaizen cycle Supplier partnership Partnering Sourcing Supplier selection Supplier rating 53 UNIT III TQM TOOLS & TECHNIQUES - I 3.1 Seven tools of quality Prerequisite discussion Concept Flow charts Applications Histogram Cause and Effect Diagram Check sheet Scatter diagram Control charts Pareto charts 60 Glossary References New Seven management Tools Concept Affinity diagram Procedure Applications Relations diagram Tree diagram 66 9 Matrix diagram Matrix data analysis diagram Process decision programme chart 72 iv E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF

7 GE 2022-TQM IV/VII MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 12 Arrow diagram Six sigma Prerequisite discussion Concept Dmaic Dmadv Significance Application Companies which have adopted six sigma Glossary References Benchmarking Benchmarking concept Reasons to benchmark Process of benchmarking Decide what to benchmark Understand current performance Plan Types of benchmarking Study others Learn from the data Using the findings Pitfalls and criticisms of benchmarking Significance Application Failure mode and effects analysis (fmea) Types of FMEA Benefits of fmea Fmea documentation Risk priority number (rpn) Significance Application Glossary References Unit IV TQM Tools and Techniques - II 4.1 Prerequesite discussion Concept Improve customer satisfaction Applications Quality function deployment Qfd team House of quality The steps in building a house of quality are The qfd process Application 96 v E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF

8 GE 2022-TQM IV/VII MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 4.11 Taguchi s quality loss function Nominal the best Smaller the better Larger the better Total productive maintenance What is Maintenance and what is Maintenance Management? Maintenance development stages Break-down (corrective) maintenance Preventive maintenance (1951) Periodic (routine) maintenance (Time based maintenance - TBM) Predictive maintenance What is Total Productive Maintenance (TPM)? Why TPM / The objective of TPM Six core principles of TPM Direct Benefits of TPM Indirect benefits of TPM Steps in introduction of TPM in a organization Preparatory stage TPM introduction in the organization Initial education and propaganda for TPM Setting up TPM and departmental committees Establishing the TPM working system and target A master plan for institutionalizing Introduction stage Implementation Institutionalising stage Tpm pillars Quality costs Elements of qualitycost Analysis of quality costs Prevention cost Appraisal cost Internal failure cost External failure cost Analysis techniques of quality cost Trend analysis Pareto analysis Index numbers Performance measures What should be measured? Human resources Customers Production Research and Development Suppliers 114 vi E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF

9 GE 2022-TQM IV/VII MECHANICAL ENGINEERING Marketing / sales Administration Strategy Performance measure presentation 115 Unit V Quality Systems 5.1 Iso 9000: Benefits of iso 9000 standards CLAUSES (ELEMENTS) OF ISO 9000 (During the year 1987) CLAUSES (ELEMENTS) OF ISO 9000 (During the year 2000) Implementation of quality management system Pitfalls of successful implementation Documentation Quality auditing Purpose of quality audit Types of quality audit Iso environmental management system Environmental management system (ems) Requirement of iso General requirements Environmental policy Planning Implementation & operation Checking & corrective action Managenment review Benefits of environmental management system Global benefits Organizational benefits 124 vii E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF

10 UNIT I 1.1 INTRODUCTION PREREQUISITE DISCUSSIONS Quality is in its essence a way of management of the organization. Quality is conformance to customer requirements. The requirements have many dimensions. The number of quality experts also called quality gurus contributed to the evolution of quality. AN INTRODUCTION: A name itself is sufficient to describe everything but a bit more clarification will add to a base for the description. Total quality management is a management s approach towards the quality, it can be in regard to products, customer satisfaction and employees satisfaction. The concept of TQM was developed by an American W. Edwards Deming and i.e. why it is called as Deming s concept of TQM.He introduced this concept for improving the quality of various products and services. Earlier it was just related with the quality of products which a organization is producing but now other concepts like marketing, finance design, customer service has also joined the area. Which means that now good numbers of things are there to manage. TQM works on one belief that mistakes can be avoided and defects can be prevented. And management should believe in watching each and every step. TQM is now a day s called as TPM (total productivity management ) and an organization needs to consider ABCD for the effective application of TQM where A stands for accident cure, B stands for breakdown, C stands for cost reduction and D stands for damage. This policy of ABCD is in relation to product and if TQM needs to be introduced a positive attitude from the side of management and employees is required and then a collective effort will come up. TQM should give chance for unleashing employee s creativity and potential. The aim of TQM is to reduce variations in quality of the products as well as in the working of whole organization. For the successful implementation of TQM, an organization must consider the commitment from all the level of organization. A concept of Six sigma is a part of TQM. It is a strategy developed by Motorola and it helps to detect the defects and to remove them. TQM talks about the satisfaction of customer, supplier, employees etc. and it requires continuous improvement. If the workers of an organization are efficiently working then their morale will go up. TQM works effectively if the organization works in a family manner. Here management is like a father, employees are the children and manager is like mother and as father and mother takes 1 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

11 care for their home collectively the same way, management and managers are supposed to take care for their organization with the help of tool called TQM. Total quality management is called total because entire organization is involved, Quality means degree of excellence. And management in literal sense means getting things done by others. In a TQM effort, all members of an organization participate in improving processes, products, services and the culture in which they work. The earlier introduced quality management concept is now taken over by Total quality management. To have effective TQM the first requirement is strong internal motivation and emotional involvement for implementation. So the concept of TQM talks about adopting the new policy, creating quality products, eliminate defects, estimate for breakdown, accidents etc. Hence TQM should be purpose driven so first the whole organization should be willing to accept the change then only TQM can actually affect the organization in a positive way CONCEPT Need for quality: The need for quality was felt, during World War II due to the unprecedented need for manufacture goods. From them on methodologies for assuring quality in products and services evolved continuously finally lead to TQM Evolution of quality (or) GURUS OF TQM: SHEWHART - Control chart theory PDCA Cycle DEMING - Statistical Process Control JURAN - Concepts of SHEWHART - Return on Investment (ROI) FEIGANBAUM - Total Quality Control - Management involvement - Employee involvement - Company wide quality control ISHIKAWA - Cause and Effect Diagram - Quality Circle concept CROSBY - Quality is Free 2 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

12 - Conformance to requirements TAGUCHI - Loss Function concept - Design of Experiments DEFINING QUALITY: Quality is fitness for use Quality is conformance to requirements Quality is the totality of features and characteristics of a product or service that bear on its ability to satisfy stated and implied needs of customer. Quality can be quantified as follows Q = P / E where, Q = Quality P = Performance E = Expectation 1.3. DIMENSIONS OF QUALITY: Dimension Meaning and Example Performance Primary product characteristics, such as the brightness of the picture Features Secondary characteristics, added features, such as remote control 3 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

13 Conformance Meeting specifications or industry standards, workmanship Reliability Consistency of performance over time, average time of the unit to fail Durability Useful life, includes repair Service Resolution of problems and complaints, ease of repair Response Human to human interface, such as the courtesy of the dealer Aesthetics Sensory characteristics, such as exterior finish Reputation Past performance and other intangibles, such as being ranked first Dimensions of service quality Reliability Responsiveness Assurance Empathy Tangibles Other Dimensions Refers to the dependability of the service providers and their ability to keep their promises. Refers to the reaction time of the service. Refers the level of certainty a customer has regarding the quality of the service provided. Being able to understand the needs of the customer as an individual. Similar to the physical characteristics of quality of products. Time, Courtesy, Timeliness, consistency, accuracy, credibility and security. Total Quality Management (TQM) is an enhancement to the traditional way of doing business Definition of TQM Art of managing the whole to achieve excellence. Total - Made up of the whole Quality - Degree of Excellence a Product or Service provides. Management - Art of handling, controlling, directing etc. TQM is the application of quantitative methods and human resources to improve all the processes within an organization and exceed CUSTOMER NEEDS now and in the future CHARACTERISTICS OF TQM The above definitions revealed the following characteristics of TQM : 1. TQM is a customer oriented. 2. TQM required a long term commitment for continuous improvement of all processes. 3. TQM is teamwork. 4. TQM requires the leadership of top management and continuous involvement. 5. TQM is a strategy for continuous improving performance at all levels and in all areas of responsibility Basic Concepts of TQM: 1. A committed and involved management. 2. An unwavering focus on the customer both internally and externally. 3. Effective involvement and utilization of entire work force, 4 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

14 4. Continuous improvement of the business and production process. 5. Treating suppliers as partners. 6. Establish performance measures for the processes ELEMENTS OF TQM A framework summarizing the important elements of TQM discussed in this text. Three elements of TQM include 1. The philosophical elements of TQM stress the operation of the company using quality as the integrating element. 2. The generic tools consist of various statistical process control (SPC) methods that are used for problem solving and continuous improvement by quality teams. Quality function deployment is typically used by managers to drive the voice of the customer into the organization. 3. Tools of the QC department consists of statistical quality control (SQC) methods such as sampling plans, process capability and Taguchi methods. TQM Frame work: TQM FRAME WORK QUALITY GURUS TOOLS AND TECHIQUES PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES 1. Benchmarking 1. Leadership 2. Six sigma 2. Quality statements 3. Seven Traditional Tools 3. Customer focus 4. New seven management tools 4. Employee involvement 5. FMEA 5. Performance appraisal 6. Quality circle 6. PDSA cycle 7. Quality function deployment 7. 5S 8. Taguchi quality loss function 8. Kaizen 9. TPM 9. Supplier partnership. 5 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

15 Approach: Continuous improvement process. Measures: Performance Measures A S P D Problem Solving Discipline Interpersonal Skills Team Work Quality Improvement Process Employee involvement, Structured, Stepwise, Discipline, Consistency PRINCIPLES OF TQM Customer s requirements must be met the first time, every time. There must be agreed requirements, for both internal and external customers. Everybody must be involved, from all levels and across all functions. Regular communication with staff at levels is must. Two way communication at all levels must be promoted. Identifying training needs and relating them with individual capabilities and requirements is must. 6 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

16 Top management s participation and commitment is must. A culture of continuous improvement must be established. Emphasis should be placed on purchasing and supplier management Every job must add value. Quality improvement must eliminate wastes and reduce total cost. There must be a focus on the prevention of problems. A culture of promoting creativity must be established. Performance measure is a must at organization, department and individual levels. It helps to asses and meet objectives of quality. There should be focus on team work OBSTACLES (BARRIERS) IN IMPLEMENTING TQM : Lack of Management Commitment Inability to change Organizational culture Improper planning Lack of continuous training and education Incompatible organizational structure and isolated individuals and departments Ineffective measurement techniques and lack of access to data and results Paying inadequate attention to internal and external customers Inadequate use of empowerment and teamwork Failure to continually improve 1.8. BENEFITS OF TQM: Improved quality Employee participation Team work Working relationships Customer satisfaction Employee satisfaction Productivity Communication Profitability Market share 1.9. CONTRIBUTIONS OF DEMING: 1. Create and publish the Aims and Purposes of the organization. 2. Learn the New Philosophy. 3. Understand the purpose of Inspection. 7 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

17 4. Stop awarding business based on price alone. 5. Improve constantly and forever the System. 6. Institute Training. 7. Teach and Institute Leadership. 8. Drive out Fear, Create Trust and Create a climate for innovation. 9. Optimize the efforts of Teams, Groups and Staff areas. 10. Eliminate exhortations for the Work force. 11a. Eliminate numerical quotas for the work force. 11b. Eliminate Management by objectives. 12. Remove Barriers that rob people of pride of workmanship. 13. Encourage Education and Self-improvement for everyone. 14. Take action to accomplish the transformation THE JURAN TRILOGY Juran views quality as fitness for use. Juran Trilogy is designed to reduce the cost of quality over time. 1. QUALITY PLANNING Determine internal & external customers. Their needs are discovered. Develop product / service features. Develop the processes able to produce the product / service features. Transfer plans to operations. 2. QUALITY CONTROL Control is used by operating forces to help meet the product, process and service requirements. It consists of the following steps 1. Determine items to be controlled. 2. Set goals for the controls. 3. Measure actual performance. 4. Compare actual performance to goals. 5. Act on the difference. 3. QUALITY IMPROVEMENT Aims to attain levels of performance that are higher than current levels. 8 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

18 It consists of the following steps Establishment of quality council. Identify the improvement projects. Establish the project teams with a project leader. Provide the team with the resources CONTRIBUTIONS OF CROSBY: The Four absolutes of quality are 1. Quality is defined as conformance to requirements. 2. The system for causing Quality is prevention. 3. The performance standard must be zero defects. 4. The measurement of Quality is the Price of Nonconformance Crosby s Fourteen Points: 1. Management Commitment 2. Quality Improvement Team 3. Quality Measurement 4. Cost of Quality Evaluation 5. Quality Awareness 6. Corrective Action 7. Establish an Ad Hoc Committee for the Zero Defects Program 8. Supervisor Training 9. Zero Defects Day 10. Goal Setting 11. Error Cause Removal 12. Recognition 13. Quality Councils 14. Do It Over Again 9 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

19 2.1. LEADERSHIP UNIT II Leadership is lifting of man s visions to higher sights, the raising of man s performance to a higher standard, the building of man s personality beyond its normal limitations. Introduction: The success of quality management is to a greater extent is influenced by the quality of the leadership. Peter Drucker, the eminent management thinker and writer quotes: Leadership is lifting of man s visions to higher sights, the raising of man s performance to a higher standard, the building of man s personality beyond its normal limitations. Leadership is the process of influencing others towards the accomplishment of goals. Leader triggers the will to do, show the direction and guide the group members towards the accomplishment of the company s goal. 2.2 CHARACTERISTICS FOR LEADERSHIP The customers first. Value people. Built supplier partnership. Empower people. Demonstrate involvement/commitment. Strive for excellence. Explain and deploy policy. Improve communication. Promote teamwork. Benchmark continuously. Establish system. Encourage collaboration. 2.3 LEADERSHIP ROLES 1. Producer role. 2. Director role. 3. Coordinator role roles. 4. Checker role. 5. Stimulator role. 6. Mentor role. 7. Innovator role. 8. Negotiator role. 10 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

20 2.4 LEADERS Shape the Organization s value Promote the Organization s value Protect the Organization s value and Exemplifies the Organization values 2.5 CHARACTERISTICS OF QUALITY LEADERS 1. They give priority attention to external and internal customers and their needs. 2. They empower, rather than control, subordinates. 3. They emphasis improvement rather than maintenance. 4. They emphasis prevention. 5. They emphasis collaboration rather than competition. 6. They train and coach, rather than direct and supervise. 7. They learn from the problems. 8. They continually try to improve communications. 9. They continually demonstrate their commitment to quality. 10. They choose suppliers on the basis of quality, not price. 11. They establish organizational systems to support the quality effort. 12. They encourage and recognize team effort. 2.6 LEADERSHIP CONCEPTS A leader should have the following concepts 1. People, Paradoxically, need security and independence at the same time. 2. People are sensitive to external and punishments and yet are also strongly self - motivated. 3. People like to hear a kind word of praise. Catch people doing something right, so you can pat them on the back. 4. People can process only a few facts at a time; thus, a leader needs to keep things simple. 5. People trust their gut reaction more than statistical data. 6. People distrust a leader s rhetoric if the words are inconsistent with the leader s actions. 2.7 THE 7 HABITS OF HIGHLY EFFECTIVE PEOPLE: 1. Be Proactive 2. Begin with the End in mind 3. Put First Things First 4. Think Win Win 5. Seek First to Understand, then to Be Understood 6. Synergy 7. Sharpen the Saw (Renewal) 11 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

21 2.8 ROLE OF SENIOR MANAGEMENT 1. Management by Wandering Around (MBWA). 2. Strategy of problem solving and decision making. 3. Strong information base. 4. Recognition and Reward system. 5. Spending most of the time on Quality. 6. Communication. 7. Identify and encourage potential employee. 8. Accept the responsibility. 9. To play a role model. 10. Remove road blocks. 11. Study TQM and investigate how TQM is implemented elsewhere. 12. Establish policies related to TQM. 13. Establish priority of quality and customer satisfaction as the basic policy. 14. Assume leadership in bringing about a cultural change. 15. Check whether the quality improvement programmes are conducted as planned. 16. Become coaches and cheer leaders to implement TQM. 17. Generate enthusiasm for TQM activities. 18. Visit other companies to observe TQM functioning. 19. Attend TQM training programme. 20. Teach others for the betterment of society and the surroundings. 2.9 QUALITY COUNCIL A quality council is established to provide overall direction. The council is composed of Chief Executive Officer Senior Managers Coordinator or Consultant A representative from the Union Duties of the council are Develop the core values, vision statement, mission statement and quality policy statement Develop the strategic long term plan with goals and Annual Quality Improvement Program with objectives Create the total education and training plan Determine and monitor the cost of poor quality 12 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

22 Determine the performance measures Determine projects those improve the process Establish multifunctional project and work group teams Revise the recognition and rewards system A typical meeting agenda will have the following items Progress report on teams Customer satisfaction report Progress on meeting goals New project teams Benchmarking report Within three to five years, the quality council activities will become ingrained in the culture of the organization STRATEGIC QUALITY PLANNING Goals Long term planning (Eg : Win the war) Objectives Short term planning (Eg : Capture the bridge) PRESENT STRATEGIC PLAN VISION OF FUTURE Goals should Improve customer satisfaction, employee satisfaction and process Be based on statistical evidence Be measurable Have a plan or method for its achievement Have a time frame for achieving the goal Finally, it should be challenging yet achievable 2.11 SEVEN STEPS TO STRATEGIC QUALITY PLANNING In order to integrate quality with the strategic planning process, a systematic and sequential procedure has to be adopted. There are seven basic steps to strategic process planning. They are Step 1. Customer Needs 13 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

23 The basic step is the identification of customers and their wants and needs. An organization must seek its customers requirements, expectations and assess future trends before developing a strategic plan. Step 2. Customer Position The second step requires the planners to determine its positioning with regards to its customers. Various alternatives such as whether the organization should give up, maintain or expand market position should be considered. In order to become successful, the organization should concentrate and consolidate its position in its areas of excellence. Customer needs Customer Positioning Predict the future Gap Analysis (Comparison of various alternatives) Closing the gap (selection of best alternative) Alignment Implementation Reevaluated and review Step 3. Predict the Future Next, the planners must predict future conditions that will affect their product or service: To help predicting the future, the tools such as demographics, economic forecasts, and technical assessments or projections may be used. Step 4. Gap Analysis In this step, the planners must identify the gaps between the current state and the future state of the organization. This concept is also known as value stream mapping. For identifying the gaps, an analysis of the core values and concepts and other techniques may be used. 14 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

24 Step 5. Closing the Gaps Now the planners should develop a specific plan to close the gaps. This process is also termed as Process improvement. By assessing the relative importance and relative difficulty of each gap, planners can close the gaps. Step 6. Alignment Now the revised plan should be aligned with the mission, vision, and core values and concepts of the organization. Organization should embrace quality as an essential ingredient in their vision, mission, and objectives. Step 7. Implementation In order to implement the action plan, resources must be allocated to collecting data, designing changes, and overcoming resistance to change. Also the planners should monitor and assess the result of the strategic plan. Since quality is a continuous improvement process, one has to reassess and renew the strategic plans periodically. So it is a cyclic process. Figure summarizes the strategic planning cycle QUALITY STATEMENTS QUALITY STATEMENTS Three elements of quality statements are : a. Vision statement, b. Mission statement, and 15 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

25 c. Quality policy statement What is Vision Statement? 1. The vision statement is a short declaration of what on organization aspires to be tomorrow. 2. It is the ideal state that might never be reached; but on which one will work hard continuously to achieve. Successful visions provide a brief guideline for decision making. 3. The vision statement should be coined in such a way that the leaders and the employees working in the organization should work towards the achievements of the vision statement. 4. An example of a simple vision statement is : To continuously enrich knowledge base of practitioners in mobility industry and institutions in the service of humanity. Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) What is Mission Statement? 1. The mission statement, describes the function of the organization. It provides a clear statement of purpose for employees, customers, and suppliers. 2. The mission statement answers the following questions : who we are?; who are our customers? ; what we do?; and how we do it? 3. An example of a simple mission statement is : Concern for the ultimate customers millions of customers Concern for the intermediate customers the trade Concern for the suppliers the sources of raw materials and ancillaries Concern for the employees the most valued asset Concern for the competitors wishing them well as healthy competition ultimately benefits the customers. Concern for the shareholders the investing public Concern for the national aspiration India s future! - ITC Limited What is Quality Policy Statement? The quality policy is a guide for everyone in the organization as to how they provide products and service to the customers. It should be written by the CEO with feedback from the workforce and be approved by the quality council. A quality policy is a important requirement of ISO 9000 quality systems. An example of a simple quality policy statement is: Xerox is a quality company. Quality is the basic business principle for Xerox. Quality means providing our external and internal customers with innovative products and services that fully satisfy their requirements. Quality is the job of every employee. 16 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

26 VISION STATEMENT It is a short declaration of what an organization aspires to be tomorrow. Example : Disney Theme Park - Happiest place on earth Polaroid - Instant photography Successful visions provide a guideline for decision making MISSION STATEMENT It answers the following questions Who we are? Who are the customers? What we do? How we do it? It describes the function of the organization. It provides a clear statement of purpose for employees, customers & suppliers A simpler mission statement is To meet customers transportation and distribution needs by being the best at moving their goods on time, safely and damage free - National Railways QUALITY POLICY STATEMENT It is guide for everyone in the organization as to how they should provide products and services to the customers. Common characteristics are Quality is first among equals Meet the needs of the internal & external customers Equal or exceed competition Continuously improve the quality Utilize the entire workforce Ex: Xerox is a quality company. Quality is the basic business principle for Xerox. Quality means providing our external and internal customers with innovative products and services that fully satisfy their requirements. 17 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

27 2.13 CUSTOMER SATISFACTION WHO ARE THE CUSTOMERS? The customers are : 1. The most important people in the business. 2. Not dependent on the organization. The organization depends on them. 3. Not an interruption to work but are the purpose of it. 4. Doing a favour when they seek business and not vice-versa. 5. A part of business, not outsiders. 6. Life blood of the business. 7. People who come with their needs and jobs. 8. Deserve the most courteous and attentive treatment. Types of Customers Customers are two types. They are : 1. Internal customers, and 2. External customers. 1. Internal Customers 1. The customers inside the company are called internal customers. 2. As there is a flow of work, product and service in the organization, each department is dependent on the other. In this, each department or each quality management unit is considered as a customer by the previous department and as a supplier for the next department. Similarly every person in a process is considered as a customer of the preceding operation. This explains the concept of internal customer. 2. External Customers The customers outside the company are called external customers. In other words, an external customer is the one: who uses the product or service ; who purchases the product or service; or who influences the sale of the product or service. Customer Supplier Chain In order to achieve the total customer orientation, TQM requires the better customer supplier relationship. Figure shows the model of customer supplier chain. 18 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

28 All processes require inputs, which are provided by the internal or external suppliers. Similarly all processes delivers outputs, which are used by internal or external customers. Each unit is considered as a customer by the previous unit and as a supplier for the next unit. Customer satisfaction, a business term, is a measure of how products and services supplied by a company meet or surpass customer expectation. It is seen as a key performance indicator within business and is part of the four of a Balanced Scorecard. In a competitive marketplace where businesses compete for customers, customer satisfaction is seen as a key differentiator and increasingly has become a key element of business strategy CUSTOMER COMPLAINTS Satisfied Dissatisfied customer Totally satisfied customer contributes to monitored. FEEDBACK (INFORMATION COLLECTING TOOLS) Feedback enables organization to Discover customer satisfaction 19 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

29 Discover relative priorities of quality Compare performance with the competition Identify customer needs Determine opportunities for improvement Listening to the voice of the customer can be accomplished by numerous information collecting tools. 1. Comment Card 2. Customer Questionnaire Highly Neutral Highly Satisfied Dissatisfied 1. Trash removal Personal hygiene Romance Thoughtfulness Listening skills Faithfulness Respect for Mother in - law Overall,how satisfied are you with your marriage? To make surveys more useful, it is best to remember eight points Clients and Customers are not the same Surveys raise customers expectations How you ask a question will determine how the question is answered The more specific the question, the better the answer You have only one chance and only 15 minutes The more time you spend in survey development, the less time you will spend in data analysis and interpretation Who you ask is as important as what you ask Before the data are collected, you should know how you want to analyse and use the data 3. Focus Groups These groups are very effective for gathering information on customer expectations and requirements. 4. Toll Free Telephone Numbers 5. Customer Visits 6. Report Card 20 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

30 7. The Internet and Computers 8. Employee Feedback 9. Mass Customization 2.15 Tebouls Model of customer satisfication USING CUSTOMER COMPLAINTS Actions an organization can take to handle complaints are as follows Investigate customers experiences by actively getting feed back, both positive and negative, and then acting on it promptly Develop procedures for complaint resolution that include empowering front line personnel. Analyze complaints, but understand that complaints do not always fit into neat categories. Work to identify process and material variations and then eliminate the root cause. More inspection is not corrective action. When a survey response is received, a senior manager should contact the customer and strive to resolve the concern. Establish customer satisfaction measures and constantly monitor them. 21 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

31 Communicate complaint information, as well as the results of all investigations and solutions, to all people in the organization. Provide a monthly complaint report to the quality council for their evaluation and, if needed, the assignment of process improvement teams. Identify customers expectations beforehand rather than afterward through complaint analysis. SERVICE QUALITY Customer service is the set of activities an organization uses to win and retain customer s satisfaction. It can be provided before, during, or after the sale of the product or exist on its own. Elements of customer service are Organization 1. Identify each market segment. 2. Write down the requirements. 3. Communicate the requirements. 4. Organize processes. 5. Organize physical spaces. Customer Care 6. Meet the customer s expectations. 7. Get the customer s point of view. 8. Deliver what is promised. 9. Make the customer feel valued. 10. Respond to all complaints. 11. Over respond to the customer. 12. Provide a clean and comfortable customer reception area. Communication 13. Optimize the trade off between time and personal attention. 14. Minimize the number of contact points. 15. Provide pleasant, knowledgeable and enthusiastic employees. 16. Write document in customer friendly language. Front-Line people 17. Hire people who like people. 18. Challenge them to develop better methods. 19. Give them the authority to solve problems. 20. Serve them as internal customers. 21. Be sure they are adequately trained. 22. Recognize and reward performance. 23. Lead by example. 22 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

32 24. Listen to the front-line people. 25. Strive for continuous process improvement CUSTOMER RETENTION It means retaining the customer to support the business. It is more powerful and effective than customer satisfaction. For Customer Retention, we need to have both Customer satisfaction & Customer loyalty. The following steps are important for customer retention. 1. Top management commitment to the customer satisfaction. 2. Identify and understand the customers what they like and dislike about the organization. 3. Develop standards of quality service and performance. 4. Recruit, train and reward good staff. 5. Always stay in touch with customer. 6. Work towards continuous improvement of customer service and customer retention. 7. Reward service accomplishments by the front-line staff. 8. Customer Retention moves customer satisfaction to the next level by determining what is truly important to the customers. 9. Customer satisfaction is the connection between customer satisfaction and bottom line Employee Involvement Employee involvement is one approach to improve quality and productivity. It is a means to better meet the organization s goals for quality and productivity MOTIVATION CONCEPT OF MOTIVATION a. Scott defines, Motivation means a process of stimulating people to accomplish desired goals. b. Edwin B. Flippo defines, Motivation is the process of attempting to influence others to do your will through the possibility of reward. c. In simple words, motivation is the process of inducing people inner drives and action towards certain goals and committing his energies to achieve these goals. 23 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

33 IMPORTANCE OF MOTIVATION a. Motivation improves employee involvement. b. Motivation promotes job satisfaction and thus reduces absenteeism and turnover. c. Motivation helps in securing a high level of performance and hence enhances efficiency and productivity. d. Motivation creates a congenial working atmosphere in the organization and thus promotes interpersonal cooperation. THEORIES OF MOTIVATION Though there are many theories of motivation, the Maslow s hierarchy of needs theory and Herzberg s two factor theory are more important from our subject of view MASLOW S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS Self - Actualization Esteem Social Security Survival EMPLOYEE WANTS Factor Employee Rating Manager Rating Interesting work 1 5 Appreciation 2 8 Involvement 3 10 Job security 4 2 Good Pay 5 1 Promotion/ growth 6 3 Good working conditions 7 4 Loyalty to employees 8 7 Help with personal problems 9 9 Tactful discipline E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

34 (OR) Self Actualization Needs Esteem Needs Social Needs Safety Needs (or) Security Needs Physiological (or) Basic Needs 2.20 Herzberg s Two Factor Theory This theory is also called motivation-hygiene theory. This theory is based on two factors: 1. Motivation factors or satisfiers, and 2. Hygiene factors or dissatisfiers. Various motivation and hygiene factors are listed in Table. Motivation and hygiene factors Motivation Factors Hygiene Factors Achievement Supervisors Recognition Working conditions The work itself Interpersonal relationships Responsibility Pay and security Advancement and growth Company policy and administration According to Herzberg, maintenance or hygiene factors are necessary to maintain a reasonable level of satisfaction among employees. These factors do not provide satisfaction to the employees but their absence will dissatisfy them. Therefore these factors are called dissatisfiers. On the other hand, motivational factors creates satisfaction to the workers at the time of presence but their absence does not cause dissatisfaction. It can be noted that Herzberg s dissatisfiers are roughly equivalent to Maslow s lower levels, and the motivators are similar to the Maslow s upper levels. 25 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

35 Thus the knowledge of motivation is required for any organization to understand the utilization of employee involvement. ACHIEVING A MOTIVATED WORK FORCE The building of a motivated work force if for the most part an indirect process. Concepts to achieve a motivated work force are as follows: 1. Know thyself. 2. Know your employees. 3. Establish a positive attitude. 4. Share the goals. 5. Monitor progress. 6. Develop interesting work. Job rotation Job enlargement Job enrichment 7. Communicate effectively 8. Celebrate success. EMPLOYEE SURVEYS Employee surveys help managers assess the current state of employee relations, identify trends, measure the effectiveness of program implementation, identify needed improvements, and increase communication effectiveness. STEP 1 The Quality Council to create a multifunctional team STEP 2 STEP 3 STEP 4 STEP 5 The Team will develop survey instrument Administer the survey Results are compiled and analyzed Determine areas for improvement Employee involvement is creating an environment in which people have an impact on decisions and actions that affect their jobs. 26 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

36 Tell: the supervisor makes the decision and announces it to staff. The supervisor provides complete direction. Sell: the supervisor makes the decision and then attempts to gain commitment from staff by "selling" the positive aspects of the decision. Consult: the supervisor invites input into a decision while retaining authority to make the final decision herself. Join: the supervisor invites employees to make the decision with the supervisor. The supervisor considers her voice equal in the decision process. To round out the model, I add the following. Delegate: the supervisor turns the decision over to another party. Seven Rules of Motivation #1 Set a major goal, but follow a path. The path has mini goals that go in many directions. When you learn to succeed at mini goals, you will be motivated to challenge grand goals. #2 Finish what you start. A half finished project is of no use to anyone. Quitting is a habit. Develop the habit of finishing self-motivated projects. #3 Socialize with others of similar interest. Mutual support is motivating. We will develop the attitudes of our five best friends. If they are losers, we will be a loser. If they are winners, we will be a winner. To be a cowboy we must associate with cowboys. #4 Learn how to learn. Dependency on others for knowledge supports the habit of procrastination. Man has the ability to learn without instructors. In fact, when we learn the art of self-education we will find, if not create, opportunity to find success beyond our wildest dreams. #5 Harmonize natural talent with interest that motivates. Natural talent creates motivation, motivation creates persistence and persistence gets the job done. 27 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

37 #6 Increase knowledge of subjects that inspires. The more we know about a subject, the more we want to learn about it. A self-propelled upward spiral develops. #7 Take risk. Failure and bouncing back are elements of motivation. Failure is alearning tool. No one has ever succeeded at anything worthwhile without a string of failures EMPOWERMENT CONCEPT OF EMPOWERMENT Empowerment is the opposite of helplessness or dependency. An empowered person does not feel incapable of doing the things that he considers important for the well-being of his organization. There are no constraints that he perceives to be externally imposed. In other words, being empowered implies that the person acts from a state of autonomy, doing what he knows is the right thing to do under a given set of circumstances. It is understood that empowerment is dependent upon two factors: (i) An individual s personal choices; and (ii) The organization climate, that can either encourage dependency or foster autonomy. EMPOWERMENT DEFINED 1. According to Webster s Dictionary, the verb empower means to give the means, ability or authority. Therefore empowerment in work setting involves giving people the means, ability and authority to do something they have not done before. 2. An operation definition of empowerment: Empowerment is an environment in which people have the ability, the confidence, and the commitment to take the responsibility and ownership to improve the process and initiate the necessary steps to satisfy customer requirements within well-defined boundaries in order to achieve organizational values and goals Job Enrichment Vs Job Empowerment Job enrichment is aimed at expanding the content of an individual s job. But job empowerment focuses on expanding on the context of the job such as its interactions and interdependencies to other functions of the organization. Empowerment is investing people with authority. It s purpose is to tap the enormous reservoir of potential contribution that lies within every worker. The two steps to empowerment are 28 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

38 1. To arm people to be successful through coaching, guidance and training. 2. Letting people do by themselves. The principles of empowering people are given below. 1. Tell people what their responsibilities are. 2. Give authority. 3. Set standards for excellence. 4. Render training. 5. Provide knowledge and information. 6. Trust them. 7. Allow them to commit mistakes. 8. Treat them with dignity and respect. Three dimensions of empowerment are Capability Alignment and Trust CHARACTERISTICS OF EMPOWERED EMPLOYEES Some important characteristics of empowered employees, identified by Hubert Rampersad, are that: They feel responsible for their own task. They are given a free hand in their work. They balance their own goals with those of the organization. They are well trained, equipped, creative, and customer oriented. They are critical, have self-esteem, and are motivated. They are challenged and encouraged. They monitor and improve their work continuously. They find new goals and change challenges. Therefore, it is important to empower individuals and teams at all levels of the organization to achieve the continuous improvement process TEAMS Employee involvement is optimized by the use of teams. 29 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

39 goals. A team is defined as a group of people working together to achieve common objectives or Teamwork is the cumulative actions of the team during which each member of the team subordinates his individual interests and opinions to fulfill the objectives or goals of the group. WHY TEAMS WORK 1. Many heads are more knowledgeable than one. 2. The whole is greater than the sum of its members. 3. Team members develop a rapport which each other. 4. Teams provide the vehicle for improved communication TYPES OF TEAMS 1. Process improvement team. 2. Cross functional team. 3. Natural work teams. 4. Self Directed / Self Managed work teams CHARACTERISTICS OF SUCCESSFUL TEAMS : 1. Sponsor 2. Team Charter 3. Team Composition 4. Training 5. Ground Rules 6. Clear Objectives 7. Accountability 8.Well-Defined decision procedure 9. Resources 10. Trust 11.Effective Problem Solving 12. Open Communication 13. Appropriate Leadership 14. Balanced Participation 15. Cohesiveness The effective team should have certain characteristics. These are : 1. Sponsor : In order to have effective liason with the quality council, there should be a sponsor. The sponsor is a person from the quality council, he is to provide support to the organization. 2. Team Charter : A team charter is a document that defines the team s mission, boundaries, the background of the problem, the team s authority and duties, and resources. It also identifies the members and their assigned roles leader, recorder, time keeper and facilitator. 3. Team Composition : The size of the team should not exceed ten members except in the case of natural work teams or self-directed teams. Teams should be diversed by having members with different skills, perspective and potential. Wherever needed, the internal and external customers and suppliers should be included as a team member. 30 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

40 4. Training : The team members should be trained in the problem-solving techniques, team dynamics and communication skills. 5. Ground Rules : The team should have separate rules of operation and conduct. Ground rules should be discussed with the members, whenever needed it should be reviewed and revised. 6. Clear Objectives: The objective of the team should be stated clearly. Without the clear objective, the team functions is not to be effective. 7. Accountability: The team performance is accountable. Periodic status report of the team should be given to the quality council. The team should review its performance to determine possible team process weaknesses and make improvements. 8. Well-defined Decision Procedures: The decision should be made clearly at the right time by the team. 9. Resources: The adequate information should be given to the team wherever needed. The team cannot be expected to perform successfully without the necessary tools. 10. Trust : Management must trust the team to perform the task effectively. There must also be trust among the members and a belief in each other. 11. Effective Problem-Solving : Problem-solving methods are used to make the effective decision. 12. Open Communication : Open communication should be encouraged i.e., everyone feels free to speak in the team whatever they are thinking, without any interruptions. 13. Appropriate Leadership: Leadership is important in all the team. Leader is a person who leads the team, motivates the team and guides the team in a proper direction. 14. Balanced Participation : Everyone in a team should be involved in the team s activities by voicing their opinions, lending their knowledge and encouraging other members to take part. 15. Cohesiveness: Members should be comfortable working with each other and act as a single unit, not as individuals or subgroups. ELEMENTS OF EFFECTIVE TEAM WORK Main elements of effective teamwork are as follows: 1. Purpose 2. Role and responsibilities 3. Activities 4. Effectiveness 31 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

41 5. Decisions 6. Results, and 7. Recognition. Figure depicts the seven main elements of effective teamwork. (i) STAGES OF TEAM DEVELOPMENT Each term takes sometime to start functioning effectively towards problem solving. Each team goes through six distinct stages in its development. These are farming, storming, norming, performing maintenance and evaluating. 1. Farming stage : When a team is created, it consist of group of individuals and team work does not exist at this stage. Team s purpose, members roles, acceptance of roles, authority and process of functioning are learnt in the formation process. 2. Storming stage : Initial agreements and role allocations are challenged and re-established at this stage of team development. At this stage, hostilities and personal needs often emerge which may be resolved. 3. Norming stage : During norming stage of team development, formal and informal relationships get established among team members. Openness and cooperation have been observed as signs of team s behaviour. 4. Performing stage : At this stage, the team starts operating in successful manner. Trust, openness, healthy conflict and decisiveness of a group s performance can be reached at this stage. 32 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

42 5. Maintenance stage : Functioning of team does not deteriorate overtime. At this stage, the performance of teamwork at the earlier stage will be maintained for some period of time. 6.Evaluating stage : At this stage, team s performance is to be evaluated in view of the set targets. Both self-evaluation and management-based evaluation form this stage of team development. TEAM MEMBER ROLES TEAM LEADER Ensures the smooth and effective operation of the team. Facilitates the team process. Serves as a Contact Point. Organizes the implementation of changes. Prepares the meeting agenda. FACILITATOR Supports the leader. Focuses on the team process. Acts as a resource to the team. Provides feedback to the team. RECORDER Documents the main ideas of the team s discussion, the issues raise, decisions made, action items etc. Presents the documents and distributes the MOM. Participates as a team member. TIMEKEEPER Ensures that the team maintains the schedule. Participates as a team member. TEAM MEMBER Contributes best, without reservation. Respects other people s contributions. Listens carefully and asks questions. 33 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

43 Works for consensus on decisions. Supports the decision of the team. Understands and is committed to the team objectives. Respects and is tolerant of individual differences. Acknowledges and works through conflict openly. Carries out assignments. DECISION MAKING METHODS 1. Non-decision. 2. Unilateral decision. 3. Handclasp decision. 4. Minority-rule decision. 5. Majority-rule decision. 6. Consensus. COMMON BARRIERS TO TEAM PROGRESS Insufficient training. Incompatible rewards and compensation. First-line supervisor resistance. Lack of planning. Lack of management support. Access to information systems. Lack of Union support. Project scope too large. Project objectives are not significant. No clear measures of success. No time to do improvement work RECOGNITION AND REWARD RECOGNITION AND REWARD. MEANING: Recognition is a process whereby management shows acknowledgement of an employee s outstanding performance. Recognition is a form of employee positive motivation. Recognition of 34 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

44 employees is highly essential as people find themselves in a accepted and winning role. To sustain employee s interest and to propel them towards continuous improvement, it is essential to recognize the people. This acknowledgement may be of financial, psychological or both in nature. Ways to recognize people Send letters to improve team members when they establish a team thanking them for their involvement. 1. Develop a behind the scenes awards specifically for those whose actions are not usually in the lime light, make sure such awards are in the lime light. 2. Create best ideas of the year booklet and include everyone s picture name and description of their best ideas. 3. Feature the quality team of the month and put their picture in a prominent place. 4. Honor peers who have helped you by recognizing them at your staff meetings. 5. Let people attend meetings, committees etc; in your place when you are not available. 6. Involve teams with external customers and suppliers, sending them on appropriate visits to solve problems and look for opportunities. 7. Invite a team for coffee or lunch at any time, not necessarily when you need them for something. 8. Create a visibility wall to display information, posters, and pictures, thanking individual employees and their teams, and describing their contributions. 9. When you are discussing an individual or group ideas with other people, peers, or higher management make sure that you give them credit. WHY SHOULD ONE RECOGNISE PEOPLE 1. improve employees morale 2. show the company s appreciation for better performance 3. create satisfied workplace 4. Create highly motivated workplace. 5. Reinforce behavioral patterns. 6. Stimulate creative efforts. REWARD MEANING: Reward is a tangible one, such as increased salaries, commissions, cash bonus, gain sharing, etc; to promote desirable behavior. TYPES OF REWARDS: 1. Intrinsic rewards 2. Extrinsic rewards Intrinsic rewards are related to feelings of accomplishment of self-worth. 35 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

45 INTRINSIC REWARDS Extrinsic reward are related to pay or compensation issues. 1. Non-monetary forms of recognition to acknowledge achievement of quality improvement goals. 2. Celebration to acknowledge achievement of quality improvement goals. 3. Regular expressions of appreciation by managers and leaders to employees to acknowledge achievement of quality improvement goals degree performance appraisals feedback from co-workers subordinates to customers is incorporated into performance appraisals. EXTRINSIC REWARDS: 1. Profit sharing 2. gain sharing 3. employment security 4. compensation time 5. individual based performance systems 6. quality based performance appraisals Recognition is a process by which management shows acknowledgement of an employee s outstanding performance. Various ways for Recognition and Rewards are 1. Recognition can be expressed using verbal and written praise. 2. Rewards may be in the form of certificates and plaques. 3. Reward is normally in the form of cinema tickets, dinner for family etc. 4. The financial compensation (for recognition) can be paid in terms of increased salaries, commissions, gain sharing etc. 5. The efforts of employees can be recognized by promotions, special job assignments etc. 6. A letter of appreciation from the CEO or the Top Management will increase the employee s involvement. 7. Reward may be delayed but recognition should be in a timely basis. 8. Rewards should be appropriate to the improvement level. 9. People like to be recognized than any reward. 10. Special forms of recognition include pictures on the bulletin board, articles in news letters, letter to families etc. 11. Supervisors can give on-the-spot praise for a job which is done well. 36 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

46 2.27 EFFECTS OF RECOGNITION AND REWARD SYSTEM 1. Recognition and reward go together for letting people know that they are valuable members for the organization. 2. Employee involvement can be achieved by recognition and reward system. 3. Recognition and reward system reveals that the organization considers quality and productivity as important. 4. It provides the organization an opportunity to thank high achievers. 5. It provides employees a specific goal to achieve. 6. It motivates employees to improve the process. 7. It increases the morale of the workers PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL The performance appraisal is used to let employees know how they are performing. The performance appraisal becomes a basis for promotions, increase in salaries, counseling and other purposes related to an employee s future. IMPORTANCE OF PERFORMANCE APPRAISALS 1. It is necessary to prevail a good relationship between the employee and the appraiser. 2. Employee should be informed about how they are performing on a continuous basis, not just at appraisal time. 3. The appraisal should highlight strength and weakness and how to improve the performance. 4. Employee should be allowed to comment on the evaluation and protest if necessary. 5. Everyone should understand that the purpose of performance appraisal is to have employee involvement. 6. Errors in performance evaluations should be avoided. 7. Unfair and biased evaluation will render poor rating and hence should be eliminated BENEFITS OF EMPLOYEE INVOLVEMENT Employee involvement improves quality and increases productivity because Employees make better decisions using their expert knowledge of the process Employees are better able to spot and pin-point areas for improvement. Employees are better able to take immediate corrective action. Employee involvement reduces labour / management friction. Employee involvement increases morale. Employees have an increased commitment to goals because they are involved. 37 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

47 2.30 CONTINUOUS PROCESS IMPROVEMENT Continuous process improvement is designed to utilize the resources of the organization to achieve a quality-driven culture. 38 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

48 Improvement is made by Viewing all work as process. Making all process effective, efficient and adaptable. Anticipating changing customer needs. Controlling in-process performance using measures such as scrap reduction, control charts etc. Eliminating waste and re-work. Eliminating non-value added activities. Eliminating non-conformities. Using Benchmarking. Incorporating learned lessons into future activities. Using technical tools such as SPC, benchmarking, experimental design, QFD etc 39 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

49 PROCESS Process refers to business and production activities of an organization. FEEDBACK INPUT Materials, PROCESS People, Equipment, OUTPUT Information, OUTCOMES Money, Method, Data, Information, Procedures, Product, Data, etc. Environment, Service, etc. Materials CONDITIONS Input / Output Process Model There are five basic ways for improvement. Reduce resources. Reduce errors. Meet or exceed expectations of downstream customers. Make the process safer. Make the process more satisfying to the person doing it. 40 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

50 2.31 THE PDCA CYCLE : PROBLEM SOLVING METHOD 1. IDENTIFY THE OPPORTUNITY Identify the Problem Pareto analysis of external alarm signals. Pareto analysis of internal alarm signals. Proposals from key insiders. Proposals from suggestion schemes. Field study of user s needs. Comments of key people outside the organization. Customer surveys. Employee surveys. Brainstorming by work groups. Form the Team Team should be selected. Goals and milestones are established. Define the Scope. Criteria for a good problem statement is as follows It clearly describes the problem. It states the effect. It focuses on what is known, unknown etc. It emphasizes the impact on the customer. 2. ANALYZE THE CURRENT PROCESS The objective is to understand the process and how it is currently performed. Step 1 : The team to develop a process flow diagram. Step 2 : The target performance measures are defined. Step 3 : Collection of all available data and information. 41 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

51 Common items of data and information are 1. Customer information 2. Design information 3. Process information 4. Statistical information 5. Quality information 6. Supplier information 3. DEVELOP THE OPTIMAL SOLUTION(S) This phase has the objective of establishing potential and feasible solutions and recommending the best solution to improve the process. Creativity plays the major role, and brainstorming is the principal technique. There are three types of creativity: Create new processes Combine different processes Modify the existing process 4. IMPLEMENT CHANGES This phase has the objective of preparing the implementation plan, obtaining approval and implementing the process improvements. Approval of the quality council. Obtain the advice and consent of departments, functional areas, teams, individuals etc. Monitor the activity. 5. STUDY THE RESULTS This phase has the objective of monitoring and evaluating the change by tracking and studying the effectiveness of the improvement efforts. 6. STANDARDIZE THE SOLUTION Institutionalize by positive control of the process. The quality peripherals the system, environment and supervision must be certified. Operators must be certified. 7. PLAN FOR THE FUTURE The objective is to achieve improved level of process performance. Regularly conduct reviews of progress by the quality council. Establish the systems to identify area for future improvements. Track performance with respective internal & external customers. TQM tools and techniques are used to improve quality, delivery and cost. 42 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

52 PDSA CYCLE (OR DEMING WHEEL) The basic Plan Do Study Act cycle was originally developed by Walter A. Shewart. But it was popularized by Edward Deming and that s why it is often called the Deming Cycle or Deming Wheel. It is an effective continuous improvement technique. The PDSA Cycle What is PDSA Cycle? PDSA stands for Plan, Do, Study, and Act. It is a model for testing ideas that you think may 43 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

53 create improvement. It is an extremely practical, common sense based approach that is easy to understand. It can be used to test ideas for improvement quickly and easily based on existing ideas, research, feedback, theory, review, audit, etc. It encourages starting with small changes, which can build into large improvements in the service through successive quick cycles of change. Illustrates the PDSA cycle. Phases of PDSA Cycle The four phases of PDSA cycle and their descriptions are presented in Table. Phases of PDSA Cycle Phases Description 1. Plan Define the problem Analyze the causes and draft an action plan for solving the problem. Determine the quality objectives and the critical factors. Define the performance indicators. Collect and analyze the necessary process data. Generate possible solutions Select the most feasible solution; and work it out. 2. Do First, implement the plan on a limited scale or conduct an experiment to test the proposed improvement. Collection data is hereby essential. Train all involved employees in the use of quality improvement methods and techniques. Describe the process which is considered for improvement and form project teams to lead the process. 3. Check Evaluate the trial project with the performance indicators. Verify whether the improvement has been successful or not. 4. Act Act to implement proven improvements. The choices are: introduce the plan, adjust or reject it. The improvements are documented in standard procedures so all employees are wellinformed on how to handle in future. Usually, the cycle will be repeated under the different circumstances and conditions to test how consistent the results are. Continuous Process Improvement Cycle Using PDCA The relationship between the PDSA cycle and eleven steps to continuous process improvement are illustrated in figure. Each phase of the PDCA cycle must undergo its own PDCA cycle for further improvements, as shown in figure. 44 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

54 Applying PDCA to its phases Benefits of the PDSA Cycle The benefits of the PDSA cycle can be experienced in the following areas: Daily routine management for the individual and / or the team. Problem-solving process. Project management Continuous development Vendor development Human resources development New product development Process trials S: HOUSEKEEPING 5-S MEANS EVERYTHING IN ITS PLACE SEIRI SEITON SEISO SEIKETSU SHITSUKE CLEARING ARRANGING SWEEPING CLEANLINESS DISCIPLINE 45 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

55 There can be no TQM without 5-S. A dirty factory cannot produce quality products. Clutter hides problems. A neat workplace promotes easy discovery of abnormalities. The First S : SEIRI : CLEARING Factory Floor Office Home Machines to be Used / Broken Broken toys scrapped pens Rejected material Useless paper Old clothes Expired goods Old diaries Broken suitcases Broken tools, Broken furniture s pallets, bins, trolleys. Old notices Flow Chart : Separating the wanted and unwanted Junk & waste Repairable Wanted items No use Repair Discard To next step Consequences of not practicing SEIRI The unwanted clutters up the place and the wanted are hard to find. Every place can only hold so much. Clutter sometimes causes misidentification. The Second S : SEITON : ARRANGING Arrange everything in proper order so that it can be easily picked up for use. 46 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

56 Factory Floor Office Home Unlabelled tool crib Unlabelled file cabinet Clutter Cluttered shelves Cluttered drawer, No orderly lockers etc. shelves, book cases, arrangement in tables the rooms Stores no clear Records & documents location system. Not arranged well Things on the floor File heaps and papers Consequences of not practicing SEITON Things are seldom available when needed. Items are lost in stores. Items defectives and good ones get mixed up. Accidents or near-accidents occur due to clutter. Visual control of the shop floor is not possible. Sometimes, production is lost because an item required is available but cannot be found. In some offices, Critical Excise records or tax records may not be traceable. This can lead to finance loss, prosecution or embarrassment. The Third S : SEISO : SWEEPING Sweep your workplace thoroughly so that there is no dust anywhere. Factory Floor Office Home Dirty machines Dirty table & furniture Dirty furniture, floor, Dust on product window, grills, parts, R.Mtls. bookshelves. Dirty jigs, fixtures Dirty office equipments Dirty walls, roofs Littered floor Littered floor Dirty windows Consequences of not practicing SEISO Most machines are affected by dust & dirt and hence their performance may go down. Dust and dirt on products, materials, packing boxes etc. will affect either their performance quality or their aesthetic look. Unpleasant to work in. 47 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

57 The Fourth S : SEIKETSU : CLEANLINESS Washing with a strong overtone of keeping things disinfected as well as free of hazardous chemicals. Factory Floor Office Home Handling hazardous Free of pests Pest control chemicals Personal hygiene Personal hygiene Control of fumes, hazardous dust. Disinfecting, Personal hygiene Consequences of not practicing SEIKETSU Good health and safety require the practice of Seiketsu. Hazardous chemicals, dusty chemicals, fumes etc. can make it a dangerous place to work in. Washing thoroughly and cleaning a place makes the workplace pleasant. Personal hygiene is essential for healthy workforce. The Fifth S : SHITSUKI : DISCIPLINE Discipline especially with regard to safety rules and punctuality. Consequences of not practicing SEIKETSU If discipline is not practiced, then the first 4-S would backslide. Lack of Shitsuki means not following the standards. Then, all activities related to safety and quality will be affected IMPLEMENTING 5-S 1. Top Management resolve and training. 2. Formation of a top level team. 3. Understanding current circumstances. 4. Establishing priorities and targets. 48 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

58 5. Forming sub-teams and training. 6. Major cleaning. 7. Establishing improvement plans in each priority area. 8. Implementing the plan. 9. Verifying results. 10. Standardizing. 11. Establishing full control. 12. Looking for further improvements KAIZEN Kaizen is a Japanese word for the philosophy that defines management s roles in continuously encouraging and implementing small improvements involving everyone. It focuses on simplification by breaking down complex progress into their sub processes and then improving them KAIZEN WHEEL The Kaizen improvement focuses on the use of : Value added and non value work activities. Muda, which refers to the seven classes of waste over-production, delay, transportation, processing, inventory, wasted motion, and defective parts. Principles of motion study and the use of cell technology. Principles of materials handling and use of one piece flow. Documentation of standard operating procedures. The five S s for workplace organization. Visual management. Just in time principles. Poka Yoke. Team dynamics. 49 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

59 2.36 SUPPLIER PARTNERSHIP What is Supplier Partnering? Partnering is a defined as a continuing relationship, between a buying firm and supplying firm, involving a commitment over an extended time period, an exchange of information, and acknowledgement of the risks and rewards of the relationship. The relationship between customer and supplier should be based upon trust, dedication to common goals and objectives, and an understanding of each party s expectations and values. Benefits of Partnering The benefits of partnering include: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) (vii) Improved quality; reduced cost; Increased productivity; Increased efficiency; Increased market share; Increased opportunity for innovation; and Continuous improvement of products / services. Key Elements to Partnering The three important elements to achieve the customer / supplier partnering relationship are : 1. Long-term commitment: Long-term commitment provides both customer and supplier the much needed environment to achieve the planned objectives. Because to set up and solve the problem of continuous improvement, both parties may require the sufficient time. 50 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

60 2. Trust : Mutual trust between two parties forms the basis for a strong working relationship. Trust enables the partners to effectively combine their resources and knowledge. It results in a win-win situation for both partners. 3. Shared vision : Both the customers and suppliers have the common goal i.e., to satisfy the end user. In order to ensure this goal, both particles should share and understand their goals and objectives. Three types of supplier sourcing are: o Sole sourcing; o Multiple sourcing, and o Single sourcing. 1. Sole Sourcing Sole sourcing is the use of only one supplier for the organization. The organization does not have any choice. It is forced to use only one supplier. This forced situation is because of the following factors : patents, technical specifications, raw material location, only one organization producing the item, etc. 2. Multiple Sourcing Multiple sourcing is the use of two or more suppliers for an item. The basic concept of multiple sourcing is that competition will result in better quality, lower costs, and better service. (The selection of suppliers from various alternatives is based on their performance in terms of prices, quality and delivery. 3. Single Sourcing Single sourcing is the use of one supplier for an item when several sources are available. It leads to long-term partnering relationship. The suppliers should be treated as partners to achieve the same quality level as attained within the organization. The following forces need Supplier Partnership to improve quality, reduce costs and increase market share. Deming Philosophy (Deming s 4 th point) Just-in-time Continuous process improvement ISO E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

61 CUSTOMER SUPPLIER RELATIONS Dr. Kaoru Ishikawa has given ten principles of customer-supplier relations. They are 1. Both the customer and supplier are fully responsible for the control of quality. 2. Both the customer and supplier should be independent of each other. 3. The customer is responsible for providing the supplier with clear and sufficient requirements so that the customer can know precisely what to produce. 4. Both the customer and supplier should enter into a non-adversarial contract. 5. The supplier is responsible for providing the quality that will satisfy the customer. 6. Both the customer and supplier should decide the method to evaluate the quality of the product or services. 7. Both the customer and supplier should establish in the contract the method by which they can reach an amicable settlement in case of any dispute. 8. Both the customers and supplier should continually exchange information. 9. Both the customer and supplier should perform business activities. 10. Both the customer and supplier should have the best interest of the end user in mind PARTNERING Partnering is a relationship between two or more parties based upon trust, dedication to common goals. The benefits of partnering are Improved quality Increased efficiency Lower cost Increased opportunity for innovation Continuous improvement The three key elements to a partnership relationship are Long term commitment Trust Shared Vision 2.38 SOURCING The three types of sourcing are Sole sourcing Multiple sourcing Single sourcing 2.39 SUPPLIER SELECTION The suppliers should be selected with the following ten conditions 1. The supplier should understand clearly the management philosophy of the organization. 2. The supplier should have stable management system. 3. The supplier should maintain high technical standards. 52 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

62 4. The supplier should provide the raw materials and parts which meet quality specifications required by the purchaser. 5. The supplier should have the required capability in terms of production. 6. The supplier should not leak out the corporate secrets. 7. The supplier should quote right price and should meet the delivery schedule. The supplier should be accessible with respect to transportation and communication. 8. The supplier should be sincere in implementing the contract provisions. 9. The supplier should have an effective quality system such as ISO / QS The supplier should be renowned for customer satisfaction. SUPPLIER CERTIFICATION A certified supplier is one which, after extensive investigation, is found to supply material of such quality that is not necessary to perform routine testing. The Eight criteria for supplier certification are 1. No product related lot rejections for at least 1 year. 2. No non-product related rejections for atleast 6 months. 3. No production related negative incidents for atleast 6 months. 4. Should have passed a recent on-site quality system evaluation. 5. Having a fully agreed specifications. 6. Fully documented process and quality system. 7. Timely copies of inspection and test data. 8. Process that is stable and in control SUPPLIER RATING Supplier Rating is done To obtain an overall rating of supplier performance. To communicate with suppliers regarding their performance. To provide each supplier with a detailed and true record of problems for corrective action. To enhance the relationship between the buyer and the supplier. RELATIONSHIP DEVELOPMENT For establishment of supplier relationship, the following are necessary. (a) Partnering (b) Supplier selection (c) Principles of customer / supplier relations (d) Certification (e) Periodic rating For relationship development, the following are necessary. (a) Inspection 100% inspection Sampling 53 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

63 Audit Identity check (b) Training (c) Teams (d) Recognition and Reward 54 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

64 UNIT III TQM TOOLS & TECHNIQUES - I 3.1 SEVEN TOOLS OF QUALITY Prerequisite Discussion The quality of a product or service depends on the quality of process employed. Every organization needs to establish a set of well-defined process for manufacturing of product (or) design or service. The objective of process control is to control the quality of the processes and ensure that the deliverables are produced as planned. Aim of the statistical based process control is to produce products and services with quality consistently. Seven quality control tools are very important for continuous improvement in the TQM journey. It is a prerequisite for ISO 9000 certification process flow charts are insisted and the organizations are asked to document the processes Concept There are many proposed tools and techniques to achieve the TQM promises. Generally, a technique can be considered as a number of activities performed in a certain order to reach the values. On the other hand, tools sometimes have statistical basis to support decision making or facilitate analysis of data. The best tools for this purpose is check sheet, Pareto chart, histogram, scatter diagram, run chart and statistical process control (SPC). The data collected by these tools can be used to measure the process. The correct selection and use of tools and techniques is a vital component of any successful TQM implementation plan. The TQM tools and techniques can be divided into simple tools for solving a special problem and complex one that cover all functions within the company Flow Charts This is one of the basic quality tool that can be used for analyzing a sequence of events. The tool maps out a sequence of events that take place sequentially or in parallel. The flow chart can be used to understand a complex process in order to find the relationships and dependencies between events. You can also get a brief idea about the critical path of the process and the events involved in the critical path. Flow charts can be used for any field and to illustrate events involving processes of any complexity. There are specific software tools developed for drawing flow charts, such as MS Vision. 55 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

65 You will be able to freely download some of the open source flow chart tools developed by the open source community. 3.3 Applications: In a product assembly how sub assemblies made and then build into final product. The time taken for before improvement is greater than after improvement by using flow diagrams Histogram Histogram is used for illustrating the frequency and the extent in the context of two variables. Histogram is a chart with columns. This represents the distribution by mean. If the histogram is normal, the graph takes the shape of a bell curve. If it is not normal, it may take different shapes based on the condition of the distribution. Histogram can be used to measure something against another thing. Always, it should be two variables. Consider the following example: The following histogram shows morning attendance of a class. The X-axis is the number of students and the Y-axis the time of the day. 56 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

66 3. 5 Cause and Effect Diagram Cause and effect diagrams (Ishikawa Diagram) are used for understanding organizational or business problem causes. Organizations face problems everyday and it is required to understand the causes of these problems in order to solve them effectively. Cause and effect diagrams exercise is usually a teamwork. A brainstorming session is required in order to come up with an effective cause and effect diagram. All the main components of a problem area are listed and possible causes from each area is listed. Then, most likely causes of the problems are identified to carry out further analysis. 57 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

67 CAUSE AND EFFECT DIAGRAM IMPROPER FUNCTION OF FD FAN DRAUGHT SYSTEM IMPROPER FUNCTION OF ID FAN IMPROPER FUNCTION OF SA FAN INCREASED MOISTURE CONTENT FUEL INCREASED SUGAR CONTENT NON-UNIFORM FLOW OF FUEL NATURE OF BAGASSE FIBRE VARIATION IN WATER LEVEL IN DRUM WATER VARIATION IN BOILER WATER TDS BOILER WATER QUALITY VARIATION IN BOILER WATER ph VARIATION IN FEED WATER TEMPERATURE VARIATION IN STEAM GENERATION 3.6. Check Sheet A check sheet can be introduced as the most basic tool for quality. A check sheet is basically used for gathering and organizing data. When this is done with the help of software packages such as Microsoft Excel, you can derive further analysis graphs and automate through macros available. Therefore, it is always a good idea to use a software check sheet for information gathering and organizing needs. One can always use a paper-based check sheet when the information gathered is only used for backup or storing purposes other than further processing. Types of check sheet 1. Process distribution check sheets. 2. Defective item check sheets. 3. Defect location check sheet. 4. Defect factor check sheet. 58 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

68 3.7. Scatter Diagram When it comes to the values of two variables, scatter diagrams are the best way to present. Scatter diagrams present the relationship between two variables and illustrate the results on a Cartesian plane. Then, further analysis, such as trend analysis can be performed on the values. In these diagrams, one variable denotes one axis and another variable denotes the other axis. 59 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

69 3.8. Control Charts Control chart is the best tool for monitoring the performance of a process. These types of charts can be used for monitoring any processes related to function of the organization. These charts allow you to identify the following conditions related to the process that has been monitored. Stability of the process Predictability of the process Identification of common cause of variation Special conditions where the monitoring party needs to react 3.9. Pareto Charts Pareto charts are used for identifying a set of priorities. You can chart any number of issues/variables related to a specific concern and record the number of occurrences. This way you can figure out the parameters that have the highest impact on the specific concern. This helps you to work on the propriety issues in order to get the condition under control. 60 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

70 SIGNIFICANCE: Above seven basic quality tools help you to address different concerns in an organization. Therefore, use of such tools should be a basic practice in the organization in order to enhance the efficiency. Trainings on these tools should be included in the organizational orientation program, so all the staff members get to learn these basic tools. Most of the organizations use quality tools for various purposes related to controlling and assuring quality. Although there are a good number of quality tools specific to certain domains, fields and practices, some of the quality tools can be used across such domains. These quality tools are quite generic and can be applied to any condition. There are seven basic quality tools used in organizations. These tools can provide much information about problems in the organization assisting to derive solutions for the same. A number of these quality tools come with a price tag. A brief training, mostly a self-training, is sufficient for someone to start using the tools. Let's have a look at the seven basic quality tools in brief. GLOSSARY: Variables The measurement data will vary continuously Ex: Voltage, Current, Length, Efficiency. Attributes Any counting can occur in whole numbers Ex: No. of defects in a software, No. of parts rejected. 1.REFERENCES: 1. Dale H.Besterfiled, et at., Total Quality Management, Pearson Education Asia,Third Edition, Indian Reprint (2006). 2. V.JayakumarDr.R.Raju Total Quality Management Lakshmi publication,chennai, 8 th Edition New Seven management Tools Why? It is a simple and effective tool. This approach focuses on the process (to reveal the causes), rather than the people. Example: Why was there a delay in dispatch of good? Cutting tool failed, resulting in delay in manufacture. Why? The tools were reused? Why? Ordered tool were not delivered? 61 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

71 Solution changes the dispatch schedule, if ever the tools were not delivered. Forced Field Analysis Readers attention is invited to the discussion in Chapter 2 on this topic. Nominal Group Technique This technique provides for ideas input from every one in the team and for effective decision making. A team wants to decide upon a current complaint to attend. Every one in the team writes the problem on a paper, what they think is most important. They are listed in a chart and then the team members are asked to rank, from most important to least important. The ranking are given a numerical value starting from, say, on a 10 to 1 scale. Points for each problem is totaled and the ones with highest number of points, is considered o be the most important. The seven advanced tools of quality management or the New Seven is a collection of tools put together by a set of Japanese quality professionals., Arrow Diagram, was known to engineers and project managers by names like PERT (Programme Evaluation and Review Technique) or CMP (Critical Mean Path). Another tool in this set PDPC (Process Decision Programme Chart) has been used in operations research. 3. CONCEPT These tools, unlike SPC tools are qualitative tools. Most of these tools do not involve the use of numerical data.. Like all management tools these are judgmental tools. Managers are often called upon to make decisions based on their judgement with help of incomplete information or on subjective issues. Team work and techniques like brainstorming are very essential for best results with such tools. The seven tools we will see are : 1. Affinity diagram 2. Relations diagram 3. Tree diagram 4. Matrix diagram 5. Matrix data analysis diagram. 6.Process decision programme chart 7. Arrow diagram 3. Affinity Diagram The purpose of an affinity diagram is to provide a visual representation of grouping of a large number of ideas or factors or requirements into logical sets of related items to help one organise action plans in a systematic manner. Procedure 62 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

72 The steps in the procedure for preparing an affinity diagram are : 1. Decide the subject or the topic 2. Generate a large number of ideas through brainstorming 3. Decide the number of groups and their titles. Create a card for each group. Enter the title of the group at the top of the card. 4. Distribute all the ideas among the cards. If necessary, create new cards for additional groups. 5. Arrange the cards according to the relationship between the groups. 6. Give a name to the affinity diagram. Applications: The structure and the procedure for affinity diagram would have shown how simple the tool is. Its simplicity makes it easy to combine it with other tools and put it to a wide variety of applications. For instance, it can be combined with a cause-and-effect diagram or a relations diagram to identify and regroup causes for a problem or it can be combined with a tree diagram to categorise possible solutions. Thus it can assist in problem solving. It can be used to group customer requirements in a complex product and can help one to design a product with characteristics and features that would satisfy and delight customers. It can be used to categorise actions in an implementation plan leading to a rationalised distribution of responsibility. In fact the tool can be used to break up any complex problem or task into smaller more easily manageable bits. Someone has asked a question - How do you eat a whale? which has an obvious answer - A mouthful at a time. Another similar set of a question and an answer is - How to eat an elephant - slice by slice. Well affinity diagram is a tool that helps to break up a whale into convenient mouthfuls or an elephant into manageable slices. Its simplicity makes it a very widely applicable tool. 63 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

73 2.Relations Diagram Purpose The purpose of relations diagram is to generate a visual representation of the relations between an effect and its causes as well as the interrelationship between the causes in complex problems. Structure As mentioned in the opening paragraph of the chapter, the structure of relations diagram is not very rigid; it is quite flexible. Only thing fixed about the diagram is a bold bordered rectangle in which the effect is written. The causes are entered in light rectangles and lines are drawn to show relation between the rectangles. The lines have arrows at one end showing which is the cause and which is the effect - the arrow always leading from the cause to the effect. The most common shape the diagram takes has the effect at the centre, with immediate causes surrounding it and secondary and tertiary causes as outer layers. 5. Procedure To prepare a relations diagram, there is a need for a large number of causes. No single individual can generate an exhaustive list of causes. 64 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

74 Hence the tool gives best results when it is used in a group. The group must brainstorm the subject to get the maximum number of causes. The steps in the preparation of a relations diagram are: 1. Decide the effect or the problem for which causes are to be found. Write is in the centre of the flip chart or a board and enclose it in a dark bordered rectangle. Discuss the subject and confirm the effect. 2. Brainstorm to identify the immediate causes for the effect first. Enter these in rectangles around the central dark rectangle. Take care to place causes likely to be related to one another in adjacent positions. It is quite possible that the locations of the causes may have to be changed as one progresses. Hence a white board is preferable to a flip chart for this exercise. If a flip chart is used, the causes may be written on post-it pads and stuck on the chart so that their location can be changed easily. 3. Connect these immediate causes to the effect by connecting the rectangles of the causes to that of the effect with a line with an arrow pointing towards the effect. Explore the cause and effect relationship among the immediate causes and connect them, keeping in mind that the arrow always points to an effect. 4. Taking each of these immediate causes as an effect, brainstorm to find causes for them one by one. The key question for identifying causes is why?. Keep asking the question till the root causes are identified for the immediate, secondary and tertiary causes. 5. Explore the relationship between all the causes and connect the rectangles as in step-3. Show as many relations among different causes as possible. A large number of routes leading to the same root causes provides an indication that the root cause may be an important contributor to the problem. 6. Brainstorm to find the more important root causes and more prominent links leading to the effect. Mark these by making the rectangles and the connecting lines darker. 7. If necessary, rearrange the rectangles in such a way that the connecting lines are short and the diagram compact. 9. Provide a suitable title to the diagram. 6. Applications Relations diagram can be applied to explore cause and effect relationships, especially in complex situations where the causes are likely to be mutually related. The most common use is in problem solving to identify multiple interrelated causes. The output of the tool is a list of root causes for the problem with some indication of their relative importance. The output has to be considered as only an indication of the relative importance of the causes. Data has to be collected to confirm or reject the conclusions arrived at the end of the session. Priority of corrective actions to eliminate the causes should be based on the data collected, not on output of relations diagram. The output of relations diagram is based on the perception of the members of the group brainstorming the issue; it needs to be supported by facts. While the output is important as it points a direction to data collection efforts, it is no substitute for facts and data. 65 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

75 7. Relations diagram 8. Tree Diagram Purpose The purpose of the tree diagram is to explore ways and means to achieve an objective, develop a list of alternate means to reach the desired situation in a sequential order and to present them in a visual form. Procedure This tool like other tools in the new seven is a group tool. A brainstorming session is necessary to collect a large number of ideas for the means to achieve the objective. The rules of brainstorming should be observed to get the best results from the tool. The steps in the procedure to develop a tree diagram are : 1. Identify a high priority problem that needs to be solved at the earliest. 66 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

76 Prepare an objective statement describing the desired situation or the target solution. 2. Decide the appropriate form of the diagram - cascade or tree as well as direction of flow after a brief discussion. Place the target solution in the dark rectangle. 3. Brainstorm to identify the primary means to achieve the objective. Arrange them in an appropriate order keeping in mind the likely interrelations between them and place them in rectangles at the first level. 4. For each of the primary means, identify secondary means which would be necessary to attain those means. Arrange them in next level boxes. 5. Identify tertiary means required to attain each of the secondary means and place them in a proper order in the next level boxes. 6. Continue the process till the group feels that the end of the line has been reached. 7. If a lower level means is required to attain two higher level means, it may be connected to both. Rearrange the boxes if necessary to make this possible. Use of POST-IT pads can make such a rearrangement simple. 8. Brainstorm to reach a consensus on the relative importance of the last level means to priorities action. 9. Give a suitable title to the diagram. Application The most important application of the tree diagram is for devising solutions for problems. It helps one to develop a systematic step by step strategy to achieve an objective. It is also useful in monitoring the implementation of solutions by taking care of accomplishment of means at different levels. 67 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

77 9. Matrix Diagram Purpose The purpose of a matrix diagram is to explore the existence and the extent of relations between individual items in two sets of factors or features or characteristics and express them in a symbolic form that is easy to understand. The purpose for which the tool is most frequently used is to understand the relation between customer expectations as expressed by the customers and product characteristics as designed, manufactured and tested by the manufacturer. Procedure The steps in the procedure to prepare a matrix diagram are : 1. Decide the two sets of factors for which relations are required to be clarified. Call the set of the main factors features and the set of factors dependent on it counterpart characteristics or characteristics. 2. Divide the features into primary, secondary and tertiary features. 3. Divide the characteristics into primary, secondary and tertiary characteristics. 4. Place the features vertically on the left hand side of the matrix and characteristics horizontally on top of the matrix. 5. Enter the importance of the features on the column after that for the tertiary features. 6. In the main body of the matrix, place symbols at the squares denoting the relationship between thefeature and the characteristic meeting at the intersection. The symbols to be used are : - Strong relationship - Medium relationship - Weak relationship In case there is no relation between the concerned feature and characteristic, leave the square blank to indicate no relation. The relationship should be based on data available with the team or on the results of a brainstorming session which must be confirmed by collecting necessary data. 7. Title the diagram suitably. ApplicationsMatrix diagram, being a very simple table showing relations between individual items in two sets of factors, can be put to a wide variety of uses. The symbolic representation of the relationship makes the diagram so much easier to understand as compared to a table with a lot of figures. Let us see some of the possible applications of a matrix diagram. Matrix diagram can be used to solve problems by arranging data in such a way that the relations between relevant factors are brought into sharp focus. It can be used to understand relations between customer satisfaction and product characteristics, between complaints and product groups, between complaints and geographical regions, between a product s performance in the market and promotional inputs on it and so on. Once the relations between individual items in sets of factors are clearly understood and agreed upon, it becomes easy to solve problems and to plan and implement solutions systematically. There is no limit to the use of the tool. The unlimited possibility of the application of the tool is proved by a couple of unusual examples. A book on QC tools written by Japanese authors gives an example where the tool was used to describe the relations between male and female members of the staff in an office. A recent article in a magazine brought out by an NBFC (Non Banking Finance Company) for the b enefit of investors used the matrix diagram to depict the vulnerability of different industries. The diagram provides relation between 24 industries from Aluminium and Automobiles to tyres and yarn with half a dozen 68 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

78 parameters such as over-capacity, demand recession, cheap imports etc. The matrix had symbols indicating high, moderate, slight or no vulnerability of the industry on that parameter. The only difference is that the symbols used were not the same as those conventionally used in a matrix diagram. The most important application of matrix diagram is in clarifying relations between individual features of customer requirements and individual product characteristics. Thus the tool enables one to translate customer expectations into technical specifications accurately. In other words it helps one develop a product specification that will satisfy customer expectations. Its use can be extended to clarify the relationship between product characteristics on one side and product formulation and process parameters on the other side. In other words it can be used to generate a process specification that would ensure compliance to the requirements of a product specification. It can be used to develop specification requirements for inputs to a process by studying their relation to the output requirements. 10. Matrix Data Analysis Diagram Purpose The purpose of matrix data analysis diagram is to present numerical data about two sets of factors in a matrix form and analyse it to get numerical output. The factors most often are products and product characteristics. The purpose then is to analyse the data on several characteristics for a number of products and use the information to arrive at optimum values for the characteristics for a new product or to decide the strong points of a product and use the information for designing a strategy for the promotion of the product. Procedure The procedure for creating a matrix data analysis diagram consists of the following steps: 1. Decide the two factors whose relations are to be analyses. 2. Check the number of individual items in the two factors. 69 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

79 3. Prepare a matrix to accommodate all the items of the two factors. 4. Enter numerical data in the matrix. 5. Give the diagram a suitable title. Applications The most common application of matrix data analysis diagram is to decide the desired product characteristics of a new product based on the analysis of product characteristics of similar products in the market and the intended positioning of the new product. For instance the characteristics of a toilet soap for customers with normal skin would be somewhere in between those for a soap for dry skin and a soap for oily skin. A cosmetic product for growing children would have characteristics between those of a baby cosmetic and an adult cosmetic. By collecting data on the product characteristics of related products and placing them in a matrix data analysis diagram, one can decide the desired characteristics of the proposed product depending on target group of customers for the new product. Analysis of the data can also be used to identify the strongest characteristics of an existing product to decide its promotional inputs. The tool can also be used to study the causes of customer complaints. It can also be used to determine process parameters to achieve desired product characteristics. The tool can be very useful in compiling data obtained on the analysis of competitive products with a view to develop a product better than the competition or to devise a marketing strategy for the product based on its strengths. 70 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

80 Process Decision Programme Chart Purpose The purpose of process decision programme chart is to prepare for abnormal occurrences with low probability which may otherwise be overlooked and to present the occurrences as well as the 71 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

81 necessary countermeasures to guard against such occurrences in the form of a visual chart. The tool forces one to think of the possible obstacles in the smooth progress of a process or a project and then find ways and means to surmount those obstacles to ensure the successful and timely completion of the process or the project. Thus the tool helps one to prepare a contingency plan to achieve the objective if adverse events occur. Procedure The steps in the preparation of a process decision programme chart are : 1. Prepare a normal flowchart of the process with all expected events as steps in the chart. 2. Consider the possibility of the process not going as per the plan due to any abnormal, though less probable, occurrences. 3. Show these occurrences on the flowchart through branching at appropriate locations. 4. Consider how the abnormal occurrence will affect the process and search for ways and means to counter the effect. 5. Show these countermeasures in rectangles connecting the corresponding abnormal occurrence on one side and the process objective or the goal on the other. 6. Give a suitable title to the diagram. Steps 2 and 4 require totally different type of thinking and hence the team must be prepared to think on appropriate lines. One needs to put on different thinking hats while brainstorming steps 2 and 4 and the facilitator must inform all members about it. As suggested by Dr. Edward De Bono in his book Six Thinking Hats the correct thinking hats for steps 2 and 4 are black and yellow which respectively encourage negative logical and positive logical thinking. Applications The tool has the widest range of applications as it can be used for a range of activities from simple ones like a game of bridge or reaching railway station or airport in time to catch a train or a plane to complex processes or projects. In fact if can be applied to all processes to ensure their success by systematically minimising the untoward effect of unexpected adverse occurrences. Through the process of brainstorming for possible adverse occurrences and for measures to counter them, one assures the success of the process even if such events do occur. The tool can be used to prevent problems by identifying opportunities for error and devising measures to avoid failure. It can be used during the implementation of solutions for predicting resistance and for planning measures to overcome the resistance. 72 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

82 11.Process decision programme chart 12.Arrow Diagram Purpose The purpose of an arrow diagram is to create a visual presentation of the steps of a process or tasks necessary to complete a project with special emphasis on the time taken for these activities. The diagram provides a clear understanding of the schedule of various steps in the process which helps one to monitor the process for ensuring its completion on time. Procedure The steps for preparing an arrow diagram are : 73 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

83 1. List all tasks or activities that need to be accomplished before the completion of the process or the project. 2. Decide which steps are undertaken in series and which steps can be run in parallel. 3. Arrange the activities in a proper sequence. 4. Prepare Event Nodes at the completion of steps and number them. Where the process is bifurcating into two or more parallel streams, more lines will flow from a node and where the parallel streams are merging, two or more steps will lead to a node. 5. Write the description of the step on top of the line or to the left of the line. Decide the time required for completing each step and write it under or to the right of the line. 6. Calculate the earliest time to reach an event node for the start of the process. Where more than one streams are combining, the maximum time taken by a stream is taken into consideration. This time is entered on the top half of the rectangle. This time is related to the starting time of the process which is taken as zero. 7. After the time for all event nodes including the completion of the process or the project is available, one calculates the latest time by which an event node must be reached. This is done by starting at the time of completion and going back step by step. The time is entered on the bottom half of the rectangle. The time indication at all event nodes will appear as : X Y where X is the earliest time by which the event can be completed and Y is the latest time by which the event should be completed. 8. Give a title to the diagram. As the calculation of the time indications is extremely important in the construction of an arrow diagram it is necessary that we understand the procedure well. Let us understand the concept through diagram. Let us calculate the time the events can be reached earliest by adding time for the step to the time of the earlier event starting with zero time at the start i.e. event-1. Where there are two streams one has to take the time for the longer or the critical path. The time to be put on the top half of the rectangle for the 15 event nodes are given in table 3. For event node 7, we get two values. As the time for node 6 is 5 hours and step from 6 to 7 takes one hour, the time for 7 would be 6 hours. But time for node 3 is 4 hours and the step from 3 to 7 takes 3 74 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

84 hours, the time for node 7 comes to 7 hours. The earliest both streams get ready is 7 hours and hence one has to take 7 hours as the time for node 7. The same principle has been applied for calculating the time for nodes 10 and 14. Now let us see how to calculate the time to be put on the bottom half of the rectangle or the time by which the event must be reached to ensure completion of the project on time. In this case one has to start with event 15 as 20 hours and calculate the time for the event by reducing the time taken for the step. Step from event 14 to 15 takes 2 hours. To complete the project at 20 hours, it is essential that one reaches event 14 by 18 hours. In this way we get the time by which the events must be accomplished. These are given in table 4. Applications The most common application of an arrow diagram is in planning and scheduling projects which involve a large number of activities. The diagram is also useful in planning and scheduling steps in complicated processes. Once an arrow diagram is ready with time indications for all stages of the project or the process, referred as the event nodes in the procedure, one can look for opportunities to reduce the time taken for the project by concentrating on the steps on the critical path. It can then be used to monitor the progress of the project throughout its duration. 13. SIX SIGMA 14.Prerequisite Discussion Six Sigma is a set of techniques and tools for process improvement. It was developed by Motorola in 1986, coinciding with the Japanese asset price bubble which is reflected in its terminology. Six Sigma seeks to improve the quality of process outputs by identifying and removing the causes of defects (errors) and mi nimizing variability in manufacturing and business processes. It uses a set of quality management methods, including statistical methods, and creates a special infrastructure of people within the organization ("Champions", "Black Belts", "Green Belts", "Yellow Belts", etc.) who are experts in these methods. WHAT IS SIX SIGMA? Six sigma stands for six standard deviation from mean (sigma is the Greek letter used to represent standard deviation in statistics). Six sigma, similar to Zero Defect (ZD), is a philosophical benchmark or standard of excellence proposed by Philip Crosby. Six sigma methodology provides the techniques and tools to improve the capability and reduce the defects in any process. It was started by Motorola in 1987, in its manufacturing division. Six sigma strives for perfection. It allows for only 3.4 defects per million opportunities (or percent accuracy). Here a defect can be anything from a faulty party to an incorrect customer bill. 75 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

85 Six sigma improves the process performance, decrease variation and maintains consistent quality of the process output. This leads to defect reduction and improvements in profits, product quality and customer satisfaction. Six sigma incorporates the basic principles and techniques used in business, statistics and engineering. The objective of six sigma principle is to achieve zero defects products/process. It allows 3.4 defects per million opportunities. WHY DO WE NEED SIX SIGMA? (Three sigma quality is not enough. Why?) We know that, the three sigma quality, i.e., the natural variability (x 3) is equal to tolerance (= upper specification limit lower specification limit). It means, in normal distribution curve, only 0.27% of the output would be expected to fall outside the specifications limits. The real meaning of 3 concept: A medium aircraft consists of 10,000 different parts. At 3 quality, 27 of those parts in an assembled aircraft would be defective. So three sigma quality level cannot be accepted as good enough quality level. So we have to increase the sigma level (i.e., reducing the number of defectives). In fact, even four sigma quality also not sufficient for the aircraft case. That s why six sigma quality level is preferred than 3 and 4 quality levels. 15. CONCEPT Six Sigma A vision of quality which equates with only 3.4 defects per million opportunities for each product or service transaction. Strives for perfection. DMAIC methodology provides a structured framework for solving business problems by assuring correct and effective process execution. This methodology has 6 phases in which, in the case of Six Sigma, teams take total employee involvement approaches to complete the cycle of process management and use self-diagnosis skills to fulfill the goals of each phase. 16. DMAIC 76 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

86 17.DMADV DMAIC It is used for improving existing processes/products. DMADV It is applied to a new processes/products. Example: (Need for Six Sigma) Aircraft consist different parts. At 3 sigma level27 parts will be defective. It cannot afford to fail 27 parts in million at 3 sigma level. Similarly 1). Failure in surgery. 2). Testing of nuclear plant. Therefore increased to six sigma level. (reduce the number of defects) Specification Limit Percent Defective ppm +/- 4 sigma /- 5 sigma /- 6 sigma (World Class) 18.Significance: Each Six Sigma project carried out within an organization follows a defined sequence of steps and has quantified value targets, for example: reduce process cycle time, reduce pollution, reduce costs, increase customer satisfaction, and increase profits. 19.Application: Today six sigma can apply to many fields such as services, medical and insurance procedures, call centers etc., 20.Companies which have adopted six sigma: Motorola Sony IBM 77 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

87 Honda Texas Instruments Hitachi Polaroid Canon 21.Glossary : DMAIC It is used for improving existing processes/products. DMADV It is applied to a new processes/products. 22.References: 1. Dale H.Besterfiled, et at., Total Quality Management, Pearson Education Asia,Third Edition, Indian Reprint (2006). 2. V.JayakumarDr.R.Raju Total Quality Management Lakshmi publication,chennai, 8th Edition BENCHMARKING CONCEPT: Benchmarking is a systematic method by which organizations can measure themselves against the best industry practices. Benchmarking is a systematic search for the best practices, innovative ideas, and highly effective operating procedures. 24.BENCHMARKING CONCEPT What is our performance level? How do we do it? What are others performance levels? How did they get there? Creative Adaptation Breakthrough Performance 78 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

88 25.REASONS TO BENCHMARK : It is a tool to achieve business and competitive objectives. It can inspire managers (and Organizations) to compete. It is time and cost effective. It constantly scans the external environment to improve the process. Potential and useful technological breakthroughs can be located and adopted early. 26.PROCESS OF BENCHMARKING The following six steps contain the core techniques of Benchmarking. 26.1Decide what to benchmark Benchmarking can be applied to any business or production process. The strategy is usually expressed in terms of mission and vision statements. Best to begin with the mission and critical factors. Choosing the scope of the Benchmarking study. Pareto analysis what process to investigate. Cause and Effect diagram for tracing outputs back. 26.2Understand current performance Understand and document the current process. Those working in the process are the most capable of identifying and correcting problems. While documenting, it is important to quantify. Care should be taken during accounting information. 26.3Plan A benchmarking team should be chosen. Organizations to serve as the benchmark need to be identified. Time frame should be agreed upon for each of the benchmarking tasks. 26.4Types of benchmarking Internal Competitive Process 26.5Study Others Benchmarking studies look for two types of information How best the processes are practiced Measurable results of these practices Three techniques for conducting the research are Questionnaires Site visits Focus groups 26.6Learn from the data Answering a series of questions like Is there a gap between the organization s performance and the performance of the best-inclass organizations? What is the gap? How much is it? Why is there a gap? What does the best-in-class do differently that is better? If best-in-class practices were adopted, what would be the resulting improvement? 79 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

89 Benchmarking studies can reveal three different outcomes Negative gap Parity Positive gap 26.7Using the findings The objective is to close the gap. For this Findings must be communicated to the people within the organization Action plans must be developed to implement new processes Groups that must agree on the change Process owners Upper management Steps for the development and execution of action plans are 1. Specify tasks 2. Sequence tasks 3. Determine resources needs 4. Establish task schedule 5. Assign responsibility for each task 6. Describe expected results 7. Specify methods for monitoring results 27.PITFALLS AND CRITICISMS OF BENCHMARKING : Idea of copying others It is not a cure or a business philosophy Some process have to be benchmarked repeatedly It is not a substitute for innovation. 27.1SIGNIFICANCE: Benchmarking is a systematic method by which organizations can measure themselves against the best Industry practices It promotes superior performance by providing an organized framework through which organization learn how the best in class do things. It helps for continuous improvement. Benchmarking inspire managers (and organization) to compete. Through Benchmark process organization can borrow ideas, adopt and refine them to gain competitive advantages Application: Now a days, more than 60% companies in the world uses this technique for fixing their target for continuous improvement. For them it is an important tool. But to be effective it must be used properly. It breaks down (waste money, time and energy and some times morale too) if process owners and managers feel threatened or do not accept and act on the findings. Finally, benchmarking is not a substitute for innovation; however, it is a source of ideas from outsidethe organization. These 4 questions formed the basis on which Boeing, Digital equipments company, Motorola and Xerox jointly developed a benchmarking template. 80 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

90 28.FAILURE MODE AND EFFECTS ANALYSIS Prerequisite discussion: Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA) is a method designed to: Identify and fully understand potential failure modes and their causes, and the effects of failure on the system or end users, for a given product or process. Assess the risk associatedwith the identified failure modes, effects and causes, and prioritize issues for corrective action. Identify and carry out corrective actions to address the most serious concerns. An FMEA is an engineering analysis done by a cross-functional team of subject matter experts that thoroughly analyzes product designs or manufacturing processes early in the product development process. Finds and corrects weaknesses before the product gets into the hands of the customer. If effectively used throughout the product life cycle, it will result in significant improvements to reliability, safety, quality, delivery, and cost MEANING: Failure mode and effect analysis also known as risk analysis is a preventive measure to systematically display the causes, effects, and possible actions regarding observed failures. 81 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

91 Objectives of FEMA: 1. The objective of FEMA is to anticipate failures and prevent them from occurring. FEMA prioritizes failures and attempts to eliminate their causes. 2. FEMA is an engineering technique is used to define, identify and eliminate known and or potential failures, problems, errors which occur in the system, design, process and service before they reach the customer. 3. FEMA is a before the event action and is done when existing systems products processes are changed or redesigned. 4. FEMA is a never ending process improvement tool. 28.1Types of FEMA: 1. System FEMA 2. Design FEMA 3. Process FEMA 4. Service FEMA 5. Equipment FEMA 6. Maintenance FEMA 7. Concept FEMA 8. Environmental FEMA 28.2Benefits of FEMA: 1. Improve product/process reliability and quality. 2. Increase customer satisfaction. 3. Early identification and elimination of potential product/process failure modes. 4. Prioritize product or process deficiencies 5. Capture engineering/organization knowledge 6. Document and track the actions taken to reduce risk 7. Provide focus for improved testing and development. 8. Minimize late changes and associated cost. 9. Act as catalyst for teamwork and idea exchange between functions. Meaning of reliability: Reliability is one of the most important characteristics of any product, no matter what its application. Reliability is also an important aspect when dealing with customer satisfaction. Whether the customer is internal or external. Customers want a product that will have a relatively long service life, with long times between failures. However, as products become more complex in nature, traditional design methods are not adequate for ensuring low rates of failure. This problem gave rise to the concept of designing reliability into the product itself. Reliability requirements: The acceptance of a certain product or process is subject to meeting certain set of given requirements for reliability of the product or process. It is however important to realize that although 82 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

92 the definition for reliability is relatively simple, the customer and the supplier may have different definitions of what failure constitute. This common agreement on what constitutes reliability should be defined in terms of influence on other related systems, the complexity of the failure, and finally the relative criticality of the failure. Failure rate: A vast majority of products follow a very familiar pattern of failure. When no information is known about the reliability or conversely, failure of a product, component, system or process, except the failure rate which is a constant, periods of failure can conveniently be modeled by an exponential distribution. The failures of most products can be classified in to three main categories: debug, chance, and wear out. The first of these includes a high failure rate at the initial stages because of inappropriate use or flaws in the design or manufacturing. The next category is the failure of the product due to accidents, poor maintenance, or limitations on the design. The final category covers failure after the product or process has performed as expected for at least the amount of time given by the manufacturer as the product or process life. A successful design or process ideally fails only in this method. STAGES OF FEMA. The FEMA methodology has four stages: they are: Stage1: specifying possibilities 1. Functions 2. Possible failure modes 3. Root causes 4. Effects 5. Detection/prevention Stage 2: quantifying Risk 1. probability of cause 2. severity of effect 3. effectiveness of control to prevent cause 4. Risk priority number Stage3: correcting High risk causes 1. prioritizing work 2. detailing action 3. assigning action responsibility 4. check points on completion stage4: re-evaluation of risk 1. Recalculation of risk priority number 83 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

93 STAGES OF FEMA: 1. Specifying possibilities a. functions b. possible failure modes c. root causes d. effects e. detection/prevention 2. Quantifying risk a. probability of cause b. severity of effect c. effectiveness of control to prevent cause. d. risk priority number. 3. Correcting high risk causes A. prioritizing work B. detailing action C. assigning action responsibility. D. checks points on completion. 4. Re-evaluation of risk A. recalculation of risk priority number 28.3The design of FEMA document: 1. FEMA number 2. item 3. Design responsibility 4. prepared by 5. model number/year 6. key date 7. FEMA date 8. Core team 9. Item function 10. potential failure mode 11. potential effects of failure 84 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

94 12. severity 13. classification 14. potential causes mechanisms of failure 15. occurrence 16. current design controls 17. detection 18. risk priority number 19. Recommend actions Responsibility and target completion dates 20. actions taken The process of FEMA and documentation 1. process function requirements 2. potential failure mode 3. potential effects of failure 4. severity 5. classification 6. potential causes mechanisms of failure 7. occurrence 8. current process controls 9. detection 28.4 Risk Priority Number (RPN) 10 RPN is a numerical ranking of the risk of each potential failure mode/cause, made up of the arithmetic product of the three elements: severity of the effect likelihood of occurrence of the cause likelihood of detection of the cause. Example: 240 (10 x 6 x 4) 28.5 SIGNIFICANCE: Understanding the fundamentals and procedure of FMEAs, including the concepts and definitions preparation steps for each FMEA project applying lessons learned and quality objectives providing excellent facilitation and implementing an effective company-wide FMEA process. Implementing FMEA success factors will uniformly ensure FMEAs achieve safe, reliable and economical products and processes APPLICATION: FMEA OF A CAR DOOR. An automobile manufacturer had a peculiar problem of corrosion of interior door panel in a car. This affected a appearance functioning and added cost of repaint,etc. The failiure effect led to severity ranking of seven. 85 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

95 The probability of occurrence of corrosion rank 6 The probability of detection of corrosion rank 7 The rpn number is 294 which is high. The thickness of the paint coating on the interior door panel was revised and raised by 150mm. The probability of occurrence of corrosion reduced from 6 to 2. The probability of detection of corrosion reduced from 7 to 2. Therefore The RPN number is reduced from 294 to 28. Therefore by conducting FMEA study and carrying out corrective and preventive..actions one can prevent failures from reaching the customers. INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY. Information technology is a tool like the other tools and it helps the TQM organization to achieve its goals. Over the past few decades, computers and quality management practices have evolved together and have supported each other. This interdependence will continue in the near future. DEFINITION: Information technology is defined as computer technology for processing and storing information, as well as communications technology for transmitting information. Levels of information technology 1. Data 2. Information 3. knowledge Computers and the quality function Computers play an essential role in the quality function. They perform very simple operations at fast speeds with an exceptionally high degree of accuracy. A computer must be programmed to execute these simple operations in the correct sequence in order to accomplish a given task. Computers can be programmed to perform complex calculations, to control a process or test, to analyze data, to write reports, and to recall information on command. The quality function needs served by the computer are: 1. data collection 2. data analysis and reporting 3. statistical analysis 4. process control 5. test and inspection 6. system design 86 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

96 Data collection: The collection utilization, dissemination of quality control information is best accomplished when the information is incorporated into an information technology system. IT maintains relationships with other activities such as inventory control, purchasing, design, marketing, accounting, and production control. It is essential for all the quality needs described in this chapter. Linkages are developed between the stored data records of the various activities in order to obtain additional information with a minimum of programming and to improve the storage utilization Data analysis, reduction, and reporting: While some of the quality information is merely stored in the computer for retrieval at a future time, most of the information is analyzed, reduced to a meaningful amount, and disseminated in the form of a report. These activities of analysis reduction and reporting are programmed to occur automatically as the data are collected or to occur on command by the computer operator. Statistical analysis: The first and still an important use of the computer in quality control is for statistical analysis. Most of the statistical techniques can be easily programmed. Once programmed considerable calculation time is saved, and the calculations are error free. Process control: The first application of computers in process control was with numerically controlled machines. Numerically controlled machines used punched paper to transmit instructions to the computer which then controlled the sequence of operations. Paper tape is no longer used to provide instructions to a machine Automated test and inspection: If test and inspection are considered a process in itself or part of a production process then automated test and inspection is similar to the previous section on automated process control, computer controlled test and inspection systems offer the following advantages improved test quality, operating cost, better report preparation, improved accuracy, automated calibration, and malfunction diagnostics. System design Software applications adapted to the quality function are becoming more sophisticated and comprehensive. Execution of the menu is by function key, cursor and enters key, voice, mouse, or linkage from another program. 87 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

97 THE INTERNET AND OTHER ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION The internet is a world wide network of computer networks. It began in 1969 as a means of exchanging data between universities and the U.S military. In 1991 the national science foundation which was responsible for the internet, released the ban on commercial use of it. Other electronic communication 1. Intranet 2. Instant messaging 3. Video conferencing 4. Virtual teaming 5. Document management 6. E-learning 7. E-government 8. E-commerce 9. Business-to-business 10. Business-to-customers 11. Website design INFORMATION QUALITY ISSUES Information quality issues encompass: 1. sufficiency 2. accuracy 3. timeliness 4. intellectual property 5. security 6. privacy 7. pollution 8. creativity control and prevention 28.7 Glossary RELIABILITY Reliability of an entity is defined as the probability that will perform its intended function for a specified period of time under stated operating conditions RPN - Risk Priority Number SEV Severity OCC Occurrence DET Deduction 28.8References: 1. Dale H.Besterfiled, et at., Total Quality Management, Pearson Education Asia,Third Edition, Indian Reprint (2006). 88 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

98 2. V.JayakumarDr.R.Raju Total Quality Management Lakshmi publication,chennai, 8th Edition Material for this presentation is based on the book Effective FMEAs, by Carl S. Carlson, published by John Wiley & Sons, Subburaj Ramasamy, Total Quality Management, McGrawhill Education, New Delhi, India. 89 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

99 Unit 1V TQM TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES-II 4.1 PREREQUESITE DISCUSSION: First company in Japan to introduce Quality Circles was the Nippon Wireless and Telegraph Company in By the end of that year there were 36 companies registered with JUSE by 1978, but then spread to more than 35 other companies in the first year. Quality circles are generally free to select any topic they wish (other than those related to salary and terms and conditions of work, as there are other channels through which these issues are usually considered. Quality circles have the advantage of continuity; the circle remains intact from project to project. 4.2 CONCEPT: A quality circle is a volunteer group composed of workers (or even students). Supervisor Meet regularly in paid time who are trained to identify, analyze and solve work-related problems and present their solutions to management. When matured, true quality circles become self-managing, having gained the confidence of management. Quality circles are an alternative to the rigid concept of division of labor, where workers operate in a more narrow scope and compartmentalized functions. Typical topics are improving occupational safety and health, improving product design, and improvement in the workplace and manufacturing processes. 4.3 Improve Customer Satisfaction Stock is available at the right time and right location. Simply stated, stock is available at the right time and right location. Inventory Optimization balances the investment in an inventory with the fill-rate (service level) goals of a company. Financial considerations and/or constraints can also be applied in the development of the algorithm. These highly complex algorithms work behind the scene, allowing the user to feel confident in using optimization to help manage their inventory. A better balanced inventory means more customer satisfaction. Customer service level management is one of the intrinsic values to Valogix solutions. Repeat orders from current satisfied customers are now more profitable than acquiring new customers! If your money is tied up in a very slow moving, excess and inactive stock you won t have the cash you need to buy more of the items your customers are looking for and they will go elsewhere. 90 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

100 4.4APPLICATIONS: Quality circles have been implemented even in educational sectors in India, and QCFI (Quality Circle Forum of India) is promoting such activities. However this was not successful in the United States, as it (was not properly understood and) turned out to b e a fault-finding exercise although some circles do still exist. References: QUALITY FUNCTION DEPLOYMENT Prerequisite discussion: Ultimately the goal of QFD is to translate often subjective quality criteria into objective ones. That can be quantified and measured and which can then be used to design and manufacture the product. It is a complimentary method for determining how and where priorities are to be assigned in product development. Quality Function Deployment was developed by Yoji Akao in Japan in QFD TEAM : There are two types of teams namely 1. Team for designing a new product 1. Team for improving an existing product 4.7 BENEFITS OF QFD : 1. Improves Customer satisfaction Creates focus on customer requirements Uses competitive information effectively Prioritizes resources Identifies items that can be acted upon 2. Reduces Implementation Time Decreases midstream design changes Limits post introduction problems Avoids future development redundancies 3. Promotes Team Work Based on consensus Creates communication Identifies actions 4. Provides Documentation Documents rationale for design Adds structure to the information Adapts to changes (a living document) 91 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

101 4.8 HOUSE OF QUALITY: Interrelationship Between Technical Descriptors Technical Descriptors (Voice of the organization) Customer Requirements (Voice of the customer) Relationship between Requirements and Descriptor Prioritized Technical Descriptors Prioritized Customer Requirements 4.9 THE STEPS IN BUILDING A HOUSE OF QUALITY ARE : 1. List Customer Requirements (WHAT s) 2. List Technical Descriptors (HOW s) 3. Develop a Relationship Matrix Between WHAT s and HOW s 4. Develop an Inter-relationship Matrix between HOW s 5. Competitive Assessments a. Customer Competitive Assessments b. Technical Competitive Assessments 6. Develop Prioritized Customer Requirements 7. Develop Prioritized Technical Descriptors 92 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

102 Phase 1, Product Planning: Building the House of Quality. Led by the marketing department, Phase 1, or product planning, is also called The House of Quality.. Phase 1 documents customer requirements, warranty data, competitive opportunities, product measurements, competing product measures, and the technical ability of the organization to meet each customer requirement. Getting good data from the customer in Phase 1 is critical to the success of the entire QFD process. Phase 2, Product Design: This phase 2 is led by the engineering department. Product design requires creativity and innovative team ideas. Product concepts are created during this phase and part specifications are documented. Parts that are determined to be most important to meeting customer needs are then deployed into process planning, or Phase 3. Phase 3, Process Planning: Process planning comes next and is led by manufacturing engineering. During process planning, manufacturing processes are flowcharted and process parameters (or target values) are documented. Phase 4, Process Control: And finally, in production planning, performance indicators are created to monitor the production process, maintenance schedules, and skills training for operators. Also, in this phase decisions are made as to which process poses the most risk and controls are put in place to prevent failures. Significance: QFD "is a method for developing a design quality aimed at satisfying the consumer and then translating the consumer's demand into design targets and major quality assurance points to be used throughout the production phase.... QFD is a way to assure the design quality while the product is still in the design stage. Quality Function Deployment is a planning tool used to fulfill customer expectations. 93 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

103 Quality Function Deployment focuses on customer expectations or requirements, often referred to as voice of the customer. 4.7 HOUSE OF QUALITY: The primary planning tool used in QFD is the house of quality. The house of quality converts the voice of the customer into product design characteristics. QFD uses a series of matrix diagrams, also called quality tables, resembles connected houses. Basic structure of house of quality: 1. Customer requirements 2. Prioritized customer requirements 3. Technical descriptors 4. Relationship matrix 5. prioritized technical descriptors 6. Competitive assessments 94 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

104 7. Develop a relationship matrix between WHATS AND HOWS 4.8 Constructing the house of quality: Step1: List customer requirements Step2: List technical descriptors Step3: Develop a relationship matrix between HOWS Step4: competitive assessments Step5: Develop prioritized customer requirements Step6: Develop prioritized technical descriptors 4.9 QUALITY FUNCTION DEVELOPMENT PROCESS: Phase 1: product planning Step1: list customer requirements Step2: List technical descriptors Step3: Develop a relationship between WHATS AND HOWS Step4: Develop a interrelationship matrix between HOWS Step5: Do competitive assessments Step6: Develop prioritized customer requirements Step7: Develop prioritized technical descriptors. Phase 2: part development Step8: Deploy QFD process down to sub-components level both in terms of requirements and characteristics. Step9: Deploy the component deployment chart. Relate the critical sub-component control characteristics. Phase 3: process planning Step10: Develop the relationship between the critical characteristics and process used to create the characteristics Step11: Develop the control plan relating critical control to critical processes. 95 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

105 Phase 4: production planning Step 12: Tabulate operating instructions from process requirements Step13: develop prototype and do testing Step14: Launch the final product to the market APPLICATION: QFD is applied in a wide variety of services, consumer products, military needs, [2] and emerging technology products. The technique is also included in the new ISO 9000:2000 standard which focuses on customer satisfaction. [3] While many books and articles on "how to do QFD" are available, there is a relative paucity of example matrices available. QFD matrices become highly proprietary due to the high density of product or service information found therein. GLOSSARY: QFD: The voice of the customer translated into the voice of the engineer. Reference: TAGUCHI S QUALITY LOSS FUNCTION Taguchi s Quality Loss Function concept combines cost, target and variation in one metric with specifications being of secondary importance. Taguchi has defined quality as the loss imparted to society from the time a product is shipped. Societal losses include failure to meet customer requirements, failure to meet ideal performance and harmful side effects. CUSTOMERS PERCEIVE QUALITY AS MEETING THE TARGET RATHER THAN JUST MEETING THE SPECIFICATIONS. There are three common quality loss functions 1. Nominal - the - best. 2. Smaller - the - better. 3. Larger - the - better 96 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

106 4.12NOMINAL THE BEST : Although Taguchi developed so many loss functions, many situations are approximated by the quadratic function which is called the Nominal the best type. L LSL USL Loss (Rs) A Y 0 τ - τ Performance Characteristic τ + Quadratic Loss Function The quadratic function is shown in figure. In this situation, the loss occurs as soon as the performance characteristic, y, departs from the target τ. At τ, the loss is Rs. 0. At LSL (or) USL, the loss is Rs. A. The quadratic loss function is described by the equation L = k (y - τ) 2. Where, L = cost incurred as quality deviates from the target. y = Performance characteristic τ = target k = Quality loss coefficient. 97 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

107 The loss coefficient is determined by setting = (y τ), the deviation from the target. When is the USL (or) LSL, the loss to the customer of repairing (or) discarding the product is Rs. A. Thus, K = A / (y τ) 2 = A / 2. L A Loss (Rs) 0 Performance Characteristic y y 4.13 SMALLER THE BETTER : Smaller-the-better The following figure shows the smaller the better concepts. The target value for smaller the better is 0. There are no negative values for the performance characteristic. The radiation leakage from a microwave appliance, the response time for a computer, pollution from an automobile, out of round for a hole etc. are the performance characteristics for this concept. 98 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

108 4.14 LARGER THE BETTER : The following figure shows the concept of the Larger the better. L Loss (Rs) A 0 y y Performance Characteristic In the Larger the better concept, the target value is (infinity), which gives a zero loss. There are no negative values and the worst case is at y = 0. Actually, larger the better is the reciprocal of smaller the better. The performance characteristics in Larger the better are bond strength of adhesives, welding strength etc Total Productive Maintenance Larger-the-better Dr. Shyamal Gomes Introduction: TPM - History: TPM is an innovative Japanese concept. The origin of TPM can betraced back to 1951 when preventive maintenance was introduced in Japan. However the concept of preventive maintenance was taken from USA. Nippondenso was the first company to introduce plant wide preventive maintenance in Preventive maintenance is the concept wherein, operators produced goods using machines and the maintenance group was dedicated with work of maintaining those machines, however with the automation of Nippondenso, maintenance became a problem as more maintenance personnel were required. So the management decided that the routine maintenance of equipment would be carried out by the operators. (This is Autonomous maintenance, one of the features of TPM). Maintenance group 99 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

109 took up only essential maintenance works.thus Nippondenso which already followed preventive maintenance also added Autonomous maintenance done by production operators. The maintenance crew went in the equipment modification for improving reliability. The modifications were made or incorporated in new equipment. This leads to maintenance prevention. Thus preventive maintenance along with Maintenance prevention and Maintainability Improvement gave birth to Productive maintenance. The aim of productive maintenance was to maximize plant and equipment effectiveness to achieve optimum life cycle cost of production equipment. In Total Quality Management, Total Productive Maintenance (TPM) is an important and effective tool for the excellence. Total productive maintenance (TPM) is keeping the current plant and equipment at its highest productivity level through cooperation of all areas of the organization. Generally, the first bridge to cross is to break down the traditional barriers between maintenance and production personnel so they are working together. Now, Maintenance management is planning, organizing, controlling maintenance activities such that the over all maintenance cost is the minimum. Maintenance is required not only by equipment but also by other facilities such as building, land, garden, lawn etc. Maintenance lawns and garden of the premises of the factory may be important aspects of environment protection especially in process industries. However, maintenance of equipment used directly in the production process is much more important for a business enterprise. Maintenance of facilities and equipment is done to ensure that these are in good working condition at any point of time and if breakdowns occur, necessary repairs should be done in order to bring these back to running condition as early as possible What is Maintenance and what is Maintenance Management? Maintenance is an initiatives that covers all those operations such as monitoring, inspecting, adjusting, repairing and / or doing whatever is necessary to keep a machine, a facility, a piece of equipment or transportation vehicle in the proper working conditions. Maintenance Management is reviewing, planning, organizing and controlling maintenance activities such that the overall maintenance cost is the minimum Maintenance development stages: Break-down maintenance: is remedial or corrective maintenance that occurs when equipment fails and must be repaired on an emergency or priority basis. It means that people waits until equipment fails and repair it. Such a thing could be used when the equipment failure does not significantly affect the operation or production or generate any significant loss other than repair cost. Obviously this is not an ideal way of keeping equipment or machinery operating because of the down time of the equipment or machinery when break down occurs. This results in loss of production due to idling of equipment and machinery and consequently idling of labour also. Ultimately customers orders cannot be delivered as promised Preventive maintenance (1951): It is a daily maintenance (cleaning, inspection, oiling and retightening), design to retain the healthy condition of equipment and prevent failure through the prevention of deterioration, periodic inspection or equipment condition diagnosis, to measure deterioration. It is further divided into periodic maintenance and predictive maintenance. Just like human life is extended by preventive medicine, the equipment service life can be prolonged by doing preventive maintenance. 100 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

110 Periodic maintenance (Time based maintenance - TBM): Time based maintenance consists of periodically inspecting, servicing and cleaning equipment and replacing parts to prevent sudden failure and process problems Predictive maintenance: This is a method in which the service life of important part is predicted based on inspection or diagnosis, in order to use the parts to the limit of their service life. Compared to periodic maintenance, predictive maintenance is condition based maintenance. It manages trend values, by measuring and analyzing data about deterioration and employs a surveillance system, designed to monitor conditions through an on-line system. In this concept, OPERATORS operates the machines for production and the MAINTENANCE group is responsible with work of maintaining those machines, however, maintenance became a problem as more maintenance personnel are required. 3. Autonomous Maintenance: When the maintenance part is not always controlled by outside forces like maintenance group and the operator can able to handle it everyday, called autonomous maintenance. 4.Productive Maintenance: Thus preventive maintenance along with Maintenance prevention and Maintainability Improvement gave birth to (4) Productive maintenance. According to Nakajima, Total productive Maintenance is productive maintenance carried out by all employees through small group activities. In TPM, the machine operator is responsible for the maintenance of the machine as well as its operation What is Total Productive Maintenance? It can be considered as the medical science of machines. Total Productive Maintenance (TPM) is a maintenance program which involves a newly defined concept for maintaining plants and equipment. TPM seeks to maximize equipments effectiveness throughout the life time of that equipment. It strives to maintain optimum equipment conditions in order to prevent unexpected break downs, speed loses, and quality defects arising from process activities. The goal of the TPM program is to markedly increase production while, at the same time, increasing employee morale and job satisfaction. 101 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

111 TPM brings maintenance into focus as a necessary and vitally important part of the business. It is no longer regarded as a nonprofit activity. Down time for maintenance is scheduled as a part of the manufacturing day and, in some cases, as an integral part of the manufacturing process. The goal is to hold emergency and unscheduled maintenance to a minimum Why TPM / The objective of TPM: TPM was introduced to achieve the following objectives: Avoid wastage in a quickly changing economic environment. Producing goods without reducing product quality. Reduce cost. Produce target quantity at the earliest possible time. Goods send to the customers must be non defective. To fulfill those objectives and the goal TPM has dual targets: 1. Zero defects, zero accidents and zero loss; 2. Zero breakdown (100% equipment availability). It is true that when defects and breakdown are reduced the operating costs come down and hence productivity increases and the products are delivered to the customer at a reasonable cost and at the right time Six core principles of TPM: Obtain Minimum 90% OEE (Overall Eq uipment Effectiveness) Run the machines even during lunch. (Lunch is for operators and not for machines!) 2. Operate in a manner, so that there are no customer complaints. 3. Reduce the manufacturing cost by 30%. 4. Achieve 100% success in delivering the goods as required by the customer. 5. Maintain a accident free environment. 6. Increase the suggestions by 3 times. Develop Multiskilled and flexible workers. Now the question comes -why should we consider TPM is an effective tech. for continuous Improvement? Because it Aims to maximize equipment effectiveness overall effectiveness. Various departments engineering, operations, and Maintenance collectively implement it. Involves every single employee from the top management to workers in the shop floor. In TPM the machine operator is responsible for the maintenance of the machine as well as its operation However, Smart TPM requires the following: Restoring equipment to a like new condition. Having operators involved in the maintenance of the equipment. Improving maintenance efficiency and effectiveness. Training the labour force to improve upon their job skills. Equipment management and maintenance prevention, which is considered inherent in the reliability strategy and The effective use of preventive and predictive maintenance technology. Therefore, the aim of productive maintenance was to maximize plant and equipment effectiveness to achieve optimum life cycle cost of production equipment. In 1971, the Japan Institute of Plant Maintenance (JIPM) defined TPM as a system of maintenance. JIPM introduced TPM award to respective organization as a standard of quality in Motives of TPM 1. Adoption of life cycle approach for improving the overall performance of production equipment. 102 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

112 2. Improving productivity by highly motivated workers which is achieved by job enlargement. 3. The use of voluntary small group activities for identifying the cause of failure, possible plant and equipment modifications. Uniqueness of TPM The major difference between TPM and other concepts is that the operators are also made to involve in the maintenance process. The concept of "I ( Production operators ) Operate, You ( Maintenance department ) fix" is not followed. TPM Objectives 1. Achieve Zero Defects, Zero Breakdown and Zero accidents in all functional areas of the organization. 2. Involve people in all levels of organization. 3. Form different teams to reduce defects and Self Maintenance. 4.21Direct benefits o ftpm 1. Increase productivity and OPE ( Overall Plant Efficiency ) by 1.5 or 2 times. 2. Rectify customer complaints. 3. Reducethe manufacturing cost by 30%. 4. Satisfy the customers needs by 100 % ( Delivering the right quantity at the right time, in the required quality. ) 5. Reduce accidents. 6. Follow pollution control measures Indirect benefits of TPM 1. Higher confidence level among the employees. 2. Keep the work place clean, neat and attractive. 3. Favorablechange in the attitude of the operators. 4. Achieve goals by working as team. 5. Horizontaldeployment of a new concept in all areas of the organization. 6. Share knowledge and experience. 7. The workers get a feeling of owning the machine Steps in introduction of TPM in a organization : PREPARATORY STAGE: STEP 1 - Announcement by Management to all about TPM introduction in the organization: Proper understanding, commitment and active involvement of the top management in needed for this step. Senior management should have awareness programmes, after which announcement is made to all. Publish it in the house magazine and put it in the notice board. Send a letter to all concerned individuals if required Initial education and propaganda for TPM : Training is to be done based on the need. Some need intensive training and some just an awareness. Take people who matters to places where TPM already successfully implemented Setting up TPM and departmental committees : TPM includes improvement, autonomous maintenance, quality maintenance etc., as part of it. When committees are set up it should take care of all those needs Establishing the TPM working system and target : Now each area is benchmarked and fix up a target for achievement. 103 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

113 A master plan for institutionalizing : Next step is implementation leading to institutionalizing wherein TPM becomes an organizational culture. Achieving PM award is the proof of reaching a satisfactory level STAGE - B - INTRODUCTION STAGE This is a ceremony and we should invite all. Suppliers as they should know that we want quality supply from them. Related companies and affiliated companies who can be our customers, sisters concerns etc. Some may learn from us and some can help us and customers will get the communication from us that we care for quality output STAGE C - IMPLEMENTATION In this stage eight activities are carried which are called eight pillars in the development of TPM activity. Of these four activities are for establishing the system for production efficiency, one for initial control system of new products and equipment, one for improving the efficiency of administration and are for control of safety, sanitation as working environment STAGE D - INSTITUTIONALISING STAGE By all there activities one would has reached maturity stage. Now is the time for applying for PM award. Also think of challenging level to which you can take this movement. 104 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

114 4.27 TPM PILLARS: PILLAR -1 - JISHU HOZEN ( Autonomous maintenance ) : This pillar is geared towards developing operators to be able to take care of small maintenance tasks, thus freeing up the skilled maintenance people to spend time on more value added activity and technical repairs. The operators are responsible for upkeep of their equipment to prevent it from deteriorating. Policy: 1. Uninterrupted operation of equipments. 2. Flexible operators to operate and maintain other equipments. 3. Eliminating the defects at source through active employee participation. 4. Stepwise implementation of JH activities. JISHU HOZEN Targets: 1. Prevent the occurrence of 1A / 1B because of JH. 2. Reduce oil consumption by 50% 3. Reduce process time by 50% 4. Increase use of JH by 50% Steps in JISHU HOZEN : 1. Preparation of employees. 2. Initial cleanup of machines. 3. Take counter measures 4. Fix tentative JH standards 5. General inspection 6. Autonomous inspection 105 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

115 7. Standardization and 8. Autonomous management. Each of the above mentioned steps is discussed in detail below. 1. Train the Employees : Educate the employees about TPM, Its advantages, JH advantages and Steps in JH. Educate the employees about abnormalities in equipments. 2. Initial cleanup of machines : o Supervisor and technician should discuss and set a date for implementing step1 o Arrange all items needed for cleaning o On the arranged date, employees should clean the equipment completely with the help of maintenance department. o Dust, stains, oils and grease has to be removed. o Following are the things that has to be taken care while cleaning. They are Oil leakage, loose wires, unfastened nits and bolts and worn out parts. o After clean up problems are categorized and suitably tagged. White tags are place where problems can be solved by operators. Pink tag is placed where the aid of maintenance department is needed. o Contents of tag is transferred to a register. o Make note of area which were inaccessible. o Finally close the open parts of the machine and run the machine. 3. Counter Measures : o Inaccessible regions had to be reached easily. E.g. If there are many screw to open a fly wheel door, hinge door can be used. Instead of opening a door for inspecting the machine, acrylic sheets can be used. o To prevent work out of machine parts necessary action must be taken. o Machine parts should be modified to prevent accumulation of dirt and dust. 4. Tentative Standard : o JH schedule has to be made and followed strictly. o Schedule should be made regarding cleaning, inspection and lubrication and it also should include details like when, what and how. 5. General Inspection : o The employees are trained in disciplines like Pneumatics, electrical, hydraulics, lubricant and coolant, drives, bolts, nuts and Safety. o This is necessary to improve the technical skills of employees and to use inspection manuals correctly. o After acquiring this new knowledge the employees should share this with others. o By acquiring this new technical knowledge, the operators are now well aware of machine parts. 6. Autonomous Inspection : o New methods of cleaning and lubricating are used. o Each employee prepares his own autonomous chart / schedule in consultation with supervisor. o Parts which have never given any problem or part which don't need any inspection are removed from list permanently based on experience. o Including good quality machine parts. This avoid defects due to poor JH. o Inspection that is made in preventive maintenance is included in JH. o The frequency of cleanup and inspection is reduced based on experience. 7. Standardization : o Upto the previous stem only the machinery / equipment was the concentration. However in this step the surroundings of machinery are organized. Necessary items should be organized, such that there is no searching and searching time is reduced. 106 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

116 o Work environment is modified such that there is no difficulty in getting any item. o Everybody should follow the work instructions strictly. o Necessary spares for equipments is planned and procured. 8. Autonomous Management : o OEE and OPE and other TPM targets must be achieved by continuous improve through Kaizen. o PDCA ( Plan, Do, Check and Act ) cycle must be implemented for Kaizen. PILLAR -2 KOBETSU KAIZEN : "Kai" means change, and "Zen" means good ( for the better ). Basically kaizen is for small improvements, but carried out on a continual basis and involve all people in the organization. Kaizen is opposite to big spectacular innovations. Kaizen requires no or little investment. The principle behind is that "a very large number of small improvements are move effective in an organizational environment than a few improvements of large value. This pillar is aimed at reducing losses in the workplace that affect our efficiencies. By using a detailed and thorough procedure we eliminate losses in a systematic method using various Kaizen tools. These activities are not limited to production areas and can be implemented in administrative areas as well. Kaizen Target: Achieve and sustain zero loses with respect to minor stops, measurement and adjustments, defects and unavoidable downtimes. It also aims to achieve 30% manufacturing cost reduction. Tools used in Kaizen: 1. Problem analysis 2. (Root cause ) Why - Why analysis 3. Summary of losses 4. Kaizen register 5. Kaizen summary sheet. PILLAR -3 - PLANNED MAINTENANCE : It is aimed to have trouble free machines and equipments producing defect free products for total customer satisfaction. This breaks maintenance down into 4 "families" or groups which was defined earlier. 1. Preventive Maintenance 2. Breakdown Maintenance 3. Corrective Maintenance 4. Maintenance Prevention With Planned Maintenance we evolve our efforts from a reactive to a proactive method and use trained maintenance staff to help train the operators to better maintain their equipment. Policy : 1. Achieve and sustain availability of machines 2. Optimum maintenance cost. 3. Reduces spares inventory. 4. Improve reliability and maintainability of machines. Target : 1. Zero equipment failure and break down. 2. Improve reliability and maintainability by 50 % 3. Reduce maintenance cost by 20 % 4. Ensure availability of spares all the time. Six steps in Planned maintenance : 1. Equipment evaluation and recoding present status. 2. Restore deterioration and improve weakness. 107 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

117 3. Building up information management system. 4. Prepare time based information system, select equipment, parts and members and map out plan. 5. Prepare predictive maintenance system by introducing equipment diagnostic techniques and 6. Evaluation of planned maintenance. PILLAR -4 Hinshitsu Hozen or QUALITY MAINTENANCE : It is aimed towards customer delight through highest quality through defect free manufacturing. Focus is on eliminating non conformances in a systematic manner, much like Focused Improvement. We gain understanding of what parts of the equipment affect product quality and begin to eliminate current quality concerns, then move to potential quality concerns. Transition is from reactive to proactive (Quality Control to Quality Assurance). QM activities is to set equipment conditions that preclude quality defects, based on the basic concept of maintaining perfect equipment to maintain perfect quality of products. The condition are checked and measure in time series to very that measure values are within standard values to prevent defects. The transition of measured values is watched to predict possibilities of defects occurring and to take counter measures before hand. Policy : 1. Defect free conditions and control of equipments. 2. QM activities to support quality assurance. 3. Focus of prevention of defects at source 4. Focus on poka-yoke. ( fool proof system ) 5. In-line detection and segregation of defects. 6. Effective implementation of operator quality assurance. Target : 1. Achieve and sustain customer complaints at zero 2. Reduce in-process defects by 50 % 3. Reduce cost of quality by 50 %. Pilar 5: Development Management / Early Management: Early management or development management helps in drastically reducing the time taken to receive, install, and set up newly purchased equipments (known as vertical start up). Early management can also be used for reducing the time to manufacture a new product in the factory. PILLAR 6 TRAINING and EDUCATION: It is aimed to have multi-skilled revitalized employees whose morale is high and who has eager to come to work and perform all required functions effectively and independently. Education is given to operators to upgrade their skill. It is not sufficient know only "Know-How" by they should also learn "Know-why". By experience they gain, "Know-How" to overcome a problem what to be done. This they do without knowing the root cause of the problem and why they are doing so. Hence it become necessary to train them on knowing "Know-why". The employees should be trained to achieve the four phases of skill. The goal is to create a factory full of experts. The different phase of skills are : Phase 1: Do not know Phase 2: Know the theory but cannot do. Phase 3: Can do but can not teach 108 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

118 Phase 4: Can do and also teach Policy: 1. Focus on improvement of knowledge, skills and techniques. 2. Creating a training environment for self learning based on felt needs. 3. Training curriculum / tools /assessment etc conductive to employee revitalization 4. Training to remove employee fatigue and make work enjoyable. Target: 1. Achieve and sustain downtime due to want men at zero on critical machines. 2. Achieve and sustain zero losses due to lack of knowledge / skills / techniques 3. Aim for 100 % participation in suggestion scheme. PILLAR- 7: SAFETY, HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENT Target : 1. Zero accident, 2. Zero health damage 3. Zero fires. In this area focus is on to create a safe workplace and a surrounding area that is not damaged by our process or procedures. This pillar will play an active role in each of the other pillars on a regular basis. A committee is constituted for this pillar which comprises representative of officers as well as workers. The committee is headed by Senior vice President ( Technical ). Utmost importance to Safety is given in the plant. Manager (Safety) is looking after functions related to safety. To create awareness among employees various competitions like safety slogans, Quiz, Drama, Posters, etc. related to safety can be organized at regular intervals. PILLAR -8 : OFFICE TPM Office TPM should be started after activating four other pillars of TPM (JH, KK, QM, PM). Office TPM must be followed to improve productivity, efficiency in the administrative functions and identify and eliminate losses. This includes analyzing processes and procedures towards increased office automation. Office TPM addresses twelve major losses. They are 1. Processing loss 2. Cost loss including in areas such as procurement, accounts, marketing, sales leading to high inventories 3. Communication loss 4. Idle loss 5. Set-up loss 6. Accuracy loss 7. Office equipment breakdown 8. Communication channel breakdown, telephone and fax lines 9. Time spent on retrieval of information 10. Non availability of correct on line stock status 11. Customer complaints due to logistics 12. Expenses on emergency dispatches/purchases Conclusion: Today, with competition in industry at an all time high, TPM may be the only thing that stands between success and total failure for some companies. It has been proven to be a program that works. It can be adapted to work not only in industrial plants, but in construction, building maintenance, transportation, and in a variety of other situations. Employees must be educated and convinced that 109 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

119 TPM is not just another "program of the month" and that management is totally committed to the program and the extended time frame necessary for full implementation. If everyone involved in a TPM program does his or her part, an unusually high rate of return compared to resources invested may be expected 4.28 QUALITY COSTS QUALITY COSTS:- Quality costs are defined as those costs associated with the non-achievement of prodect/service quality as defined by the requirements established by the organization and its contracts with customers and society. Quality cost is a cost for poor product of service ELEMENTS OF QUALITYCOST:- Cost of prevention Cost of appraisal Cost of internal failures Cost of external failures ANALYSIS OF QUALITY COSTS:- Trend analysis Pareto analysis PREVENTION COST Marketing / Customer / User. Product / Service / Design Development. Purchasing Operations (Manufacturing or Service) Quality Administration. 110 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

120 APPRAISAL COST Purchasing Appraisal Costs. Operations Appraisal Costs External Appraisal Costs Review of Test and Inspection Data Miscellaneous Quality Evaluations INTERNAL FAILURE COST Product or Service Design Failure Costs (Internal) Purchasing Failure Costs Operations (Product or Service) Failure Costs EXTERNAL FAILURE COST Complaint Investigations of Customer or User Service Returned Goods Retrofit and Recall Costs Warranty Claims Liability Costs Penalties Customer or User Goodwill Lost Sales 4.31 ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES OF QUALITY COST The purpose of quality cost analysis is to determine the cost of maintaining a certain level of quality. Such activity is necessary to provide feedback to management on the performance of quality assurance and to assist management in identifying opportunities TREND ANALYSIS : Good visual aids are important communication tools. Graphs are particularly useful in presenting comparative results to management. Trend Analysis is one where Time-to-Time comparisons can be made which illustrates the changes in cost over time. 111 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

121 TREND ANALYSIS - W ATCHES PARETO ANALYSIS : Joseph Juran observed that most of the quality problems are generally created by only a few causes. For example, 80% of all internal failures are due to one (or) two manufacturing problems. Identifying these vital few and ignoring the trivial many will make the corrective action give a high return for a low money input. VITAL FEW % % % 20 TRIVIAL MANY % 3% 1% 2% 4% 3% Incomplete Surface scars Cracks Surface pits Rough Surface Scratches Less polishing Miss sharpen Others PARETO DIAGRAM 112 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

122 4.34 INDEX NUMBERS : Index Numbers are often used in a variety of applications to measure prices, costs (or) other numerical quantities and to aid managers in understanding how conditions in one period compare with those in other periods. A simple type of index is called a RELATIVE INDEX. QUARTER COST IN RS Cost Index in quarter t = (Cost in quarter t / Base period cost) x 100 QUARTER COST RELATIVE INDEX 1 (2000/2000) x 100 = (2200/2000) x 100 = (2100/2000) x 100 = (1900/2000) x 100 = PERFORMANCE MEASURES Performance measures are required for the managers for managing an organization perfectly. Performance measures are used to achieve the following objectives. To establish performance measures and reveal trend. To identify the processes to be improved. To determine the process gains and losses. To compare the actual performance with standard performance. To provide information for individual and team evaluation. To determine overall performance of the organization. To provide information for making proper decisions. 113 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

123 4.36 WHAT SHOULD BE MEASURED? Human resources 1. Lost time due to accidents, absenteeism. 2. Employee turnover. 3. Employee satisfaction index. 4. Training cost per employee. 5. Number of grievances Customers 1. Number of complaints from customers. 2. Number of on-time deliveries. 3. Warranty data. 4. Dealer satisfaction Production 2. Inventory. 3. SPC Charts. 4. Amount of scrap / rework. 5. Machine down time Research and Development 2. New product time to market. 3. Design change orders. 4. Cost estimating errors Suppliers 2. On-time delivery. 3. Service rating. 4. Quality performance. 5. Average lead time Marketing / Sales 1. Sales expense to revenue. 2. New product sales to total sales. 3. New customers Administration 1. Revenue per employee. 2. Purchase order error. 3. Billing accuracy. 4. Cost of poor quality STRATEGY : The quality council has the overall responsibility for the performance measures.it ensures that all the measures are integrated into a total system of measures. 114 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

124 A typical system contains the following function Quality Cost Flexibility Reliability Innovation 4.38 PERFORMANCE MEASURE PRESENTATION : There are six basic techniques for presenting performance measures. They are 1. Time series graph. 2. Control charts. 3. Capability Index. 4. Taguchi s loss function. 5. Cost of poor quality. 6. Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award. In MBNQA, five categories are analyzed. They are a) Manufacturing b) Service c) Small business d) Health care e) Education 115 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

125 UNIT V QUALITY SYSTEMS 5.1 ISO 9000 STANDARDS ISO 9000 ISO 9001 ISO 9002 ISO 9003 ISO 9001 Design, Development, Production, Installation & Servicing ISO 9002 Production, Installation & Servicing 116 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

126 ISO 9003 Inspection & Testing ISO 9004 Provides guidelines on the technical, administrative and human factors affecting the product or services. ISO 9000: 2000 Sector Standard 5.2 BENEFITS OF ISO 9000 STANDARDS : Achievement of international standard of quality. Value for money. 117 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

127 Customer satisfaction. Higher productivity. Increased profitability Improved corporate image Access to global market Growth of the organization Higher morale of employees 5.3 CLAUSES (ELEMENTS) OF ISO 9000 (During the year 1987) 4.1 Management Responsibility Adequate resources for the verification activities Need for trained personnel Work and verification activities including audits A Management Representative to be identified Review the Quality System performance and customer complaints periodically 4.2 Quality System 4.3 Contract review 4.4 Design Control 4.5 Documents Control 4.6 Purchasing 4.7 Purchaser Supplied Product 4.8 Product Identification and Traceability 4.9 Process Control 4.10 Inspection and Testing 4.11 Inspection Measuring and Test Equipment 4.12 Inspection and Test Status 4.13 Control of Non Conforming Product 4.14 Corrective Action 118 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

128 4.15 Handling, Storage, Packaging and Delivery 4.16 Quality Records 4.17 Internal Quality Audits 4.18 Training 4.19 Servicing 4.20 Statistical Techniques 5.4 CLAUSES (ELEMENTS) OF ISO 9000 (During the year 2000) 1. Scope 2. Normative Reference 3. Terms and Definitions 4. Quality Management System (QMS) General Requirements Documentation 5. Management Responsibility Management Commitment Customer Focus Quality Policy Planning Responsibility, Authority and Communication Management Review 6. Resource Management Provision of Resources Human Resources Infrastructure Work Environment 7. Product Realization Planning of Product Realization Customer related processes Design and Development Purchasing Production and Service Provision Control of Monitoring and Measuring devices 119 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

129 8. Monitoring and Measurement General Monitoring and Measurement Control of Non-Conforming Product Analysis of Data Improvement 5.5 IMPLEMENTATION OF QUALITY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM : 1. Top Management Commitment 2. Appoint the Management Representative 3. Awareness 4. Appoint an Implementation Team 5. Training 6. Time Schedule 7. Select Element Owners 8. Review the Present System 9. Write the Documents 10. Install the New System 11. Internal Audit 12. Management Review 13. Pre-assessment 14. Registration 5.6 PITFALLS OF SUCCESSFUL IMPLEMENTATION : 1. Using a generic documentation program or another organization s documentation program 2. Over-documentation or documentation that is too complex 3. Using External Consultants without involvement 4. Neglecting to obtain top management s involvement 5. Developing a system that does not represent what actually occurs 5.7 DOCUMENTATION In every organization, the quality system must be documented properly. The documentation of the system can be seen as a hierarchical format as shown. 1 POLICY 2 PROCEDURE 120 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

130 3 PRACTICE 4 PROOF 5.8 QUALITY AUDITING The term Audit refers to a regular examination and checking of accounts or financial records, settlement or adjustment of accounts. It also refers to checking, inspection and examination of Production Processes. 5.9 PURPOSE OF QUALITY AUDIT : To establish the adequacy of the system. To determine the effectiveness of the system. To afford opportunities for system analysis. To help in problem solving. To make decision making easier etc TYPES OF QUALITY AUDIT : 1. First Party Audit. 2. Second Party Audit. 3. Third Party Audit. Quality audit can also be classified on the basis of the area taken into account for the audit such as System Audit. Process Audit. Product Audit. Adequacy Audit. Compliance Audit. 121 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

131 5.11 ISO ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT SYSTEM The overall aim of the Environmental Management systems is to provide protection to the environment and to prevent pollution. The success of ISO 9000 along with increased emphasis on Environmental issues were instrumental in ISO s decision to develop Environmental Management Standards. In 1991, ISO formed the Strategic Advisory Group on the Environment (SAGE) which led to the formation of Technical Committee (TC) 207 in Mission of TC207 is to develop standards for an Environmental Management System (EMS) which was identified as ISO TC 207 has Established six sub-committees 1. Environmental Management System (EMS) 2. Environmental Auditing (EA) 3. Environmental labeling (EL) 4. Environmental Performance Evaluation (EPE) 5. Life-Cycle Assessment (LCA) 6. Terms & Definitions 5.12 Environmental Management System (EMS) : EMS has two Evaluation Standards. They are 1. Organization Evaluation Standards 2. Product Evaluation Standards 122 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

132 5.13 REQUIREMENT OF ISO There are six elements GENERAL REQUIREMENTS EMS should include policy, planning implementation & operation, checking & corrective action, management review ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY (Should be based on mission) 5.14 The policy must be relevant to the organization s nature Management s Commitment (for continual improvement & preventing pollution) Should be a framework (for Environmental objectives & Targets) Must be Documented, Implemented, & Maintained PLANNING 5.18 Environmental Aspects 5.19 Legal & other Requirements 5.20 Objectives & Targets 5.21 Environmental Management Programs IMPLEMENTATION & OPERATION 5.14 Structure & Responsibility 5.15 Training, Awareness & Competency 5.16 Communication 5.17 EMS Documentation 5.18 Document Control 5.19 Operational Control 5.20 Emergency Preparedness & Response CHECKING & CORRECTIVE ACTION 5.21 Monitoring & Measuring 5.22 Nonconformance & Corrective & Preventive action 5.23 Records 5.24 EMS Audit MANAGENMENT REVIEW 5.14 Review of objectives & targets 5.15 Review of Environmental performance against legal & other requirement 5.16 Effectiveness of EMS elements 5.17 Evaluation of the continuation of the policy 123 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

133 5.14 BENEFITS OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT SYSTEM : GLOBAL BENEFITS 5.18 Facilitate trade & remove trade barrier 5.19 Improve environmental performance of planet earth 5.20 Build consensus that there is a need for environmental management and a common terminology for EMS ORGANIZATIONAL BENEFITS 5.21 Assuring customers of a commitment to environmental management 5.22 Meeting customer requirement 5.23 Improve public relation 5.24 Increase investor satisfaction 5.25 Market share increase 5.26 Conserving input material & energy 5.27 Better industry/government relation 5.28 Low cost insurance, easy attainment of permits & authorization INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY. Information technology is a tool like the other tools and it helps the TQM organization to achieve its goals. Over the past few decades, computers and quality management practices have evolved together and have supported each other. This interdependence will continue in the near future. DEFINITION: Information technology is defined as computer technology for processing and storing information, as well as communications technology for transmitting information. Levels of information technology 4. Data 5. Information 6. knowledge Computers and the quality function Computers play an essential role in the quality function. They perform very simple operations at fast speeds with an exceptionally high degree of accuracy. A computer must be programmed to execute these simple operations in the correct sequence in order to accomplish a given task. Computers can be programmed to perform complex calculations, to control a process or test, to analyze data, to write reports, and to recall information on command. The quality function needs served by the computer are: 7. data collection 8. data analysis and reporting 124 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

134 9. statistical analysis 10. process control 11. test and inspection 12. system design Data collection: The collection utilization, dissemination of quality control information is best accomplished when the information is incorporated into an information technology system. IT maintains relationships with other activities such as inventory control, purchasing, design, marketing, accounting, and production control. It is essential for all the quality needs described in this chapter. Linkages are developed between the stored data records of the various activities in order to obtain additional information with a minimum of programming and to improve the storage utilization Data analysis, reduction, and reporting: While some of the quality information is merely stored in the computer for retrieval at a future time, most of the information is analyzed, reduced to a meaningful amount, and disseminated in the form of a report. These activities of analysis reduction and reporting are programmed to occur automatically as the data are collected or to occur on command by the computer operator. Statistical analysis: The first and still an important use of the computer in quality control is for statistical analysis. Most of the statistical techniques can be easily programmed. Once programmed considerable calculation time is saved, and the calculations are error free. Process control: The first application of computers in process control was with numerically controlled machines. Numerically controlled machines used punched paper to transmit instructions to the computer which then controlled the sequence of operations. Paper tape is no longer used to provide instructions to a machine Automated test and inspection: If test and inspection are considered a process in itself or part of a production process then automated test and inspection is similar to the previous section on automated process control, computer controlled test and inspection systems offer the following advantages improved test quality, operating cost, better report preparation, improved accuracy, automated calibration, and malfunction diagnostics. 125 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

135 System design Software applications adapted to the quality function are becoming more sophisticated and comprehensive. Execution of the menu is by function key, cursor and enters key, voice, mouse, or linkage from another program. THE INTERNET AND OTHER ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION The internet is a world wide network of computer networks. It began in 1969 as a means of exchanging data between universities and the U.S military. In 1991 the national science foundation which was responsible for the internet, released the ban on commercial use of it. Other electronic communication 12. Intranet 13. Instant messaging 14. Video conferencing 15. Virtual teaming 16. Document management 17. E-learning 18. E-government 19. E-commerce 20. Business-to-business 21. Business-to-customers 22. Website design INFORMATION QUALITY ISSUES Information quality issues encompass: 9. sufficiency 10. accuracy 11. timeliness 12. intellectual property 13. security 14. privacy 15. pollution 16. creativity control and prevention 126 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF/MECH

136 GE 2022-TQM IV/VII MECHANICAL ENGINEERING GE2022-TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT UNIT I 1. Define quality. or how can quality be quantified(apr-2014)(nov/dec-2012) Quality is defined as the degree to which a set of inherent characteristics fulfills requirements.degree means that quality that can be used with adjectives such as poor, good and excellent. Inherent is defined as existing in something especially as a permanent characteristic. Characteristic can be quantitative or qualitative. Requirements is a need or expectation that is stated, generally implied by the organization, its customers, and other interested parties. Quality fulfills or exceeds our expectations. It is quantified as Q = P/E Q Quality P Performance E Expectations. It is also defined as the degree of excellence a product or service provides. According to Deming It is the predictable degree of uniformity, at low cost and suited to the market. According to Joseph Juran Quality is fitness for use. According to Philip B. Crosby Quality is conformance to requirements. 2. What are the Dimensions of Quality? (NOV-2013) Features Conformance Reliability Durability Service Response Aesthetics Reputation 3. Give the Basic Concepts of TQM? (NOV-2013) A committed and involved management to provide long-term top-to-bottom organizational support. An unwavering focuses on the customer, both internally and externally. Effective involvement and utilization of the entire work force. Continuous improvement of the business and production process. Treating suppliers as partners. Establish performance measures for the processes. 1 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF

137 GE 2022-TQM IV/VII MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 4. What are the elements of TQM?(May/June-2013-Nov/Dec-2012) I.TQM principles and practices 1.Leadership 2.Customer focus 3.Employee involvement 4. Supplier Partnership 5. Continuous Process Improvement 6. Performance measures II.TQM tools and techniques 1. Seven tools of quality 2. New management tools 3. Six sigma 4. Benchmarking 5. FMEA 6. QFD 7.TPM,.etc. 5. What are four absolutes of quality observed by Crosby. 1. Conformance to requirements not goodness 2. Quality is preventive not appraisal. 3. Zero defects not that s close enough. 4. Measurement of quality is the price of non-conformance, not indexes. 6. What are the steps in Quality planning? According to Juran the steps included in Quality planning are: 1. Establish quality goals. 2. Identify customers. 3. Discover customer needs. 4. Develop product features. 5. Develop process features. 6. Establish process controls, transfer to operations. 7. What are the dimensions of Quality? The dimensions of Quality are: 1. Performance Primary product characteristics such as the brightness of the picture. 2. Features Secondary characteristics, added features, such as remote control. 3. Conformance Meeting specifications or industry standards. 4. Reliability Consistency of performance over time, average time for the unit to fail. 5. Durability Useful life includes repair. 6. Service Resolution of problems and complaints, ease of repair. 2 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF

138 GE 2022-TQM IV/VII MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 7. Response Human to human interface, such as the courtesy of the dealer. 8. Aesthetics Sensory characteristics such as exterior finish. 9. Reputation Past performance and other intangibles, such as being ranked first. 8. What are the four elements of system of profound knowledge described by deming. 1. Appreciation for a system. 2. Knowledge of statistical theory 3. Theory of knowledge 4. Knowledge of psychology. 9. Give the taguchi s definition of quality. Quality as loss imparted to society from the time the product is shipped. 10. Define TQM? TQM is a management philosophy which seeks to integrate all organizational functions (marketing, finance, design, engineering, and production, customer service ) to focus on meeting customer needs and organizational objectives. It views organizations as a collection of processes. It maintains that organizations must strive to continuously improve these processes by incorporating the knowledge and experiences of workers. The Simple Objective of TQM Do the right things, right the first time, every time. Some Basic Tenets of TQM 1. The customer determines quality. 2. Improving quality requires the establishment of effective quality metrics. We must speak with data not just opinions. 3. People working within systems create quality. 4. Quality is a moving target. It requires a commitment toward sustained continuous improvement. 5. Prevention not detection is the key to producing high quality. We must design quality into products and reduce variability. 6. Top Management must provide leadership and support for all quality initiatives. 11. What are the Points in Deming s Philosophy? 1. Create constancy of purpose for improvement of products and service. 2. Adopt a new philosophy: we are in a new economic age. 3. Cease dependence upon inspection as a way to achieve quality. 4. End the practice of awarding business based on price tag. 5. Constantly improve the process of planning, production, and service- this system includes people. 6. Institute training on the job. 7. Institute improved supervision (leadership) 8. Drive out fear. 9. Break down barriers between departments. 3 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF

139 GE 2022-TQM IV/VII MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 10. Eliminate slogans/targets asking for increased productivity without providing methods 11. Eliminate numerical quotas. 12. Remove barriers that stand between workers and their pride of workmanship. 13. Institute programs for education and retraining. 14. Put all emphasis in the company to work to accomplish the transformation. 12. What are the three stages of taguchis product developments? 1. System design 2. Parameter design 3. Tolerance design 13. What are the pillars of TQM? 1. Problem solving 2. Interpersonel skills 3. Team work 4. Quality improvement process. 14. Why it is difficult to change organizational culture. Influencing external and internal environments make it difficult to change organizational culture. 15. What are the barriers to TQM? The main barriers to TQM are as follows : i. Lack of understanding of the TQM concept ii. Absence of visible support from senior & Top management iii. Fear of change iv. Poor internal communication v. Heavy work loads vi. Nature of organization vii. Lack of adequate education & training viii. Limited resources ix. Irregularity of the meetings x. Delay in implementation of the recommendation xi. Difficulties in evaluation 4 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF

140 GE 2022-TQM IV/VII MECHANICAL ENGINEERING PART B 1. Explain the various dimensions of quality with examples. Depending upon the needs of the customers any product has to be supplied by the manufacturer. However the product should have certain characteristics and features. Customers only determine ultimately whether the product has been of expected quality. Various dimensions of quality that the customers do look for in a product, in order to satisfy their needs, only decide the characteristics of a product. For a manufactured product the dimensions of Quality are as following: 1. Performance Primary product characteristics such as the brightness of the picture. This is the deciding driving force deciding the operating characteristics. 2. Features Secondary characteristics, added features, such as remote control. Though this attribute is a secondary characteristic, it necessarily supplements the basic functioning of the product 3. Conformance Meeting specifications or industry standards. How far the products physical and performance characteristic match with the set standards is called conformity. 4. Reliability Consistency of performance over time, average time for the unit to fail. Under prescribed conditions of use of the product the probability of surviving over a specified period is termed as reliability of that product. 5. Durability Useful life includes repair. The quantum of use a customer gets from a product before it wears out beyond further use or when a replacement is essential is called durability. 6. Service Resolution of problems and complaints, ease of repair. The possibility to repair a product quickly and with ease is serviceability. 7. Response Human to human interface, such as the courtesy of the dealer. It refers to the degree they react and act quickly to resolve the problems. 8. Aesthetics Sensory characteristics such as exterior finish. It is the manner in which a product looks feels, tastes or smells. 9. Reputation Past performance and other intangibles, such as being ranked first. The dimensions of quality in respect of a service are as follows: Time This is the duration up to which a customer is made to wait. Timeliness It refers to whether the promise can be kept or whether the service can be performed as Promised Completeness It refers to whether all the items given by the customer is included. Courtesy Whether the front office sales people greet each customer cheerfully and politely. Consistency Whether the services are delivered in the same manner for every customer and every time for the same customer. Accessibility and convenience Whether the service is easy to get?or must the customer influence the service provider to get the required service. Accuracy This is with regard to whether the service is done correctly even in the first instance. Responsiveness Whether the service person reacts and cat quickly to resolve problems 5 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF

141 GE 2022-TQM IV/VII MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 2. Explain the Deming s Philosophy? DEMINGS 14 POINTS I. Create constancy of purpose toward improvement of product and service, with a plan to become competitive and to stay in business. Decide whom top management is responsible to. 2. Adopt the new philosophy. We are in a new economic age. We can no longer live with commonly accepted levels of delays, mistakes, defective materials, and defective workmanship. 3. Cease dependence on mass inspection. Require, instead, statistical evidence that quality is built in, to eliminate need for inspection on a mass basis. Purchasing managers have a new job, and must learn it. 4. End the practice of awarding business on the basis of price tag. Instead, depend on meaningful measures of quality, along with price. Eliminate suppliers that can not qualify with statistical evidence of quality. 5. Find problems. It is management's job to work continually on the system (design, incoming materials, composition of material, maintenance, improvement of machine, training, supervision, retraining). 6. Institute modern methods of training on the job. 7: Institute modern methods of supervision of production workers. The responsibility of foremen must be changed from sheer numbers to quality. Improvement of quality will automatically improve concerning barriers such as inherited defects, machines not maintained, poor tools, fuzzy operational definitions. 8. Drive out fear, so that everyone may work effectively for the company. 9. Braek down barriers between departments. People in research, design, sales, and production must work as a team, to foresee problems of production that may encounter with various materials end specifications 10. Eliminate numerical goals, posters, and slogans for the work force, asking for new levels of productivity without providing methods. 11. Eliminate work standards that prescribe numerical quotas. 12. Remove barriers that stand between the hourly worker and his right to pride of workmanship. 13. Institute a vigorous program of education and retraining. 14. Create a structure in top management that will push every day on the above 13 points 6 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF

142 GE 2022-TQM IV/VII MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 3. Explain Quality Planning. Quality planning is one of the foremost function of the members in the organization to achieve the quality objectives. Quality planning is nothing but forecasting the future activities related to quality. The whole organization should be involved in the implementation of Quality planning. Quality planning acts as a road map for the members in the organization to achieve the quality goal. The Quality planning organizes the activities as a team from the beginning of the project. Thus the manufacturing department works simultaneously with design and Engineering department before finalizing the detailed specifications. Various steps in Quality planning are Establishing Quality goals I. Identifying the customers II. Discovering the customer needs III. Developing the product features IV. Developing the process features V. Establishing the process control and transferring in to operations. Functions of Quality planning Different functions of Quality planning are 1.Preparation, issue and updating of guidelines in quality assurance. 2. Preparation of updated detailed inspection instructions including check lists and formats for all stages of material, component and assembly of product 3. Planning for requirement of Inspection equipments. It involves 4. Assessing the requirements of various measuring equipments, Gauges etc along with desired accuracy. 5. Designing special equipments, gauges etc. 6. Developing sampling schemes (Sampling plans ) to evaluate the quality of products. 7. Developing quality surveillance (Quality supervision) procedures for manufacturing. 8. Developing a scheme of periodic calibration to check the accuracy of gauges andmeasuring instruments. 9. Collaboration with the product design group to review the product design. 10. Collaboration with technology or process group for assessing technology and processcapabilities 11. Collaborating with suppliers or vendors for assessing their capability. To develop schemes for quality audits. 7 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF

143 GE 2022-TQM IV/VII MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 4. Explain the barriers to TQM implementation and Deming Philosophy? Lack of management commitment Inability to change organizational culture Improper planning Lack of continuous training and education Incompatible organizational structure and isolated individuals and departments Ineffective measurement techniques and lack of access to data and results. Paying inadequate attention to internal and external customers. Inadequate use of empowerment and teamwork Deming Philosophy Create and publish the aim and purpose of the organization Learn the new philosophy Understand the purpose of inspection Stop awarding business based on price along. Improve constantly and forever the system. Institute training. Teach an institute leadership. Dry out fear,create trust and create climate for innovation. Optimize the efforts of teams,groupson staff. Eliminate exhortations for the work force. Eliminate management by objective(mob). Remove barriers that rob people of workmanship. Encourage education and self improvement for everyone. Take action to accomplish transformation. 5. Explain the evolution of quality. One of the important issues that business has focused on in the last two decades is quality. The other issues are cost and delivery. Quality has been widely considered as a key element for success in business in the present competitive market. Quality refers to meeting the needs and expectations of customers. It is important to understand that quality is about more than a product simply working properly. Quality refers to certain standards and the ways and means by which those standards are achieved, maintained and improved. Quality is not just confined to products and services. It is a homogeneous element of any aspect of doing things with high degree of perfection. For example Business success depends on the quality decision making. 8 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF

144 GE 2022-TQM IV/VII MECHANICAL ENGINEERING EVOLUTION OF QUALITY Time Events Until 1960s Prior to the Quality is an art 20 th century Demands overcome potential production An era of workmanship F.Taylor The scientific approach to management resulting in rationalization of work 1900s and its break down leads to greater need for standardization, inspection and supervision Shewart Statistical beginnings and study of quality control. In parallel, studies by R 1930s A Fisher on experimental design; the beginning of control charts at western Electric in USA Late Quality standards and approaches are introduced in France and Japan. 1930s Beginning of SQC, reliability and maintenance engineering 1942 Seminal work by Deming at the ministry of war in USA on quality control and sampling Working group setup by Juran and Dodge on SQC in US army Concepts of acceptance sampling devised 1944 Daodge and Deming carried out seminal research on acceptance sampling 1945 Founding of the Japan standard association 1946 Founding of the ASQC 1950 Visit of Deming in Japan at the invitation of K Ishikawa 1951 Quality assurance increasingly accepted 1954 TQC in Japan ; Book published Founding of European organization for the control of quality After 1960s 1961 The Martin Co in USA introduces the zero defects approach while developing and producing Pershing Missiles. Quality motivation is starting in the US and integrated programmes begun 1962 Quality circles are started in Japan 1964 Ishikawa publishes book on Quality management 1970 Iskiawa publishes the book on the basics of quality circles and the concept of Total Quality is affirmed and devised in Japanese industries 1970 to Just in Time and quality become crucial for competitiveness. A large 1980 number of US and European corporations are beginning to appreciate the advance of Japan s industries. Taguchi popularizes the use of environmental design to design robust systems and products Facing the rising sun challenge in quality management Development and introduction of FMSs and greater dependence on supplier contracts. Growth of economic based on quality control, information software packages 9 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF

145 GE 2022-TQM IV/VII MECHANICAL ENGINEERING The management of quality has become a necessity that is recognized at all levels of management Increasing importance is given to off line quality management for the design of robust manufacturing processes and products. The growth of process optimization 6. Explain the basic concepts and principles of TQM: 1. Top management commitment 2. Focus on the customer Both internal and external 3. Effective involvement and utilization of entire work force 4. Continuous improvement 5. Treating suppliers as partners 6. Establishing performance measures for the processes 7. Customers requirements - ( both internal & external) must be met first time & every time 8. Everybody must be involved 9. Regular two way communication must be promoted I 10. Identify the training needs and supply it to the employees 11. Top management commitment is must 12. Every job must add value 13. Eliminate waste & reduce total cost 14. Promote creativity 15. Focus on team work. 7. Explain TQM frame work. 10 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF

146 GE 2022-TQM IV/VII MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 8. Explain the barriers and benefits of TQM. 1. Lack of management commitment 2. Lack of faith in and support to TQM activities among management personnel 3. Failure to appreciate TQM as a cultural revolution. In other words, inability to change organizational culture 4. Misunderstanding about the concept of TQM 5. Improper planning 6. Lack of employees commitment 7. Lack of effective communication 8. Lack of continuous training and education 9. Lack of interest or incompetence of leaders 10. Ineffective measurement techniques and lack of access to data and results 11. Non-application of proper tools and techniques 12. Inadequate use of empowerment and team work Benefits of TQM. Tangible Benefits Improved product quality Improved productivity Reduced quality costs Increased market and customers Increased profitability Reduced employee grievances Intangible Benefits Improved employee participation Improved team work Improved working relationships Improved customer satisfaction Improved communication Enhancement of job interest Enhanced problem solving capacity TQM PRINCIPLES 1. What is a vision statement? Give an example.( Nov/Dec-2007) The vision statement is a declaration of what an organization should look like five to ten years in a future. 2. What are the factors influencing customer satisfaction? The factors influencing customer satisfaction are: Performance Features Service Warranty Price Reputation 3. What are quality statements? (AU Nov/Dec-2005&Nov/Dec-2008) 1. Vision Statements 2. Mission Statements. 3. Quality Policy Statements. 11 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF

147 GE 2022-TQM IV/VII MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 4. Define Customer Retention? Customer retention represents the activities that produce the necessary Customer satisfaction that creates customer loyalty, which actually improves the Bottom line. It is the nexus between the customer satisfaction and the bottom line. 5. Customer retention is more powerful than customer satisfaction. Why. (AU Nov/Dec-2010&Nov/Dec-2008) Customer retention is more powerful than customer satisfaction: a.over 60% of an organizations future revenue will come from existing customers. b.a 2% increase in customer retention has an equivalent impact upon profitability as a 10% reduction operating costs. c.91% of the unhappy customers will never purchase goods and services from you again. d. it costs 5 times as much to attract a new customers as it costs to keep an old one. 6. What are the conditions necessary for empowerment?(nov/dec-2011/2006) According to theory of motivations, people would get motivated to work for recognition and reward. They have a like for work. This behavior is known as proactive behavior. Some people have a dislike for work. Punishment only can motivate the people. This behavior is known as reactive behavior. 7. What are the common barriers to team progress?(au-2010) Lack of union support Insufficient training Incompatible rewards and compensation First-line supervisor resistance Lack of planning Lack of management support Access to information systems 8. What is a Kaizen?(AU-2005/2008) Kaizen is a Japanese word for the philosophy that defines management s role in continuously encouraging and implementing small improvements involving everyone. It is the process of continuous improvement in small increments that make the process more efficient, effective, under control and adaptable. 9. State Frederick Herzberg s Two-factor theory?(nov/dec-2007) Herzberg found that people were motivated by recognition, responsibility, achievement and the work itself. 12 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF

148 GE 2022-TQM IV/VII MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 10. Define 5S?(2008,2007&2005) 5S Philosophy focuses on effective work place organization and standardized work procedures. 5S simplifies your work environment, reduces waste and non-value activity while improving quality efficiency and safety. Sort (Seiri) the first S focuses on eliminating unnecessary items from the workplace. Set In Order (Seiton) is the second of the 5Ss and focuses on efficient and effective storage methods. Shine: (Seiso) Once you have eliminated the clutter and junk that has been clogging your work areas and identified and located the necessary items, the next step is to thoroughly clean the work area. Standardize: (Seiketsu) Once the first three 5S s have been implemented, you should concentrate on standardizing best practice in your work area. Sustain: (Shitsuke) This is by far the most difficult S to implement and achieve. Once fully implemented, the 5S process can increase morale, create positive impressions on customers, and increase efficiency and organization. 11. What is meant by recognition and reward? Recognition is a form of employee motivation in which the organization openly acknowledges the positive contribution an individual or team has made to the success of the organization. It may be either in oral or writing praising the deserving employee by presenting certificates or members.they may also be rewarded by cash awards. Reward is something tangible such as cash award to promote desirable behaviour. Reward can be delayed but recognition cannot be delayed & should be on a timely basis. 12. What is the need for performance appraisal? The purpose of performance appraisal is to let the employees know how they are doing & provide a basis for promotion & salary increase, counseling and other purposes relating the employees future. Employees should be aware of the process of appraisal. The parameters of evaluation should be known to the employees. The appraisal should point out the employees strength & weakness. 13. Define the terms internal & external customer. An external customer can be defined in many ways such as the one who uses the product or service, the one who purchases the product or service, or the one who influences the sale of the product or service. An external customer exists outside the organization & falls into three categories current, prospective & lost customers. An internal customer is very important every function whether it is engineering order processing or production has an internal customer- each receives a product or service and in exchange provides a product or service. Every person in a process isconsidered as customer of the preceeding operation. 13 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF

149 GE 2022-TQM IV/VII MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 14. What is Continuous process improvement? Continuous process improvement is the heart of TQM Process. It consists of measuring key quality parameters and take active steps to improve them. TQM demands structured improvement programmes in all these areas of business administration, customer services, product quality and so on. The main aim of continuous process improvement is to improve the levels of customer satisfaction and reducing the cost of attaining this. The Organization should strive to achieve perfection and quality by continuously improving the production process and business. 15. What is Seiso? SEISO is a Japanese word, which means Clean up. Keep the workplace clean. Everyone in the organization from the managing director to the sweeper should undertake this Job. 16.Explain Taguchi Quality loss function Dr. Genichi Taguchi, a mechanical engineer who has own four deming awards has introduced the Quality loss function concept, which combines cost, target and variation in one metric with specifications being of secondary importance. Taghuchi has defined quality as the loss imparted to society from the time a product is shipped. Societal losses include failure to meet customer requirements, failure to meet ideal performance and harmful side effects. 1) Explain Leadership PART B The process of influencing others towards the accomplishment of goals. He triggers tile will to do, shows the direction and guide the group members towards the accomplishment of goals. CHARACTERISTICS OF QUALITY LEADERS 1. Customers first 2. Value people 3. Build suppler partnership 4. Empower people 5. Strive for excellence 6. Demonstrate involvement / commitment 7. Explain & deploy policy 8. Improve communication 9. Promote teamwork 10. Benchmark continuously 11. Establish system 12. Encourage collaboration 14 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF

150 GE 2022-TQM IV/VII MECHANICAL ENGINEERING LEADERSHIP ROLES ROLE OF SENIOR MANAGEMENT 1. Study and investigate TQM concepts and issues 2. Set clear quality policies and provide challenging tasks 3. Establish customer satisfaction as a long term goal 4. To become coaches and cheer leaders for encouraging and supporting the 5. managers during transition phase of the transformation 6. To stimulate employees to be involved 7. To attend TQM training programs 8. To up hold norms and issues 9. To create a basic of trust, respect and open communication which ensures individual participation and continuous improvement. 10. To monitor whether quality improvement programs are conducted as planned. 2) Explain strategic planning It sets the long term direction of the organization in which it wants to proceed in future. Can be defined "As the process of deciding on objectives of the organization, on changes on this objective, on the resource used to obtain these objectives and on the policies that are to govern the acquisition use and disposition of these resources" 15 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF

151 GE 2022-TQM IV/VII MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 3) Explain Quality statements VISION STATEMENT: It is a short declaration of what an organization aspires to be tomorrow. It is an ideal state which may never be achieved. Example: To continuously enrich knowledge base of practioners in mobility industry and institutions in the service of humanity - SAE MISSION STATEMENT: Describes the function of the organization. It provides the clear statement of purpose for the employees, customers and suppliers. Example: Facilitating world class technical education through high quality institutions, academic excellence and innovative research and development programmes, technology forecasting and global manpower planning, promoting industry institute interaction, inculcating entrepreneurship - AICTE QUALITY POLICY STATEMENT: It is a guide for everyone in the organization as to how they provide products and services to the customer. Written by the CEO feedback from workforce and approved by quality council. Example: Xerox is a quality company. Quality is the basic business principle for Xerox. Quality means providing our external and internal customers with innovative products and service that fully satisfy their requirements. Quality is the job of every employee Xerox Corporation Customer satisfaction: The Customer is the King - Emphasized by Today's Buyers Market. TQM's Purpose is meeting or exceeding customer expectations, so that the customers are delighted. The customer satisfactions must be the primary goal of any organization. 4) Explain customer satisfaction model Teboul s Model of customer satisfaction as shown in figure From the above diagram it is understood that the company should strive for increasing the intersection portion i.e. Customer Satisfaction. 16 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF

152 GE 2022-TQM IV/VII MECHANICAL ENGINEERING THE CUSTOMERS ARE The most important people in the business Not dependent on the organization, but the organization depends on them. Not an interruption to work but are the purpose of it. Doing a favor when they seek business and not vice-versa. A part of business, not outsiders and they are life blood of the business People who come with their needs and jobs Deserve the most courteous and attentive treatment. TYPES OF CUSTOMERS Internal Customer: The customer inside the company are called internal customers External Customers: An external customer is the one who used the product or service or who purchase the products or service or who influences the sale of the product or service. CUSTOMER SUPPLY CHAIN 5) Explain about customer complaints (feedback) Customer feedback must be continuously solicited and monitored to reduce the dissatisfied customers as much as possible. CUSTOMER FEEDBACK OR CUSTOMER COMPLAINT IS REQUIRED To discover customer dissatisfaction To identify customer s needs To discover relative priorities of quality To compare performance with the competition To determine opportunities, for improvement TOOLS USED FOR COLLECTING CUSTOMER COMPLAINTS Comment card - Low cost method, usually attached to warranty card Questionnaire - Popular tool, costly and time consuming - by mail or telephone preferably multiple choice questions or a point rating system (1 to 5) or (1 to 10) 17 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF

153 GE 2022-TQM IV/VII MECHANICAL ENGINEERING Customer Focus groups - Meeting by a representative of the company with the group of customers. Imprint analysis is an emerging technique to obtain intrinsic feelings using customer meetings, word associations, discussion, relaxation techniques etc. Phone - Toll free Telephone numbers Customer visits - Visit customer's place of business. Report cards - Usually, send to customer on a quarterly basis. The internet and computer - It includes newsgroups, electronic bulletin board mailing lists, Employee feedback. Mass Customization - Capturing the voice of customers using data of what customer want instead of what customer is thinking about buying and manufacturing exact what they want. STEPS TO SOLVE CUSTOMER COMPLAINTS Complaints can be collected from all sources (letters, phone -calls, meetings and verb inputs) Develop procedures for complaint resolution, that include empowering front-line personnel. Analyze complaints, but understand that complaints do not always fit into new categories Work to identify process and material variations and then eliminate the root cause. When a survey response is received, a senior manager should contact the customer and strive to resolve the concern. Establish customer satisfaction measures and constantly monitor them. Communicate complaint information, as well as the result of all investigation solution, to all people in the organization.. Provide a monthly complaint report to the quality council for their evaluation and needed, the assignment of process improvement teams. Identify customer's expectations beforehand rather than afterward through complaint analysis. 6) Explain about customer retention. More powerful and effective than customer satisfaction It is the process of retaining the existing customer Customer care can be defined as every activity which occurs within the organization that ensures that the customer is not only satisfied but also retained. SIGNIFICANCE OF CUSTOMER RETENTION 60% of organizations future revenue will come from exiting customers 2% increase in customer retention has 10% decrease in operating cost. 18 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF

154 GE 2022-TQM IV/VII MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 96% of unhappy customers do not complain but 3 times likely to convey to other customers about their bad experience. 91% of unhappy customers never purchase goods and services from you. It costs 5 times more to attract the customer than retaining the existing customer. Customer retention creates customer loyalty and moves customer satisfaction to a next level called customer delight. 6) Explain about employee involvement It is the total involvement from every person at all levels in the organization ASPECTS OF EMPLOYEE INVOLVEMENT 1. Employee motivation 2. Employee Empowerment 3. Teams and Team work 4. Recognition and Reward Schemes 5. Performance Appraisal 1. EMPLOYEE MOTIVATION It is the process of stimulating people or attempting to influence other to do your will or accomplish desire goals through the possibility of reward Improves employee involvement Reduces absenteeism and increases turn over Promotes job satisfaction THEORIES OF MOTIVATION 19 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF

155 GE 2022-TQM IV/VII MECHANICAL ENGINEERING HERZBERG S TWO FACTOR THEORY 1. Motivation Factor: People are motivated by recognition, responsibility, achievement, advancement and the work itself. These are called as motivators 2. Dissatisfies or Hygiene Factor: Low salary, minimal fringe benefits, poor working conditions, ill defined organizational policy, mediocre technical supervision are dissatisfies which implies they are preventable. EMPLOYEE WANTS 1. Good pay factor is normally in the middle of ranking. 2. Normal Wants are interesting work, appreciation, involvement job security, Good pay, Promotion/growth, Good working conditions, Loyalty to employees, Help with personal problems arid Tactful Discipline. ACHIEVING A MOTIVATED WORK FORCE BY THE MANAGERS Know thyself, Know employees, Establish a positive attitude, Share the goal, Monitor progress, Develop interesting work by job rotation, job enlargement(horizontal) and job enrichment (Vertical), Communicate effectively, Celebrate success. 7) Explain employee empowerment. It is an environment in which people have the ability, the confidence and the commitment to take his responsibility and ownership to improve the process and initiate the necessary steps to satisfy customer requirements within well-defined boundaries in order to achieve organizational values and goals. Job Enrichment: Is expanding content of the Job. Job Empowerment: Is expanding the context of the job. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OR CHARACTERISTICS FOR' EMPOWERING EMPLOYEES 1. Tell people what their responsibilities are. 2. Given the authority equal to the responsibility assigned to them. 3. Set standards of excellence. 4. Give them knowledge information and feed back. 5. Trust them and treat them with dignity and respect.,, CONDITIONS TO CREATE THE EMPOWERED ENVIRONMENT 1. Every one should under stand the need to change 2. The system need to change to new paradigm. 3. The organization must provide information, education, and skill to its employees. Teams and Team works A team can be defined as a group of people working together to achieve common objectives or goals 20 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF

156 GE 2022-TQM IV/VII MECHANICAL ENGINEERING Team work is the cumulative actions of the team during which each member of the team subordinates his individual interest and opinions for the fulfilling of objectives of the group. 8)Explain about team and team work. Improved solutions to quality problems, ownership of solutions, communication and integration Objectives Short Term Planning Goal Long Term Planning TYPES OF TEAMS Process improvement team: Involved in improvement of sub processes or processes. Usually has 6-10 members. Disbanded when the objective is reached. May include the local supplied and customer depending on the location Cross functional teams: 6-10 members temporary team. Members are Top management level from various functional areas of management. Discuss complex problems and break down into smaller parts to refer it to various departmental teams for further solution. Natural work teams: Not voluntary and the total work unit is part of the team. Manager also a part of the team and the management selects the projects to be improved. Managers must also ensure that the entire team is comfortable with each other. Self directed / self managed work team: Extension of natural work teams but here the group of individuals is empowered not only to do work but manage it. No manger will present but a coordinator (Which will be normally rotated among members) will be appointed. Additional responsibilities of the team hiring/ dismissal, performance evaluation, customer relations, supplier relations, recognition/rewards and training. CHARACTERISTICS OF SUCCESSFUL TEAMS 1. Sponsor: In order to have effective liaison with quality council, there should be sponsor. The sponsor is a person from the quality council, he is to provide support to the organization 2. Team Charter: A team charter is a document that defines the team s mission boundaries, the background of the problem, the team s authority and duties and resources. It also identifies the members and their assigned roles leader, recorder, time keeper and facilitator. 3. Team Composition: Not exceeding 10 members except natural work team and self managed teams. 4. Training: The team members should be trained in the problem solving techniques team dynamics and communication skills 5. Ground Rules: The team should have separate rules of operation and conduct. Ground rules should be discussed with the members, whenever needed it should be reviewed and revised 21 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF

157 GE 2022-TQM IV/VII MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 6. Clear objectives, Accountability : Periodic status report should be submitted to quality council for review 7. Well defined decision procedure, Resources: Adequate information should be provided 8. Trust by the management, Effective problems solving: Not by hunches or quick fires 9. Open communication, Appropriate Leadership, Balanced participation and Cohesiveness TEAM MEMBER ROLE Leader, Facilitator (One who helps the team gets started in the stages), Recorder, Time keeper and Team member. DECISION MAKING METHODS Non decision, Unilateral decision, Handclasp decision (Two members with a good idea of the subject decide), Minority-rule decision, Majority rule decision, Consensus (Not everyone need to accept, But every one should be willing to implement) ELEMENTS OF EFFECTIVE TEAM WORK Regular scheduling with a fixed time limit, purpose, role and responsibilities, activities, decision, results and recognition. TEAM MANAGEMENT WHEEL To make a lean more effective a team management wheel has been evolved. The activities are advising, innovating, promoting, developing, organization, producing, inspecting, maintaining and linking. The roles of wheel are advisor, explore, organizer and controller. STAGES OF TEAM DEVELOPMENT Forming stage- Initial stage with only group of individuals and no team work. Team purpose, roles are created. Storming Stage -Initial agreement roles are challenged. Hostilities, emerge which may be resolved Norming Stage-Formal informal relations get established. Performing Stage -Team operates in a successful manner with trust, openness, healthy conflict and decisiveness among the members. Maintenance stage Functioning should not deteriorate with time Q Evaluating Stage Evaluating team performance TEN COMMON PEOPLE PROBLEMS Floundering, overbearing participants, Dominating participants, reluctant participants, unquestioned acceptance of opinions as facts, rush to accomplish, Attribution, Discounts and plops, Wanderlust, Feuding team members. 22 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF

158 GE 2022-TQM IV/VII MECHANICAL ENGINEERING BARRIERS TO TEAM PROGRESS Insufficient training, Incompatible rewards and compensation, First-line supervisor resistance, Lack of planning; Lack of management support, Access to information systems, Lack of union support, Project scope too large, Project objectives are not significant, No clear measures of success and No time to do improvement work. 9) Explain about recognition and reward. Recognition is a process whereby management shows acknowledgement (Verbal or written) of an employee outstanding performance. Recognition is a form of employee +ve motivation. Reward is a tangible one such as increased salaries, commission, cash bonus, gain sharing etc., to promote desirable behavior. It can be even theatre tickets, dinner for two, a small cash awards, etc., The employees are recognized to improve their morale, show the company's appreciation for Better Performance, create satisfied and motivated workplace and stimulate creative efforts. INTRINSIC VS EXTRINSIC REWARDS INTRINSIC REWARDS EXTRINSIC REWARDS Related to feeling of accomplishment or Related to pay or compensation issues self worth 1. Non monetary forms of recognition 1. Profit sharing to acknowledge achievement of 2. Gain sharing quality improvement goals 3. Employment security 2. Celebrations to acknowledge 4. Compensation time achievement of quality 5. Individual based performance improvement goals systems 3. Regular expression of appreciation 6. Quality based performance by managers and leaders to appraisals employees to acknowledge achievement of quality improvement goals o performance appraisals feedback from co-workers, subordinates or customers is incorporated into performance appraisal 5. Formal suggestion system available for individuals to make quality improvement suggestion 6. Developmental based performance appraisals 7. Quality based promotion 23 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF

159 GE 2022-TQM IV/VII MECHANICAL ENGINEERING STEVE SMITH S TWENTY DIFFERENT WAYS TO RECOGNIZE THE EMPLOYEES Send thank letter whenever possible Develop behind the scenes award Create the best ideas of the year booklet Feature the quality team of the month and put their picture in prominent place Honor peers by recognizing them Allow people to attend meetings in your name when you are not available Involve teams with external customers and suppliers by visiting them Invite a team for coffee or lunch whenever possible Create a visibility will displaying posters, pictures, to thank the contributions of employee Credit the team to higher authorities when their ideas are accepted Take interest in employee s development Get the team picture in company newspaper Mention the ideas of others during your meetings, so that they are recognized Write a letter of praise to contributed team member and copy to boss Ask people to help you with the project which is difficult but challenging Send a team to special seminars, workshops to cover topics they are really interested in Ask your boss to send a letter of acknowledgement and thanks Honor outstanding contribution with awards Have a stock of small gifts to give to people on the spot whom you catch doing things right Promote or nominate for promotion, those people who contribute most 10. Explain about Performance appraisal. It is a systematic and objective assessment or evaluation of performance and contribution of individual Needs Identifying employees for salary revision, promotion, transfer, demotion, lay off To determine training needs of employee To take organizational inventory of people To know personal strength and weakness of individuals To validate the selection procedure APPRAISAL FORMATS Ranking (From highest to lowest), Narrativ e (Telling strength and weakness), Graphics (Graphical display of duties by rating), Forced choice (Placing each employee with a predetermined % like Good 25%, Poor 10% etc) 24 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF

160 GE 2022-TQM IV/VII MECHANICAL ENGINEERING APPRAISAL PROCESS BENEFITS OF PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL 1. Provides a feedback to identify employees for salary revision, transfer, lay-off 2. Helps in determining training needs of employee 3. Provides organization inventory of people 4. Helps to evaluate personal strength and weakness of individuals 5. To validate the selection procedure. 6. Provide the basis for promotion, demotion etc 7. May provide some information on external factors like family circumstances, health, financial or personal matters that may be affecting the performance 11)Explain about Continuous Process Improvement (CPI) TQM has been defined as a philosophy based on quest for progress and continual improvement in the areas of cost, reliability, quality, innovation, efficiency and business effectiveness 25 E.R.SIVAKUMAR,ASSO.PROF

161 GE 2022-TQM IV/VII MECHANICAL ENGINEERING It is a continuous learning process which never stops and is cyclic and iterative To do CPI, we have different approaches such as Juran Trilogy, PDSA cycle, Kaizen and 5S concept INPUT / OUTPUT PROCESS MODEL The process refers to business and production activities of an organization. Example Purchasing, Engineering, Marketing and Accounting BASIC WAYS TO IMPROVE PROCESS To reduce resources To reduce errors To meet exceed customer needs To make process safer To make process more satisfying to the person doing it. 1. What is meant by strategic planning? Narrate the seven steps procedure of strategic planning cycle? (AU-2013) 2. Explain the characteristic of successful team. (AU-2013) 3. Explain the phases of PDSA cycle with suitable illustration. (AU-2013) 4. Write about quality statements and customer orientations. (AU-2013) 5. Explain the PDCA improvement cycle in detail. (AU-2012) 6. Brief on employee empowerment. (AU-2012) 7. Give an examble for Win/Win and win/lose strategy in day to day life. (AU-2012) E.R.SIVAKUMAR-HD/MECH

162 GE 2022-TQM IV/VII MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 8. Design a customer satisfaction questionnaire to evaluate the level of customer satisfaction in the following industries. (AU-2012) a. A mobile service provider. b. A sport shoe manufacturer. c. 9. Discuss how quality council is structured in (AU-2012) a. University academic Department B.manufacturing facility. 10. Explain the different approaches towards continuous process improvement. (AU-2011) E.R.SIVAKUMAR-HD/MECH

163 GE 2022-TQM IV/VII MECHANICAL ENGINEERING UNIT III TQM TOOLS & TECHNIQUES I PART- A 1.In a foundry,the castings manufactured are inspected with respect to the four defects namely,blow holes,core shift,honey combing and hot tear design. Design a check sheet to gather data on the total number of castings found defectives due to the respective above defects.(au-2007). Check sheet of foundry defects S.NO Casting defects Frequency 1 blow holes 7 2 core shift 2 3 honey combing 11 4 hot tear design What are the different sampling techniques.(au-2011) 1. Simple random sampling 2. Strafied sampling 3. Systamatic sampling 4. Cluster sampling 5. Judgement sampling 3.What is the use of the control chart? The control chart is used to keep a continuing record of a particular quality characteristic. It is a picture of process over time. 4.Define Process Capability? It is defined as the quality performance capability of the process with given process factors and under normal, in control condition. Based on the results of any process that are continuously measured, standard deviation is calculated by taking the square root of its variance to calculate the indices of process capability namely CP and Cpk. The need for process capability is to i.predict the extent to which the process will be able to hold tolerance or customer requirements. ii.choose, from among competing process, the most one for meeting the customer requirements. iii.redesign and implement a new process that eliminates the source of variability now at work. 6. Define the Ishikawa diagram? It is called as Fishbone diagram which a process tool to identify possible causes for a particular effect E.R.SIVAKUMAR-HD/MECH

164 29 29 GE 2022-TQM IV/VII MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 7. What are Key concepts of Six sigma? Critical to quality: Attributes most important to the customer Defect: Failing to deliver what the customer wants Process capability: What your process can deliver Variation: What the customer sees and feels Design for six- sigma (DFSS): Designing to meet customer needs and process capability. 8.Define Tree diagram? A tree diagram assists teams in exploring all the options available to solve a problem, or accomplish a task. The tree diagram actually resembles a tree when complete. The trunk of the tree is the problem or task. Branches are major options for solving the problem, or completing the task. Twigs are elements of the options. Leaves are the means of accomplishing the options. 9.List the tools used for feedback? Comment cards Surveys Focus groups Toll-free telephone lines Customer visits Report cards The internet Employee feedback 10. What are the activities to be done using customer complaints? Investigate customer s experience both positive and negative, and then acting on it promptly. Develop procedures for complaint resolution. Analyze complaints. Work to identify process and material variations and then eliminate the root cause. When a survey response is received, a senior manager should contact the customer an strive to resolve the concern. Establish customer satisfaction measures and constantly monitor them. Communicate complaint information, as well as the results of all investigations and solutions, to all people in the organization. Provide a monthly complain report to the quality council. Identify customer s expectations beforehand rather than afterward through complaint analysis. 11. Define Customer Retention? Customer retention represents the activities that produce the necessary customer satisfaction that creates customer loyalty, which actually improves the bottom line. It is the nexus between the customer satisfaction and the bottom line. Celebrate success 12. What are the benefits of employee involvement? Employee Involvement improves quality and increases productivity because Employees make better decisions Employees are more likely to implement and support decisions they had a part in making. Employees are better able to spot and E.R.SIVAKUMAR-HD/MECH pinpoint areas for improvement

165 GE 2022-TQM IV/VII MECHANICAL ENGINEERING Employees are better able to take immediate corrective action. Employee involvement reduces labor/management hassle by more effective communications and cooperation. Employee involvement increases morale by creating a feeling of belonging to the organization. Employees are better able to accept change because they control the work environment. Employees have an increased commitment to unit goals because they are involved. 13. What are the ten conditions for the selection and evaluation of suppliers? I. The supplier understands and appreciates the management philosophy of the organization. II. The supplier has a stable management system. III. The supplier maintains high technical standards and has the capability of dealing with future technological innovations. IV. The supplier can supply precisely those raw materials and parts required by the purchaser, and those supplied meet the quality specifications. V. The supplier has the capability to produce the amount of production needed or can attain that capability. VI. There is no danger of the supplier breaching corporate secrets. VII. The price is right and the delivery dates can be met. In addition, the supplier is easy accessible in terms of transportation and communication. VIII. The supplier is sincere in implementing the contract provisions. IX. The supplier has an effective quality system and improvement program such as ISO/QS X. The supplier has a track record of customer satisfaction and organization credibility. 14. How will you improve the performance appraisal system? o Use rating scales that have few rating categories. o Require work team or group evaluations that are at least equal in emphasis t individualfocused evaluations. o Require more frequent performance reviews where such reviews will have a dominant emphasis on future planning. o Promotion decisions should be made by an independent administrative process that draws on current-job information and potential for the new job. o Include indexes of external customer satisfaction in the appraisal process. o Use peer and subordinate feedback as an index of internal customer satisfaction. o Include evaluation for process improvement in addition to results. 15. What are the typical measurements frequently asked by managers and teams? Human Resource Customers Production Research & Development Suppliers Marketing/Sales 16. What are the concepts to achieve a motivated work force? a. Know thyself b. Know your employees c. Establish a positive attitude d. Share the goals e. Monitor progress f. Develop interesting work g. Communicateeffectivelyh E.R.SIVAKUMAR-HD/MECH

166 GE 2022-TQM IV/VII MECHANICAL ENGINEERING PART B 1) Explain The seven traditional tools of quality I - Pareto chart: Italian economist Vilfredo Pareto Shows on a bar graph which factors are more significant. This method helps to find the vital few contributing maximum impact. Purpose: The purpose of the Pareto chart is to prioritize problems No company has enough resources to tackle every problem, so they must prioritize. Pareto Principle: The Pareto concept was developed by the describing the frequency distribution of any given characteristic of a population. Also called the rule, he determined that a small percentage of any given group (20%) account for a high amount of a certain characteristic (80%). Conclusion: The most important thing in improving quality is to start somewhere, doing something. As you begin using the Pareto chart to decide where your problems are, you will discover many things about your processes and will come because you will know where to improve. II - Flowchart: A technique that separates data gathered from a variety of sources so that patterns can be seen (some lists replace "stratification" with or "run chart"). Purpose: Flow Charts provide a visual illustration of the sequence of operations required to complete a task. A picture of the steps the process undergoes to complete it's task. Every process will require input(s) to complete it's task, and will provide output(s) when the task is completed. Flow charts can be drawn in many styles. Flow charts can be used to describe a single process, parts of a process, or a set of processes. There is no right or wrong way to draw a flow chart. The true test of a flow chart is how well those who create and use it can understand it. Input Process Output III - Cause-and-Effect Diagrams by Mr. Kaoru Ishikawa at the University of Tokyo Purpose: One important part of process improvement is continuously striving to obtain more information about the process and it's output. Cause-and-effect diagrams allow us to do not just that, but also can lead us to the root cause, or causes, of problems E.R.SIVAKUMAR-HD/MECH

167 GE 2022-TQM IV/VII MECHANICAL ENGINEERING Constructing the Cause-and-Effect Diagram: Step 1: Select the team members and a leader. Team members knowledgeable about the quality. Team members focus on the problem under investigation. Step 2: Write the problem statement on the right hand side of the page, and draw a box around it with an arrow running to it. This quality concern is now the effect. Step 3: Brain-storming. The team members generate ideas as to what is causing the effect. Step 4: This step could be combined with step 3. Identify, for each main cause, its related sub-causes that might affect our quality concern or problem (our Effect). Always check to see if all the factors contributing to the problem have been identified. Start by asking why the problem exists. Step 5: Focus on one or two causes for which an improvement action(s) can be developed using other quality tools such as Pareto charts, check sheets, and other gathering and analysis tools. Conclusion: Improvement requires knowledge. The more information we have about our processes the better we are at improving them. Cause-andeffect diagrams are one quality tool that is simple yet very powerful in helping us better understand our processes. IV - Check Sheet E.R.SIVAKUMAR-HD/MECH

168 GE 2022-TQM IV/VII MECHANICAL ENGINEERING Purpose: Check sheets allow the user to collect data from a process in an easy, systematic, and organized manner. Data Collection: Before we can talk about check sheets we need to understand what we mean by data collection. This collected data needs to be accurate and relevant to the quality problem. The first is to establish a purpose for collecting this data. Second, we need to define the type of data that is going to be collected. Measurable data such as length, size, weight, time,...etc., and countable data such as the number of defects. The third step is to determine who is going to collect that data and when it should be collected. V- Histograms Purpose: To determine the spread or variation of a set of data points in a graphical form. It is always a desire to produce things that are equal to their design values. Histograms: A histogram is a tool for summarizing, analyzing, and displaying data. It provides the user with a graphical representation of the amount of variation found in a set of data. Constructing a Histogram: The following are the steps followed in the construction of a histogram: Data collection: To ensure good results, a minimum of 50 data points, or samples, need to be collected Calculate the range of the sample data: The range is the difference between the largest and smallest data points. Range = Largest point - smallest point. Calculate the size of the class interval. The class interval is the width of each class on the X axis. It is calculated by the following formula: Class interval = Range / Number of classes. Calculate the number of data points (frequency) that are in each class. A tally sheet is usually used to find the frequency of data points in each interval. Conclusion: Histogram is simple tools that allow the user to identify and interpret the variation found in a set of data points. It is important to remember that histograms do not give solutions to problems. VI - Scatter Diagrams Purpose: To identify correlations that might exist between a quality characteristic and a factor that might be driving it. Scatter Diagrams: A scatter diagram is a nonmathematical or graphical approach for identifying relationships between a performance measure and factors that might be driving it. This graphical approach is quick, easy to communicate to others, and generally easy to interpret. Interpreting the Results: Once all the data points have been plotted onto the scatter diagram, you are ready to determine whether their exists a relation between the two selected items or not. When a strong relationship is present, the change in one item will automatically cause a change in the other. If no relationship can be detected, the change in one item will not effect the other item. Their are three basic types of relationships that can be detected to on a scatter diagram: 1. Positive relationship 2. Negative relationship 3. No relationship Conclusion: Scatter diagrams allow the user to graphically identify correlations that could exist between a quality characteristic and a factor that might be driving it. It is a quality tool that is simple, easy to communicate to others, and generally easy to interpret E.R.SIVAKUMAR-HD/MECH

169 GE 2022-TQM IV/VII MECHANICAL ENGINEERING VII - Control Charts Purpose: Process is in control and to monitor process variation on a continuous basis. Identifying the tolerance level in the variations. Control charts is one SPC tool that enables us to monitor and control process variation. Types of variation Common and Special Cause Variation Control charts: Developed in the mid 1920's by Walter Shewhart of Bell labs. There are two basic types of control charts, the average and range control charts. The first deals with how close the process is to the nominal design value, while the range chart indicates the amount of spread or variability around the nominal design value. A control chart has basically three line: the upper control limit UCL, the center line CL, and the lower control limit LCL. A minimum of 25 points is required for a control chart to be accurate. 2) Explain the New management tools Seven New Management and Planning Tools In 1976, the Union of Japanese Scientists and Engineers (JUSE) saw the need for tools to promote innovation, communicate information and successfully plan major projects. A team researched and developed the seven new quality control tools, often called the seven management and planning (MP) tools, or simply the seven management tools. Not all the tools were new, but their collection and promotion were. The seven MP tools, listed in an order that moves from abstract analysis to detailed planning, are: 1. Affinity diagram: organizes a large number of ideas into their natural relationships. 2. InterRelations diagram: shows cause-and-effect relationships and helps you analyze the natural links between different aspects of a complex situation. 3. Tree diagram: breaks down broad categories into finer and finer levels of detail, helping you move your thinking step by step from generalities to specifics E.R.SIVAKUMAR-HD/MECH

170 GE 2022-TQM IV/VII MECHANICAL ENGINEERING GE 71 TQM 16 Marks questions with answers Matrix diagram: shows the relationship between two, three or four groups of information and can give information about the relationship, such as its strength, the roles played by various individuals, or measurements. 5. Matrix data analysis: a complex mathematical technique for analyzing matrices, often replaced in this list by the similar prioritization matrix. One of the most rigorous, careful and time-consuming of decision-making tools, a prioritization matrix is an L-shaped matrix that uses pairwise comparisons of a list of options to a set of criteria in order to choose the best option(s). 6. Arrow diagram: shows the required order of tasks in a project or process, the best schedule for the entire project, and potential scheduling and resource problems and their solutions E.R.SIVAKUMAR-HD/MECH

171 GE 2022-TQM IV/VII MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 7. Process decision program chart (PDPC): systematically identifies what might go wrong in a plan under development. 3) Explain Six-sigma Six Sigma concepts: Six Sigma has evolved over the last two decades and so has its definition. Six Sigma has literal, conceptual, and practical definitions. Features that set Six Sigma apart from previous quality improvement initiatives include clear focus on achieving measurable and quantifiable financial returns from any project.etc. tolead and implement the Six Sigma approach. assumptions and guesswork. At Motorola University, we think about Six Sigma at three different levels: c Essentially, Six Sigma is all three at the same time. Six Sigma as a Metric The term "Sigma" is often used as a scale for levels of "goodness" or quality. Using this scale, "Six Sigma" equates to 3.4 Defects Per Million Opportunities (DPMO). Six Sigma started as a defect reduction effort in manufacturing and then applied to other business processes for the same purpose. Taking the 1.5 sigma shift into account, short-term sigma levels correspond to the following long-term DPMO values (one-sided): Six Sigma as a Methodology 4 DPMO => efficiency % As Six Sigma has evolved, there has been less emphasis on the literal definition of 3.4 DPMO, or counting defects in products and processes. Six Sigma is a business improvement methodology that focuses an organization on: ble improvement to business processes At the heart of the methodology is the DMAIC model for process improvement. DMAIC is commonly used by Six Sigma project teams and is an acronym for: E.R.SIVAKUMAR-HD/MECH

172 GE 2022-TQM IV/VII MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DMAIC - The basic methodology consists of the following five steps: Define process improvement goals that are consistent with customer demands and the enterprise strategy. Measure key aspects of the current process and collect relevant data. Analyze the data to verify cause-and-effect relationships. Determine what the relationships are, and attempt to ensure that all factors have been considered. Improve or optimize the process based upon data analysis using techniques like Design of Experiments. 4) Explain about Benchmarking. "Benchmarking: A continuous, systematic process of evaluating and comparing the capability of one organization with others normally recognized as industry leaders, for insights for optimizing the organizations processes." Benchmarking is the process of comparing the cost, time or quality of what one organization does against what another organization does. The result is often a business case for making changes in order to make improvements. The systematic process of comparing an organization s products, services and practices against those of competitor organizations or other industry leaders to determine what it is they do that allows them to achieve high levels of performance. (Society for Human Resources Management) Advantages of benchmarking Benchmarking is a powerful management tool because it overcomes "paradigm blindness." Benchmarking opens organizations to new methods, ideas and tools to improve their effectiveness. It helps crack through resistance to change by demonstrating other methods. Allows employees to visualise the improvement which can be a strong motivator for change Helps to identify weak areas and indicates what needs to be done to improve. The Benchmarking process The formal 10-step benchmarking process is shown in outline below E.R.SIVAKUMAR-HD/MECH

173 GE 2022-TQM IV/VII MECHANICAL ENGINEERING The benchmarking process consists of following phases: 1. Planning. The essential steps are those of any plan development: what, who and how. What is to be benchmarked? Every function of an organization has or delivers a product or output. Benchmarking is appropriate for any output of a process or function, whether it s a physical good, an order, a shipment, an invoice, a service or a report. To whom or what will we compare? Business-to-business, direct competitors are certainly prime candidates to benchmark. But they are not the only targets. Benchmarking must be conducted against the best companies and business functions regardless of where they exist. How will the data be collected? There s no one way to conduct benchmarking investigations. There s an infinite variety of ways to obtain required data and most of the data you ll need are readily and publicly available. Recognize that benchmarking is a process not only of deriving quantifiable goals and targets, but more importantly, it s the process of investigating and documenting the best industry practices, which can help you achieve goals and targets. 2. Analysis. The analysis phase must involve a careful understanding of your current process and practices, as well as those of the organizations being benchmarked. What is desired is an understanding of internal performance on which to assess strengths and weaknesses. Ask: orated or adapted for use in our organization? Answers to these questions will define the dimensions of any performance gap: negative, positive or parity. The gap provides an objective basis on which to act to close the gap or capitalize on any advantage your organization has. 3. Integration. Integration is the process of using benchmark findings to set operational targets for change. It involves careful planning to incorporate new practices in the operation and to ensure benchmark findings are incorporated in all formal planning processes. Steps include: Gain operational and management acceptance of benchmark findings. Clearly and convincingly demonstrate findings as correct and based on substantive data. Develop action plans. Communicate findings to all organizational levels to obtain support, commitment and ownership. 4. Action. Convert benchmark findings, and operational principles based on them, to specific actions to be taken. Put in place a periodic measurement and assessment of achievement. Use the creative talents of the people who actually perform work tasks to determine how the findings can be incorporated into the work processes. Any plan for change also should contain milestones for updating the benchmark findings, and an ongoing reporting mechanism. 38 E.R.SIVAKUMAR-HD/MECH

174 GE 2022-TQM IV/VII MECHANICAL ENGINEERING Progress toward benchmark findings must be reported to all employees. 5. Maturity. Maturity will be reached when best industry practices are incorporated in all business processes, thus ensuring superiority. Tests for superiority: If the now-changed process were to be made available to others, would a knowledgeable businessperson prefer it? Do other organizations benchmark your internal operations? Maturity also is achieved when benchmarking becomes an ongoing, essential and selfinitiated facet of the management process. Benchmarking becomes institutionalized and is done at all appropriate levels of the organization, not by specialists. 5) Explain the Types of Benchmarking. Process benchmarking - the initiating firm focuses its observation and investigation of business processes with a goal of identifying and observing the best practices from one or more benchmark firms. Activity analysis will be required where the objective is to benchmark cost and efficiency; increasingly applied to back-office processes where outsourcing may be a consideration. Financial benchmarking - performing a financial analysis and comparing the results in an effort to assess your overall competitiveness. Performance benchmarking - allows the initiator firm to assess their competitive position by comparing products and services with those of target firms. Product benchmarking - the process of designing new products or upgrades to current ones. This process can sometimes involve reverse engineering which is taking apart competitors products to find strengths and weaknesses. Strategic benchmarking - involves observing how others compete. This type is usually not industry specific meaning it is best to look at other industries. Functional benchmarking - a company will focus its benchmarking on a single function in order to improve the operation of that particular function. Complex functions such as Human Resources, Finance and Accounting and Information and Communication Technology are unlikely to be directly comparable in cost and efficiency terms and may need to be disaggregated into processes to make valid comparison Implementation in manufacturing Poka-yoke can be implemented at any step of a manufacturing process where something can go wrong or an error can be made. For example, a jig that holds pieces for processing might be modified to only allow pieces to be held in the correct orientation, or a digital counter might track the number of spot welds on each piece to ensure that the worker executes the correct number of welds. Shigeo Shingo recognized three types of poka-yoke for detecting and preventing errors in a mass production system: 1. The contact method identifies product defects by testing the product's shape, size, color, or other physical attributes. 2. The fixed-value (or constant number) method alerts the operator if a certain number of movements are not made. 3. The motion-step (or sequence) method determines whether the prescribed steps of the process have been followed Either the operator is alerted when a mistake is about to be made, or the poka-yoke device E.R.SIVAKUMAR-HD/MECH

175 GE 2022-TQM IV/VII MECHANICAL ENGINEERING actually prevents the mistake from being made. In Shingo's lexicon, the former implementation would be called a warning poka-yoke, while the latter would be referred to as a control poka-yoke ) Explain about FMEA Failure modes and effects analysis (FMEA) is a procedure for analysis of potential failure modes within a system for the classification by severity or determination of the failures' effect upon the system. It is widely used in the manufacturing industries in various phases of the product life cycle and is now increasingly finding use in the service industry as well. Failure causes are any errors or defects in process, design, or item especially ones that affect the customer, and can be potential or actual. Effects analysis refers to studying the consequences of those failures. Step 1: Severity Determine all failure modes based on the functional requirements and their effects. Examples of failure modes are: Electrical short-circuiting, corrosion or deformation. It is important to note that a failure mode in one component can lead to a failure mode in another component. Therefore each failure mode should be listed in technical terms and for function. Hereafter the ultimate effect of each failure mode needs to be considered. A failure effect is defined as the result of a failure mode on the function of the system as perceived by the user. In this way it is convenient to write these effects down in terms of what the user might see or experience. Examples of failure effects are: degraded performance, noise or even injury to a user. Each effect is given a severity number(s) from 1(no danger) to 10(important). These numbers help an engineer to prioritize. If the severity of an effect has a number 9 or 10, actions are considered to change the design by eliminating the failure mode, if possible, or protecting the user from the effect. A severity rating of 9 or 10 is generally reserved for those effects which would cause injury to a user or otherwise result in litigation. Step 2: Occurrence In this step it is necessary to look at the cause of a failure and how many times it occurs. This can be done by looking at similar products or processes and the failures that have been documented for them. A failure cause is looked upon as a design weakness. All the potential causes for a failure mode should be identified and documented. Again this should be in technical terms. Examples of causes are: erroneous algorithms, excessive voltage or improper operating conditions. A failure mode is given a probability number(o),again Actions need to be determined if the occurrence is high (meaning >4 for non safety failure modes and >1 when the severity-number from step 1 is 9 or 10). This step is called the detailed development section of the FMEA process. Step 3: Detection When appropriate actions are determined, it is necessary to test their efficiency. Also a design verification is needed. The proper inspection methods need to be chosen. First, an engineer should look at the current controls of the system, that prevent failure modes from occurring or which detect the failure before it reaches the customer. Hereafter one should identify testing, analysis, monitoring and other techniques that can be or have been used on similar systems to detect failures. From these controls an engineer can learn E.R.SIVAKUMAR-HD/MECH

176 GE 2022-TQM IV/VII MECHANICAL ENGINEERING how likely it is for a failure to be identified or detected. Each combination from the previous 2 steps, receives a detection number(d). This number represents the ability of planned tests and inspections at removing defects or detecting failure modes. After these 3 basic steps, Risk Priority Numbers (RPN) are calculated. Risk Priority Numbers RPN do not play an important part in the choice of an action against failure modes. They are more threshold values in the evaluation of these actions. After ranking the severity, occurrence and detectability the RPN can be easily calculated by multiplying these 3 numbers: RPN = S x O x D This has to be done for the entire process and/or design. Once this is done it is easy to determine the areas of greatest concern. The failure modes that have the highest RPN should be given the highest priority for corrective action. This means it is not always the failure modes with the highest severity numbers that should be treated first. There could be less severe failures, but which occur more often and are less detectable. 7) Explain the Timing of FMEA The FMEA should be updated whenever: At the beginning of a cycle (new product/process) Changes are made to the operating conditions A change is made in the design New regulations are instituted Customer feedback indicates a problem Uses of FMEA Development of system requirements that minimize the likelihood of failures. Development of methods to design and test systems to ensure that the failures have been eliminated. Evaluation of the requirements of the customer to ensure that those do not give rise to potential failures. Identification of certain design characteristics that contribute to failures, and minimize or eliminate those effects. Tracking and managing potential risks in the design. This helps avoid the same failures in future projects. Ensuring that any failure that could occur will not injure the customer or seriously impact a system. Advantages Improve the quality, reliability and safety of a product/process Improve company image and competitiveness Increase user satisfaction Reduce system development timing and cost Collect information to reduce future failures, capture engineering knowledge Reduce the potential for warranty concerns Early identification and elimination of potential failure modes Emphasis problem prevention Minimize late changes and associated cost Catalyst for teamwork and idea exchange between functions Disadvantages If used as a top-down tool, FMEA may only identify major failure modes in a system. Fault tree analysis (FTA) is better suited for "top -down" analysis. When used as a "bottom-up" tool FMEA can augment or complement FTA and identify many more causes and failure modes resulting in top-level symptoms. It is not able to discover complex failure modes involving multiple failures within a subsystem, or to report expected failure intervals of particular failure modes up to the upper level subsystem or system. Additionally, the multiplication of the severity, occurrence and detection rankings may result in rank reversals, where a less serious failure mode receives a higher RPN than a more serious failure mode. The reason for this is that the rankings are E.R.SIVAKUMAR-HD/MECH

177 GE 2022-TQM IV/VII MECHANICAL ENGINEERING ordinal scale numbers, and multiplication is not a valid operation on them. The ordinal rankings only say that one ranking is better or worse than another, but not by how much. For instance, a ranking of "2" may not be twice as bad as a ranking of "1," or an "8" may not be twice as bad as a "4," but multiplication treats them as though they are. 8) Explain the Benchmarking process. The benchmarking process consists of following phases: 1. Planning. The essential steps are those of any plan development: what, who and how. What is to be benchmarked? Every function of an organization has or delivers a product or output. Benchmarking is appropriate for any output of a process or function, whether it s a physical good, an order, a shipment, an invoice, a service or a report. To whom or what will we compare? Business-to-business, direct competitors are certainly prime candidates to benchmark. But they are not the only targets. Benchmarking must be conducted against the best companies and business functions regardless of where they exist. How will the data be collected? There s no one way to conduct benchmarking investigations. There s an infinite variety of ways to obtain required data and most of the data you ll need are readily and publicly available. Recognize that benchmarking is a process not only of deriving quantifiable goals and targets, but more importantly, it s the process of investigating and documenting the best industry practices, which can help you achieve goals and targets. 2. Analysis. The analysis phase must involve a careful understanding of your current process and practices, as well as those of the organizations being benchmarked. What is desired is an understanding of internal performance on which to assess strengths and weaknesses. Ask: Answers to these questions will define the dimensions of any performance gap: negative, positive or parity. The gap provides an objective basis on which to act to close the gap or capitalize on any advantage your organization has. 3. Integration. Integration is the process of using benchmark findings to set operational targets for change. It involves careful planning to incorporate new practices in the operation and to ensure benchmark findings are incorporated in all formal planning processes. Steps include: Gain operational and management acceptance of benchmark findings. Clearly and convincingly demonstrate findings as correct and based on substantive data. Develop action plans. Communicate findings to all organizational levels to obtain support, commitment and ownership E.R.SIVAKUMAR-HD/MECH

178 GE 2022-TQM IV/VII MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 4. Action. Convert benchmark findings, and operational principles based on them, to specific actions to be taken. Put in place a periodic measurement and assessment of achievement. Use the creative talents of the people who actually perform work tasks to determine how the findings can be incorporated into the work processes. Any plan for change also should contain milestones for updating the benchmark findings, and an ongoing reporting mechanism. Progress toward benchmark findings must be reported to all employees. 5. Maturity. Maturity will be reached when best industry practices are incorporated in all business processes, thus ensuring superiority. Tests for superiority: UNIT IV TQM TOOLS & TECHNIQUES II PART-A 1. What is meant by benchmarking? The process of gathering information about the best quality product manufacturing company in order to copy, follow and excel, is known as benchmarking. Benchmarking is defined as a systematic method (or) popular TQM tool by which organizations can measure themselves against the best industry practices. 2. What is meant by quality function deployment (QFD)? Quality function deployment (QFD) is a TQM tool which ensures that customer s requirements are met throughout the design process and also in the production systems. 3. Write about House of quality. The primary planning tool in QFD is the House of Quality. House of Quality is a set of matrix used to translate the voice of the customers into technical design requirement that meet specific target values and characteristics of the final product. Because of its structure, it is referred to as the House of Quality. 4. Name different loss measurements in TPM? a. Down time losses Planned Unplanned b. Reduced Speed Losses c. Poor Quality Losses 5. What is meant by Failure Mode and Effect Analysis (FMEA)? Failure Mode and Effect Analysis (FMEA) is an analytical technique which combines the technology and experience of the people To identify foreseeable failure modes of a product(or) process To plan for its elimination. 6. Define Reliability. Reliability is defined as the probability of a product performing satisfactorily without failure of a specified function under specified conditions for a specified period of time E.R.SIVAKUMAR-HD/MECH

179 GE 2022-TQM IV/VII MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 7. What is Debug failure? Debug includes a high failure rate at the initial stages because of inappropriate use (or) flaws in the design (or) manufacturing. 8. What are the two important types of FMEA? 1. Design FMEA 2. Process FMEA 9. What are the three classes of customer needs? 1. Dissatisfiers: are the needs that are expected in a product (or) service 2. Satisfiers: are needs that customers say they want 3. Exciters/Delighters: are new (or) innovative features that customer do not except. 10. Draw the Taguchi Loss Function? 11. What are the three types of benchmarking? 1. Internal benchmarking 2. Competitive benchmarking 3. Process benchmarking. 12. Name different types of matrix diagrams. 1. L- Matrix 2. T- Matrix 3. Y- Matrix 4. X- Matrix 5. C- Matrix. 13. What is meant by performance efficiency? Reduced speed losses are measured by tracking performance efficiency using the Performance efficiency E=(C*N/T)*100 Where C=Cycle time N= Number of units produced. 14. What are the three main categories of failure? 1. Debug 2. Chance 3. Wear out E.R.SIVAKUMAR-HD/MECH

180 GE 2022-TQM IV/VII MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 15. What are the six steps in benchmarking process? Deciding what to benchmark Understanding current performance Planning Studying others Learning from the data Using the findings and taking action 1) Explain about Quality circles PART B QUESTIONS Quality Circle is a small group of 6 to 12 employees doing similar work who voluntarily meet together on a regular basis to identify improvements in their respective work areas using proven techniques for analysing and solving work related problems coming in the way of achieving and sustaining excellence leading to mutual upliftment of employees as well as the organisation. It is "a way of capturing the creative and innovative power that lies within the work force". CONCEPT The concept of Quality Circle is primarily based upon recognition of the value of the worker as a human being, as someone who willingly activises on his job, his wisdom, intelligence, experience, attitude and feelings. It is based upon the human resource management considered as one of the key factors in the improvement of product quality & productivity. Quality Circle concept has three major attributes: Quality Circle is a form of participation management. b. Quality Circle is a human resource development technique. c. Quality Circle is a problem solving technique. OBJECTIVE The objectives of Quality Circles are multi-faced. a) Change in Attitude. From "I don t care" to "I do care" Continuous improvement in quality of work life through humanisation of work. b) Self Development Bring out Hidden Potential of people People get to learn additional skills. c) Development of Team Spirit Individual Vs Team "I could not do but we did it" Eliminate inter departmental conflicts. d) Improved Organisational Culture Positive working environment. Total involvement of people at all levels. Higher motivational level. Participate Management process. 2) Explain the organisational structure A Quality Circle has an appropriate organisational structure for its effective and efficient E.R.SIVAKUMAR-HD/MECH

181 GE 2022-TQM IV/VII MECHANICAL ENGINEERING performance. It varies from industry to industry, organisation to organisation. But it is useful to have a basic framework as a model. The structure of a Quality Circle consists of the following elements. i. A steering committee: This is at the top of the structure. It is headed by a senior executive and includes representatives from the top management personnel and human resources development people. It establishes policy, plans and directs the program and meets usually once in a month. ii. Co-ordinator: He may be a Personnel or Administrative officer who co-ordinates and supervises the work of the facilitators and administers the programme. iii. Facilitator: He may be a senior supervisory officer. He co-ordiates the works of several quality circles through the Circle leaders. iv. Circle leader: Leaders may be from lowest level workers or Supervisors. A Circle leader organises and conducts Circle activities. v. Circle members : They may be staff workers. Without circle members the porgramme cannot exist. They are the lifeblood of quality circles. They should attend all meetings as far as possible, offer suggestions and ideas, participate actively in group process, take training seriously with a receptive attitude.the roles of Steering Committee, Co-0rdinator, Facilitator, Circle leader and Circle members are well defined. The Quality Circles also are expected to develop internal leadership, reinforce worker morale and motivation, and encourage a strong sense of teamwork in an organisation. A variety of benefits have been attributed to Quality Circles, including higher quality, improved productivity, greater upward flow of information, broader improved worker attitudes, job enrichment, and greater teamwork ) Explain about Quality cost Quality cost: During the 1950 s the concept of Quality Cost emerged. Different people assigned different meanings to the term. Some people equated quality cost with the cost of attaining quality; some people equated the term with the extra incurred due to poor quality. But, the widely accepted thing is Quality cost is the extra cost incurred due to poor or bad quality of the product or service. Categories of Quality Cost : Many companies summarize quality costs into four broad categories. They are, a) Internal failure costs - The cost associated with defects that are found prior to transfer of the product to the customer. b) External failure costs - The cost associated with defects that are found after product is shipped to the customer. c) Appraisal costs - The cost incurred in determining the degree of conformance to quality requirement. d) Prevention costs - The cost incurred in keeping failure and appraisal costs to a minimum. Analysis technique for Quality Cost The term "trend analysis" refers to the concept of collecting information and attempting to E.R.SIVAKUMAR-HD/MECH

182 GE 2022-TQM IV/VII MECHANICAL ENGINEERING spot a pattern, or trend, in the information. In some fields of study, the term "trend analysis" has more formally-defined meanings. Although trend analysis is often used to predict future events, it could be used to estimate uncertain events in the past, such as how many ancient kings probably ruled between two dates, based on data such as the average years which other known kings reigned. 4) Explain Pareto Analysis This fact gave rise to the Pareto effect or Pareto s law: the vital few and the trivial many. The Pareto effect is named after Vilfredo Pareto, an economist and sociologist who lived from 1848 to Originally trained as an engineer he was a one time managing director of a group of coalmines. Pareto analysis is a statistical technique in decision making that is used for selection of a limited number of tasks that produce significant overall effect. It uses the Pareto principle - the idea that by doing 20% of work you can generate 80% of the advantage of doing the entire job. Or in terms of quality improvement, a large majority of problems (80%) are produced by a few key causes (20%). Pareto analysis is a formal technique useful where many possible courses of action are competing for your attention. In essence, the problem-solver estimates the benefit delivered by each action, then selects a number of the most effective actions that deliver a total benefit reasonably close to the maximal possible one. Use of Pareto principle in prioritizing or ranking a range of items which have different levels of significance. Its objective is to separate the 'vital few' from the 'useful many.' 5) Explain Taguchi quality loss function Genichi Taguchi is a Japanese quality expert, known for the Quality Loss Function and for methodologies to optimise quality at the design stage robust design. Taguchi received formal recognition for his work including Deming Prizes and Awards. Genichi Taguchi considers quality loss all the way through to the customer, including cost of scrap, rework, downtime, warranty claims and ultimately reduced market share. Genichi Taguchi's Quality Loss Function The Quality Loss Function gives a financial value for customers' increasing dissatisfaction as the product performance goes below the desired target performance. Equally, it gives a financial value for increasing costs as product performance goes above the desired target performance. Determining the target performance is an educated guess, often based on customer surveys and feedback. The quality loss function allows financial decisions to be made at the design stage regarding the cost of achieving the target performance. Quality through Robust Design Methodology Taguchi methods emphasised quality through robust design, not quality through inspection. Taguchi breaks the design process into three stages: 1. System design - involves creating a working prototype E.R.SIVAKUMAR-HD/MECH

183 GE 2022-TQM IV/VII MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 2. Parameter design - involves experimenting to find which factors influence product performance most 3. Tolerance design - involves setting tight tolerance limits for the critical factors and looser tolerance limits for less important factors. Taguchi s Robust Design methodologies allow the designer through experiments to determine which factors most affect product performance and which factors are unimportant. The designer can focus on reducing variation on the important or critical factors. Unimportant or uncontrollable noise factors have negligible impact on the product performance and can be ignored. Robust Design of Cookies This is easier explained by example. If your business makes cookies from raw ingredients, there are many possible factors that could influence the quality of the cookie - amount of flour, number of eggs, temperature of butter, heat of oven, cooking time, baking tray material etc. With Genichi Taguchi s Robust Design methodologies you would set up experiments that would test a range of combinations of factors - for example, high and low oven temperature, with long and short cooking time, 1 or 2 eggs, etc. The cookies resulting from each of these trials would be assessed for quality. A statistical analysis of results would tell you which the most important factors are, for example oven temperature affects cookie quality more than the number of eggs. With this knowledge you would design a process that ensures the oven maintains the optimal temperature and you would be able to consistently produce good cookies. 6) Explain TPM Total Productive Maintenance Total = Overall features for production Productive = production of goods and services that meet expectation Maintenance = Keeping the equipments and plant as good as new and working condition Goals of TPM Maintaining and Improving equipment capacity Maintaining equipment for longer life Using support from all areas of operation Encouraging input from all employees Continuous improvement. Improvement needs Machines expected to fail at one point or another minimise that risk Employees who use and work that machine give the first hand information Six major loss areas in terms of time Downtime loss 1. Planned i) start ups ii) Shift change iii) tea / lunch breaks iv) planned maintenance 2. Unplanned i) Equipment breakdown ii) changeovers iii)lack of materials 3. Idling and minor stoppages 4. Slow downs 5. Process change 6. Scraps Calculating Equipment Effectiveness Downtime loss measured by equipment availability A = (T/P) X 100 A availability, T operating time (P D), P Planned operation time D- Downtime E.R.SIVAKUMAR-HD/MECH

184 GE 2022-TQM IV/VII MECHANICAL ENGINEERING Performance efficiency E = (CXN/T) X 100 E Performance efficiency, C Theoretical cycle time, N Processed amount (qty) Rate of quality products R = (N-Q/N)X 100 R Rate of quality products, N = Processed amount Q nonconformities 7) Explain Quality Function Deployment (QFD) Quality Function Deployment (QFD) is a way of making the 'voice of the customer' heard throughout an organization. It is a systematic process for capturing customer requirements and translating these into requirements that must be met throughout the 'supply chain'. The result is a new set of target values for designers, production people, and even suppliers to aim at in order to produce the output desired by customers. QFD is particularly valuable when design trade-offs are necessary to achieve the best overall solution, e.g. because some requirements conflict with others. QFD also enables a great deal of information to be summarized in the form of one or more charts. These charts capture customer and product data gleaned from many sources, as well as the design parameters chosen for the new product. In this way they provide a solid foundation for further improvement in subsequent design cycles. QFD is sometimes referred to by other 'nicknames' - the voice of the customer (from its use as a way of communicating customer needs), or the House of Quality (from the characteristic house shape of a QFD chart). History The creation of QFD is generally attributed to Mitsubishi's Kobe shipyard in Japan. The original approach, conceived in the late 1960's, was adopted and developed by other Japanese companies, notably Toyota and its suppliers. In 1986 a study by the Japanese Union of Scientists and Engineers (JUSE) revealed that 54% of 148 member companies surveyed were using QFD. The sectors with the highest penetration of QFD were transportation (86%), construction (82%), electronics (63%), and precision machinery (66%). Many of the service companies surveyed (32%) were also using QFD. Specific design applications in Japan range from home appliances and clothing to retail outlets and apartment layouts. Benefits of QFD The main 'process' benefits of using QFD are: improved communication and sharing of information within a cross-functional team charged with developing a new product. This team will typically include people from a variety of functional groups, such as marketing, sales, service, distribution, product engineering, process engineering, procurement, and production the identification of 'holes' in the current knowledge of the design team the capture and display of a wide variety of important design information in one place in a compact form support for understanding, consensus, and decision making, especially when complex relationships and tradeoffs are involved the creation of an informational base which is valuable for repeated cycles of product improvement The main 'bottom line' benefits of using QFD are: greater likelihood of product success in the marketplace, due to the precise targeting of key customer requirements reduced overall design cycle time, mainly due to a reduction in time-consuming design changes. This is a powerful benefit: customer requirements are less likely to have changed since the beginning of the design E.R.SIVAKUMAR-HD/MECH

185 GE 2022-TQM IV/VII MECHANICAL ENGINEERING project; and more frequent design cycles mean that products can be improved more rapidly than the competition reduced overall cost due to reducing design changes, which are not only time consuming but very costly, especially those which occur at a late stage. reduced product cost by eliminating redundant features and over-design. When to use QFD QFD is a powerful tool that leads to significant improvements in product/process performances. However, it is not a short-term answer to product development problems. The method on which QFD is implemented may have a large impact on benefits derived and companies should take up QFD only after getting the consent and commitment of the team members. QFD provides a systematic approach to build a team perspective on what needs to be done, the best ways to do it, the best order to accomplish the tasks proposed and the staffing and resources required to enhance customer satisfaction. It is also a good format for capturing and recording/documenting decision making. Applied through the Kaizen philosophy under Total Quality Control, QFD is the most highly developed form of integrated product and process development in existence. Strengths and weaknesses of QFD Strengths include: 1. Enhanced customer satisfaction Listening to the voice of the customer Robust design 2. Shorter time to market Reduced rework during development Creates team consensus and commitment 3. Reduced costs Weaknesses Success with QFD Companies using QFD for product development have on the average, experienced: Companies that have successfully applied QFD include Toyota, Honda, ICI, Black & Decker, Integrated Design Control Systems and Rover. QFD House of Quality 8) Explain the voice of the customer. MEANING: The voice of the customer from the market research and various benchmarking is linked to the technicalities of the design and process of the product both new and existing. DEFINITION: It is kind of conceptual map that provides a means of interfunctional planning and communication. FEATURES: - Concept of matrix and its correlation - Plan as per the voice of the customer - Focus on Customers need and technicalities E.R.SIVAKUMAR-HD/MECH

186 GE 2022-TQM IV/VII MECHANICAL ENGINEERING - WHAT the Customer wants and HOW to do it - It is base tool for quality planning managers Step I List customer requirement Decide Primary and secondary needs of the customer Step II List technical descriptions HOW Again primary and secondary is decided Primary Material and Process Subdividing materials and process required Here current materials and process must be considered Step III Relation ship matrix between WHAT & HOW The crucial stage Relating WHAT & HOW Interlinking both primary and secondary No scope for variation Points and grading is done here Gives results of WHAT and HOW Key elements are discussed The Management decides the combination. Costing and current process must be considered Step IV Interrelation matrix between HOW s The materials and manufacturing is analyzed Ratings are done Enables the decisions in the process Current process to be considered Technical knowledge is a must for the analyst Step V Our product with others Analyzing competitors products customer expectation Difficult to get data Mismatch in requirements is possible Helps in identifying customer trend Step VI Technical Competitive assessment Analyzing how the similar companies are handling To what they give importance. Impact on technical process to meet the customers request. Step VII Prioritize Technical Descriptors Degree of technical difficulty Most needed change is decided Target value Physical attributes to be considered. 8. Discuss about design of FMEA document. Design FMEA is used in the design process by identifying known and foreseeable failure modes and then ranking failures according to relative impact on the product. Design FMEA reduces development time and cost of manufacturing process by eliminating many potential failure modes prior to operation of the process. FMEA number space is given on the top right corner of the document which is needed for reference. ITEM space is used for component (or) process to be analysed. Design Responsibility space is used for the team in-charge of the design or process, (or) the name and the department of the person responsible for preparing the document. Model Number / Year of the component should be included in the space provided to avoid confusion between similar components. Key date space is used for initial Due date of FMEA. FMEA date original and FEMA date latest revision should be filled. In the Core team space, the names of the responsible individuals and departments having authority to perform tasks should be filled up. Item/Function : 51 E.R.SIVAKUMAR-HD/MECH

187 GE 2022-TQM IV/VII MECHANICAL ENGINEERING In this column, the name and code number of the item being analysed is recorded. This function of the item should be entered. If the item has more than one function, they should be listed and analysed separately. The environment (temperature. pressure, humidity etc) in which the system operates should be completely given. 9. Explain the different types of needs The Japanese have developed the concept of Quality Function Deployment (QFD). The Quality Function Deployment (QFD) is a TQM tool which ensures that customer s requirements are met throughout the design process and also in the production systems. QFD is basically a philosophy and a set planning and communication tool that focuses on customer requirements in coordinating the design, manufacturing and marketing of goods 1.Dissatisfiers : are the needs that are expected in a product (or) service. In a car, safety measures and cushioning seats are known as dissatisfiers These features are generally not stated by customers but assumed as a given. If they are not present, then the customer will be dissatisfied. 2. Satisfiers : are the needs that customers say they want. Air conditioning and Compact Disc player in a car are the examples of satisfiers. Fulfilling these needs creates satisfaction. 3. Exciters/delighters: are new (or) innovative features that customers do not expect. Antilock brakes and collision avoidance systems are known as examples of exciters /delighters. The pressure such unexpected features lead to high perceptions of quality. 10. What are the major benefits of quality function deployment (QFD). Quality Function Deployment (QFD)-House of Quality is an effective Management tool to drive the design process and production process with the main aim of satisfying the customer needs. The benefits of QFD are A systematic way of obtaining information and presenting it. 2. Shorter product development cycle. 3. Considerably reduced start-up costs. 4. Fewer engineering changes. 5. Reduced chance of overnights during design process. 6. An environment of team work. 7. Consensus decision. 8. Everything is preserved in writing. 9. It facilitates identification of the causes of customer complaints and makes it easier to takes prompt remedical action. 10. It is a useful tool for improving product Quality. 11. It is a useful tool for competitive analysis of product quality. 12. It is stabilizes quality. 13. It cuts down on rejects and rework at the production site. E.R.SIVAKUMAR-HD/MECH

188 GE 2022-TQM IV/VII MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 14. It decreases claims substantially. 15. Marketing benefits are obtained by identifying sales point. 11. Write the main purposes of FEMA. Explain the 4 stages of FEMA. Purpose of FEMA 1. FEMA is an analytical technique that combines the technology and experience of people in identifying various failure modes of a product (or) process and planning for its elimination. 2. FEMA implemented in both the design and the process areas to identify potential failure modes and the effect of those on customers. 3. FEMA attempts to detect the potential product related failure modes. 4. FEMA anticipates the causes of failure and prevents from happening. 5. FEMA debugs and prevents problems that may occur in the manufacturing process 6. FEMA compares the design characteristics relative to the planned manufacturing (or) assembly methods 7. Corrective action are taken after a failure mode is identified. 8. FEMA provides justification for setting up a process in a certain manner. 9. FEMA is used by engineers to analyse all possible non- conformities and problems that may arise in a given process (or) with a certain product. 5. Draw the FMEA Form? E.R.SIVAKUMAR-HD/MECH

189 GE 2022-TQM IV/VII MECHANICAL ENGINEERING UNIT V 1. Why do we need a Quality system? QUALITY SYSTEMS In order to assure the quality of a product, the manufacturer must ensure its quality. So, to ensure this quality it is necessary to make a systematic study and control check at every stage of production. It is also essential to take critical review of efforts and achievements of the company with respect to the quality of the product. Thus it is necessary to develop a standard quality system. 2. What do you mean by ISO 9000 quality standard? The ISO 9000 system is a quality management system that can be adopted by all types of organizations belonging to government, public, private, (or) joint sectors. The ISO 9000 system shows the way in creating products by preventing deficiencies, instead of conducting expensive post product inspections and rework. 3. What is two party quality system? In two party quality system, the supplier of the product (or) service would develop a quality system that would conform to his standard. The customer would then audit this system for acceptability. Here the supplier and customer form the two parties. 4. What is a third party registration system? In two party registration system after auditing, it may be found that the customer s quality requirements are not met. In order to avoid this and also the cost incurred in multiple audits, a standard quality system must be developed and audited by a third party registration system. 5. Name some third party registration system? The ISO 9000, QS 9000, ISO and other quality systems are such third party registration systems that indicate to customers (or) potential customers that the suppliers has a quality system in place and it is being monitored. 6. Define quality auditing? The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) defines an audit as a systematic and independent examination to determine whether quality activities and related results comply with planned arrangements and whether these arrangements are implemented effectively and suitable to achieve objects E.R.SIVAKUMAR-HD/MECH

190 GE 2022-TQM IV/VII MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 7. What is the two type s quality audit? Quality audit can be classified into two types internal and external audit. 8. What do you mean by external and internal audit? An internal audit is conducted by personnel within the organization. An external audit is conducted by people from the organization such as the purchasing party (second party audit ) (or) a certified auditing agency (third party audit). 9. How can Quality audit be classified on the basis of the area taken into account for the audit? System Audit Process Audit Product Audit Adequacy Audit Compliance Audit 10. What is the use of QS 9000? The QS 9000 standard defines the fundamental quality expectations from the suppliers of production and service parts. The QS 9000 standard uses ISO 9000 as its base with much broader requirements. 11. What is the use of ISO standard? ISO standard gives the company a background on which to base its Environmental Management System (EMS). This system can be joined with other quality standards and can be implemented together to achieve the organizations environmental targets. The overall aim of the system is to provide protection to environment and to prevent pollution. 12.What are the other quality systems? The other quality systems are AS 9100 used in aerospace industry, ISO/TS 16949, which is called as Quality Systems Automotive Suppliers Particular Requirements for the application of ISO 9001, TS 9000 a consolidation of the various quality system requirements within telecommunications industry, QS 9000 and ISO Out of these Qs 9000 uses ISO 9000 as its foundation.but its requirements are much broader E.R.SIVAKUMAR-HD/MECH

191 GE 2022-TQM IV/VII MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 13.What is a quality manual? A quality manual is to be established and maintained.it should include: 1.The scope of the QMS with details and justification for any exclusions. 2.The documented procedure or references to them. 3.A description of the interaction among the QMS processes. 14.What are the essential qualities of a auditor? An auditor should be adequately qualified and competent to perform quality audit.he should have received training in auditing principles and processes.to be able to audit efficiently, the auditor should possess the ability to concentrate on the task entrusted and not distracted by other activities that are taking place at the same time.he should be objective, honest and impartial. 15.What are the strengths of ISO 14000? One of the greatest strengths of ISO is that it establishes a process that spreads responsibility and participation to every individual of the organization. It teaches employees the effect on the environment of their own work duties, how these can be minimized, what the benefits can be and what negative consequences can be if responsibilities are ignored PART B 1) Explain the Need for ISO ISO Quality System Basic Requirements of ISO Procedure to cover all processes in the business 2. Monitoring process to ensure effectiveness 3. Keeping adequate record 4. Defect verification and appropriate correction 5. Regular review of individual processes 6. Facilitating continual improvement Benefits of ISO Registration 1. Increase in internal quality reduction of scrap, rework etc 2. Production reliability measure of breakdowns, time and shift management etc 3. External quality acceptance by customers, less claims, return of goods 4. Time performance marketing, delivery, production time etc 5. Cost of poor quality scraps and rework E.R.SIVAKUMAR-HD/MECH

192 GE 2022-TQM IV/VII MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 2) Explain about ISO 9000 Family - ISO 9000:2000 QMS Fundamental and Vocabulary - Basic QMS - Guidance document for certification - Revised in ISO 9000:2005 ISO 9001:2000 QMS Requirements - Design, development and installation - Customer satisfaction through products and service ISO 9004:2000 QMS Guidelines for Performance - Continuous improvement - Enhance the mature system Sector Specific Standards Need One system may not cover all industry Sector specific standard work in hand with regular ISO Work in tandem with certifying bodies of such industry AS for Aerospace industry. Boeing was the brain behind it. NASA, DOD, FAA Common in USA, Europe and Japan ISO/TS March 2002 Technical Specification System for Automotive Suppliers In collaboration with US big 3 Ford, GM, Chrysler with German, French, Italy and Japan Accepted by Asian automakers they benefit a lot. Helps in Continuous improvement, defect prevention, variation reduction and supply chain Levels ISO 9000, sector specific and company requirement TL QuEST Quality Excellence for Supplies of Telecommunications formed TL9000 Standards designed by Motorola, Lucent, Verizon, Southwest bell, AT&T. Along with ISO 9001 they have their own standard to deliver the need of customers 3) Explain QS 9000 ISO Requirements and Benefits Five Layers ISO 9001 Requirement Common TL9000 Requirement QSR Quality Standard Requirement HW Specific SW Specific Service Specific Common TL9000 Measurement QSM Quality Standard Measurement HW Specific SW Specific Service Specific Software products and related service AS9100 ISO/TS TL ISO/TS 29001:2007 ISO 14001:2004 ISO IEC 9003:2004 Aerospace industry Technical Specification for Automotive Suppliers Telecommunications Petroleum, Petro chemical and Natural gas Environment Management System EMS Electrotechnical Software products E.R.SIVAKUMAR-HD/MECH

193 GE 2022-TQM IV/VII MECHANICAL ENGINEERING Policy 2. Procedure 3. Work instructions 4. Records 5. Document Development Internal Audits Objectives determine actual performance, initiate corrective action, follow up, provide continuous improvement through feedback, Auditor trained profs, ASQ updates training, written and oral comm., honesty, unbiased etc Techniques Examine, Observe and interviews. Procedure check list, documentation procedure, priority list etc Registration Selecting a Registrar - ASQ member, Registrar Accreditation Board RAB. 1. Qualification and Experience Track record, client list, industry specific 2. Certificate of Recognition authenticity of the registrar, reference, customer check 3. Registration process structured process, help quality and productivity, efficiency 4. Time and cost constraints period of the process, additional fees etc 5. Auditor qualifications know the industry standard, types of process, knowledge. Interest etc 4)Explain QS 9000 ISO Concepts,Requirements Registration process Application for Registration Basic process with the authorised registrar. With initial supporting docs, fees, time frame etc. Mutuality Document Review Scrutiny of docs and QMS, compare with latest ISO standards Preassessment overview of docs with the process, identify major flaws Assessment Actual doing, certifies audit is compared with internal audit. Less scope for variation Registration verbal summary, audit findings, minor non compliances and feedbacks are recorded. Follow up of surveillance periodicity of future visit. Random checks, registration valid for 3 years 5) Explain ISO 8204 for quality. Totality of characteristics of an entity that bears on its ability to satisfy stated and implied needs. This means that the Software product delivered should be as per the requirements defined. We now examine a few more terms used in association with Software Quality. Quality Planning: In the Planning Process we determine the standards that are relevant for the Software Product, the Organization and the means to achieve them. Quality Assurance : Once the standards are defined and we start building the product. It is very important to have processes that evaluate the project performance and aim to assure that the Quality standards are being followed and the final product will be in compliance. Quality Control: Once the software components are built the results are monitored to determine if they comply E.R.SIVAKUMAR-HD/MECH with the standards. The data collected helps in

194 59 59 GE 2022-TQM IV/VII MECHANICAL ENGINEERING measuring the performance trends and as needed help in identifying defective pieces of code. Software Quality Management : Software Quality Management simply stated comprises of processes that ensure that the Software Project would reach its goals. In other words the Software Project would meet the clients expectations. 6)Explain key processes of Software Quality Management The key processes of Software Quality Management fall into the following three categories: 1) Quality Planning 2) Quality Assurance 3) Quality Control The Software Quality Management comprises of Quality Planning, Quality Assurance and Quality Control Processes. We shall now take a closer look at each of them. 1) Quality Planning : Quality Planning is the most important step in Software Quality Management. Proper planning ensures that the remaining Quality processes make sense and achieve the desired results. The starting point for the Planning process is the standards followed by the Organization. This is expressed in the Quality Policy and Documentation defining the Organization-wide standards. Sometimes additional industry standards relevant to the Software Project may be referred to as needed. Using these as inputs the Standards for the specific project are decided. The Scope of the effort is also clearly defined. The inputs for the Planning are as summarized as follows: a. Company s Quality Policy b. Organization Standards c. Relevant Industry Standards d. Regulations e. Scope of Work f. Project Requirements Using these as Inputs the Quality Planning process creates a plan to ensure that standards agreed upon are met. Hence the outputs of the Quality Planning process are: a. Standards defined for the Project b. Quality Plan To create these outputs namely the Quality Plan various tools and techniques are used. These tools and techniques are huge topics and Quality Experts dedicate years of research on these topics. We would briefly introduce these tools and techniques in this article. a. Benchmarking: The proposed product standards can be decided using the existing performance benchmarks of similar products that already exist in the market. b. Design of Experiments: Using statistics we determine what factors influence the Quality or features of the end product. 7) Explain about Cost of Quality. Cost of Quality: This includes all the costs needed to achieve the required Quality levels. It includes prevention costs, appraisal costs and failure costs. d. Other tools: There are various other tools used in the Planning process such as Cause and Effect Diagrams, System Flow Charts, Cost Benefit Analysis, etc. All these help us to create a Quality Management Plan for the project. 2) Quality Assurance : The Input to the Quality Assurance Processes is the Quality Plan created during Planning. Quality Audits and various other techniques are used to evaluate the performance of the project. This helps us to ensure that the Project is following the Quality Management Plan. The tools and techniques used in the Planning Process such as Design of Experiments, Cause and Effect Diagrams may also be used here, as required. 3) Quality Control : Following are the inputs to the Quality Control Process: - Quality Management Plan. - Quality Standards defined for the Project - Actual Observations and Measurements of the Work done or in Progress The Quality Control Processes use various tools to study the Work done. If the Work done is found unsatisfactory it may be sent back to the development team for fixes. Changes to the Development process may be done if necessary. If the work done meets the standards defined then the work done is accepted and released to the clients. Importance of Documentation: In all the Quality Management Processes special emphasis is put on documentation. Many software shops fail to document the project at various levels. Consider a scenario where E.R.SIVAKUMAR-HD/MECH the Requirements of the Software Project are not

195 GE 2022-TQM IV/VII MECHANICAL ENGINEERING sufficiently documented. In this case it is quiet possible that the client has a set of expectations and the tester may not know about them. Hence the testing team would not be able test the software developed for these expectations or requirements. This may lead to poor Software Quality as the product does not meet the expectations. Similarly consider a scenario where the development team does not document the installation instructions. If a different person or a team is responsible for future installations they may end up making mistakes during installation, thereby failing to deliver as promised. Once again consider a scenario where a tester fails to document the test results after executing the test cases. This may lead to confusion later. If there were an error, we would not be sure at what stage the error was introduced in the software at a component level or when integrating it with another component or due to environment on a particular server etc. Hence documentation is the key for future analysis and all Quality Management efforts. Steps: In a typical Software Development Life Cycle the following steps are necessary for Quality Management: 1) Document the Requirements 2) Define and Document Quality Standards 3) Define and Document the Scope of Work. 8)Discuss about ISO 9000:2000 Quality Systems? The term I S O refers to a set of quality management standards. ISO 9000 currently includes three quality standards: ISO 9000:2000, ISO 9001:2000, and ISO 9004:2000. ISO 9001:2000 presents requirements, while ISO 9000:2000 and ISO 9004:2000 present guidelines. ISO's purpose is to facilitate international trade by providing a single set of standards that people everywhere would recognize and respect. The ISO Standards apply to all kinds of organizations in all kinds of areas. Some of these areas include manufacturing, processing, servicing, printing, forestry, electronics, steel, computing, legal services, financial services, accounting, trucking, banking, retailing, drilling, recycling, aerospace, construction, exploration, textiles, pharmaceuticals, oil and gas, pulp and paper, petrochemicals, publishing, shipping, energy, telecommunications, plastics, metals, research, health care, hospitality, utilities, pest control, aviation, machine tools, food processing, agriculture, government, education, recreation, fabrication, sanitation, software development, consumer products, transportation, design, instrumentation, tourism, communications, biotechnology, chemicals, engineering, farming, entertainment, horticulture, consulting, insurance, and so on. ISO 9000 is important because of its orientation. While the content itself is useful and important, the content alone does not account for its widespread appeal. ISO 9000 is important because of its international orientation. Currently, ISO 9000 is supported by national standards bodies from more than 120 countries. This makes it the logical choice for any organization that does business internationally or that serves customers who demand an international standard of quality. ISO is also important because of its systemic orientation. We think this is crucial. Many people in this field wrongly emphasize motivational and attitudinal factors. The assumption is that quality can only be created if workers are motivated and have the right E.R.SIVAKUMAR-HD/MECH

196 GE 2022-TQM IV/VII MECHANICAL ENGINEERING attitude. This is fine, but it doesn't go far enough. Unless you institutionalize the right attitude by supporting it with the right policies, procedures, records, technologies, resources, and structures, you will never achieve the standards of quality that other organizations seem to be able to achieve. 9.Why do we need a Quality system? Explain? Organizations -- industrial, commercial or governmental -- supply products intended to satisfy a customer's needs and/or requirements... To be competitive and to maintain good economic performance, organizations/suppliers need to employ increasingly effective and efficient systems... Customer requirements are often incorporated in specifications. However, specifications may not in themselves guarantee that a customer's requirement will be met consistently, if there are any deficiencies in the organizational system to supply and support the product. These concerns have led to the development of quality system standards and guidelines that complement relevant product requirements given in the technical specifications. The cornerstone of the family is ISO 9000, which clarifies the principal qualityrelated concepts, and the distinctions and inter-relationships among them, and provides guidance for the selection and use of the ISO 9000 family. In order to assure the quality of a product, the manufacturer must ensure its quality. So, to ensure this quality it is necessary to make a systematic study and control check at every stage of production. It is also essential to take critical review of efforts and achievements of the company with respect to the quality of the product. Thus it is necessary to develop a standard quality system. The quality assurance system should provide for contract review to ensure that customer requirements are adequately defined and documented and that the company has the capability to meet these requirements. Quality assurance comes from process control. Therefore, quality assurance systems include documented procedures for production, installation, and service activities; the appropriate equipment and working environment; methods for monitoring and controlling critical quality characteristics; approval processes for equipment; criteria for workmanship, such as written standards, samples, or illustrations; and maintenance activities. Process control also includes monitoring the accuracy and variability of equipment, operator knowledge and skills, the accuracy of measurement results and data used, and environmental factors. Traditionally, quality assurance was a result of mass final inspection. Heavy reliance on inspection proliferated because of the industrial revolution and the division of labor. The role of the inspection department was to seek out defective items in production and remove them prior to shipment. Deming tried to eliminate mass inspection. According to him the true purpose of inspection is to provide information to control and improve the process effectively. Inspection and/or testing is performed at three points in the production process: at receipt of incoming materials, during the manufacturing process, & upon completion of production E.R.SIVAKUMAR-HD/MECH

197 GE 2022-TQM IV/VII MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 10.What do you mean by documentation? Explain the Documentation Hierarchy. ISO 9000 DOCUMENTATION STRUCTURE The documentation created for ISO 9000 registration is submitted to the company s 3rd-party registrar prior to them visiting the site to conduct the actual audit. In fact, one type of documentation is used by the registrar to develop the audit plan for your company. Structuring your ISO 9000 documentation to facilitate the audit process only serves to enhance the potential for a successful audit. This structuring will also make it easy for you to plan and monitor your documentation efforts, both for the registration audit and all subsequent maintenance audits. DOCUMENT CONTROL AND ISO 9000 Once the documentation structure has been defined and the documentation written, a strategy for controlling it must be put in place. ISO 9000 requires that documentation must be readily available to those who need it, be of current issue, and that all obsolete material be completely removed from the system. The control of documentation, from creation of new material through to the destruction of obsolete material, presents one of ISO 9000 s biggest challenges. It is also one of the elements audited by your 3rd-party registrar. DOCUMENTING ISO 9000 A thorough analysis of each element prior to writing ensures the resulting documentation will meet ISO 9000 s criteria. Specific characteristics exist for robust Quality Systems, and these must be clearly established within the organization. Since ISO 9000 registration is not a onetime occurrence, clearly documented procedures for maintaining a compliant Quality System must be in place. Historically, companies have produced policy and procedure manuals which, because they contained corporate policies, where often not made available to all employees. As a result, the procedures were also not readily available. ISO 9000 s requirement that procedures be readily available to all persons performing the work usually necessitate the separation of these procedures from the policy manual Perhaps the biggest stumbling block for North American businesses is the requirement to clearly define and document the processes that it uses. Developing documentation that tells HOW we do something is not new to us, but accurately describing WHAT it is we do is far less common. Most of our existing documentation is product or department based. ISO looks only at the processes used to create products, and these generally run across many areas of an organization. We can no longer write documentation in isolation, the whole organization must be considered when writing ISO compliant documentation. WHEN IS ENOUGH, ENOUGH? One of the complaints often heard about ISO 9000 refers to the large amount of documentation that is perceived to be required. While procedural documentation is important to the proper functioning of an effective Quality System, many companies tend to over document. First and foremost, you must remember that it is your company and the E.R.SIVAKUMAR-HD/MECH

198 GE 2022-TQM IV/VII MECHANICAL ENGINEERING documentation must fit the company, not the standard. The ISO 9000 series of Quality Standards does indicate key characteristics of a properly functioning Quality System, but how they are implemented is the responsibility of the organization. ISO documentation must reflect what the company does, not what it thinks the ISO auditor will want to hear. In determining whether procedural documentation is required, look at the skill sets of the people performing the task as well as any unique requirements the company may have for completing the task. In many cases, documentation will not be required because there is no unique process and/or the person has been trained in how to complete the task. 11.Explain the concepts of ISO ISO series Focuses on environmental management system that will ensure all operational processes are consistent and effective and will achieve environmental objectives of the organization. A company should review and continually improve its environmental management system, with the objective of improving its overall environmental performance Section 3.5 of ISO defines an environmental management system as "the part of the overall management system that includes organizational structure, planning activities, responsibilities, practices, procedures, processes, and resources for developing, implementing, achieving, reviewing, and maintaining the environmental policy. " Although ISO was developed independent of ISO 9000 to fulfill environmental rather than quality needs. An EMS is a structured plan to address the impacts a company or organization has on the environment. The EMS is implemented and checked to ensure that plan goals are being met. With the plan being revised to meet new goals, the EMS can guide a company toward continual environmental improvement. A basic condition for any EMS is compliance with applicable environmental laws, regulations, and permits. An effective EMS goes beyond compliance to provide an organization with a systematic approach to the development, implementation, and maintenance of an environmental policy. Through planning, implementation, checking, management review, and continual improvement, organizations become more effective and efficient in the management of their activities and the impacts of those activities on the environment. In response to widespread acceptance of the ISO 9000 quality management standards and to the proliferation of various environmental management systems, the International Organization for Standardization formed Technical Committee (TC) 207 to begin development of the ISO series of environmental management standards in As TC 207 carefully crafted the draft EMS standard (ISO 14001), companies around the world began to assess their existing environmental systems to learn what changes would be needed to meet ISO E.R.SIVAKUMAR-HD/MECH

199 GE 2022-TQM IV/VII MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 12.What are the benefits of ISO 14000? The ISO standard provides specific requirements for an EMS and shares some common management system principles with the ISO 9000 series of standards, including the "plan-docheck-act model" mentioned above and the requirement for top management commitment. The basic focus of the ISO series of standards is environmental protection, while the ISO 9000 series of standards focuses on quality and customer needs. It should be noted that ISO 9000 is not a prerequisite for ISO 14001, although companies that have both have successfully integrated the two management systems. An effective EMS provides many benefits to the implementing organization, its customers and stakeholders, and to regulators, including: Reduced environmental risk. Proactive environmental management. Improved employee environmental awareness and performance. Increased operating efficiency and cost-effectiveness. Increased operating efficiency and cost-effectiveness. Enhanced relationships and communication with employees, regulators, and Stakeholders 5. What are clauses in ISO 9001? Explain briefly. ISO 9001 defines 20 elements necessary for a quality management system, as listed below: Management Responsibility (Element 1) The company has to define its commitment to a quality policy, which is understood, implemented and maintained at all levels of the organization, and to define its quality goals. Responsibilities and authorities have to be defined and documented. The company must provide adequate resources and appoint a member of the management as a representative for quality management. At least once a year, a management review must be held and recorded to evaluate the quality system. Quality System (Element 2) A quality manual, covering all elements of the ISO standard, has to be prepared to document the quality system. Procedures must be documented and controlled. The company has to prepare a quality plan to ensure that quality requirements are understood and fulfilled. Contract Review (Element 3) The company has to establish and maintain documented procedures for contract review, to document the customers' requirements and ensure the capability to fulfill the contract or order requirements. Records of contract review shall be maintained E.R.SIVAKUMAR-HD/MECH

200 GE 2022-TQM IV/VII MECHANICAL ENGINEERING Design Control (Element 4) The company has to establish and maintain documented procedures to control and verify the design of a new product or service to fulfill customers' requirements. The requirements must be identified and there must be design reviews, design verification and design validation. Design changes shall be documented, reviewed and authorized. Document Control (Element 5) All documents relevant for quality have to be controlled to ensure that the pertinent issues of appropriate documents are available at all locations. When necessary, they are to be replaced by updated versions. Changes shall be reviewed and approved by the same organization/person that performed the original review or approval. Purchasing (Element 6) The company must monitor the flow of purchasing and evaluate the subcontractor's ability to fulfill specified requirements. Purchaser Supplied Product (Element 7) Goods supplied by the customer have to be recorded. It must be ensured that they are separately controlled and stored to prevent loss or damage. Product Identification And Traceability (Element 8) Where appropriate, purchased and delivered products or services must be made traceable through documentation or batches. Process Control (Element 9) All processes of production or service that directly affect quality must be documented and planned and carried out under controlled conditions to add consistency to the process. Control of process parameters and product characteristics must ensure that the specified requirements are met. Inspection And Testing (Element 10) The company must ensure receiving inspection and testing, in-process inspection and testing, and final inspection and testing. These inspections and tests must be recorded. Control of inspection, measuring and Test Equipment (Element 11) The items of equipment used for inspection, measuring and testing must be identified and recorded. They must be controlled, calibrated and checked at prescribed intervals E.R.SIVAKUMAR-HD/MECH

201 GE 2022-TQM IV/VII MECHANICAL ENGINEERING Inspection And Test Status (Element 12) The status of the product or service must be identified at all stages as conforming or nonconforming. This is to ensure that only conforming products or services are dispatched or used Control Of Nonconforming Product (Element 13) The company must establish procedures to ensure that nonconforming products or services are prevented from unintended use. The disposal of nonconforming products must be determined and recorded. Correctional Prevention (Element 14) Procedures must be established to ensure effective handling of customer complaints and corrective actions after identifying nonconformities. The cause of nonconformities is to be investigated in order to prevent recurrence. The corrective action shall be monitored to ensure its long-term effectiveness. Preventive actions are to be initiated to eliminate potential causes of nonconformance. Handling, storage, packaging and Delivery (Element 15) Documented procedures must be established to ensure that products are not damaged and reach the customer in the required condition. Control Of Quality Records (Element 16) All records related to the quality system must be identified, collected and stored together. The quality records demonstrate conformity with specified requirements and verify effective operation of the quality system. Internal Quality Audits (Element 17) The company must establish and maintain documented procedures for planning and implementing internal quality audits to determine the effectiveness of the quality system. The comments made by internal auditors must be recorded and brought to the attention of the personnel having responsibility in the area audited. Follow-up audit activities shall verify and record the implementation and effectiveness of the corrective action taken. Training (Element 18) The company shall establish and maintain documented procedures for identifying training needs and must have a training record for each employee E.R.SIVAKUMAR-HD/MECH

202 GE 2022-TQM IV/VII MECHANICAL ENGINEERING Servicing (Element 19) Where servicing is a specific requirement, the company must establish and maintain documented procedures for performing, verifying and reporting that the servicing meets the specified requirements. Statistical Techniques (Element 20) The company must establish and maintain documented procedures to implement and control the application of statistical techniques which have been identified as necessary for performance information. This structure looks very theoretical at first glance, but this is because ISO 9000 stipulates the elements of a quality management system for any enterprise, irrespective of its branch of activity. "ISO 9000 is not a prescriptive standard, it does not detail the how but rather the what. This allows each individual company to define how it intends to comply with the standard in a way that best suits that company's method of operation".it is possible that some of the elements are of no relevance or almost no relevance in specific sectors. For example, elements 11 and 12 are not relevant for AMS Salzburg, and element 15 is only marginally relevant The 20 elements (or the relevant ones) of ISO 9001 must be addressed in a quality manual and in operational procedures (possibly set out in a procedure manual) which comply with the standards set in the quality manual. The quality manual defines and documents the quality policy of the company. It is a statement of the company's intention to pursue a quality policy. The operational procedures set out the specific way in which ISO 9000 is implemented throughout the company's business process. Both types of document are required by ISO 9000: Almost every element of the standard requires records. Besides these, there may be other documents in the company, for example work instructions, specifications, check-lists, charts, data sheets, lists, forms and so on. Some of them are used to record events, but they are not directly required by the ISO norm, which allows the company a great deal of flexibility regarding whether or not to use such documents. AMS Salzburg, for example, decided to add work instructions (which define how an activity is performed) to documented procedures, as work instructions are liable to alteration. In the management of change, it is relatively easy to replace the work instructions addressed in the operating procedures, without touching the basic processes E.R.SIVAKUMAR-HD/MECH