From waste management to resource efficiency. Sweden's Waste Plan

Transcription

1 From waste management to resource efficiency Sweden's Waste Plan REPORT 6560 May 2012

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3 From waste management to resource efficiency Sweden's Waste Plan Report 6560 May 2012 SWEDISH ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY

4 Orders Order line: Order fax: [email protected] Postal address: Arkitektkopia AB, Box , SE Bromma Internet: Swedish Environmental Protection Agency Tel , fax [email protected] Postal address: Swedish EPA, SE Stockholm Internet: ISBN ISSN Swedish Environmental Protection Agency 2012 Printed by: CM Gruppen AB, Bromma 2012 Design: AB Typoform/Love Lagercrantz Illustrations: AB Typoform Photos: Gunnar Lidén (cover, small image) and Alberto Jiménez (cover, large image), John Evans (p.13), Felix Heyder/DPA/Scanpix (p.17), Robert Henriksson/SvD/Scanpix (p.37), Torbjörn Carlson/Sydsvenskan/Scanpix (p.47), Adam Ihse/Scanpix (p.67), Thinkstock (p.109), Jan Töve/Bildhuset (p.113)

5 Preface Pursuant to Directive 2008/98/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 19 November 2008 on waste and repealing certain Directives, the competent authority of each Member State is required to establish a waste plan. The waste plan must be evaluated every six years and revised as necessary. Section 83 of the Waste Ordinance (SFS 2011:927) requires the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency to draw up a national waste plan which fulfils the requirements of Articles 28 and 30 of Directive 2008/98/EC. The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency is required to update the plan on an ongoing basis and as necessary in order to keep it updated. This task has been carried out by the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency, and while drafting this report the authors have engaged in a dialogue with representatives of public agencies, trade associations and operators. The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency referred the plan to stakeholders for consultative purposes during autumn The plan has been discussed at meetings with the Swedish Waste Council. The waste plan was adopted by the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency on 16 May Preface 5

6 Contents Preface Contents... 6 Summary... 8 Why a waste plan? Purpose of the plan...10 Target groups...11 Policy under development Challenge and vision A resource-efficient society vision Waste management Sorting and collection of waste...18 Waste quantities...21 From landfill to incineration surplus...27 Future capacity for waste treatment The principles of self-sufficiency and proximity Objectives and clarifications concerning the waste field Environmental impact of waste management and treatment Instruments within the field of waste Towards greater resource efficiency The EU s waste hierarchy a starting point The waste hierarchy and the Environmental Code...39 What do we need to do? Sweden s Waste Plan

7 4. Priority areas Basis for selection...48 Objectives and measures From waste management to resource efficiency Summary of objectives...50 Waste management within the construction and engineering sector...53 Construction and demolition waste...53 Waste generated during construction works...58 Household waste Reuse and preparation for reuse Recycling and collection...72 Electrical waste and batteries...77 Litter generation...79 Resource efficiency in the food-chain Reducing food waste...83 Recovery of plant nutrients and energy from food waste Waste treatment End-of-life vehicles...94 Disused landfills...97 Control of atmospheric emissions from waste incineration Fires at waste storage sites Illegal export of waste to other countries Source list Appendices Contents 7

8 Summary We have good reason to be proud of waste management in Sweden. Landfill is no longer a primary method for the disposal of waste. Instead, an increasing proportion of waste is treated to recover energy and materials and enable reuse. Rules and routines have been established which set out how hazardous waste is to be dealt with and we have producers who take responsibility. However, good needs to become better within many areas - a lot remains to be done to limit the quantity of waste that is generated and to prevent the spreading of hazardous substances. Establishing systems for sustainable waste management and the effective natural resource management represents a major challenge given rising levels of consumption and cross-border global trade. This waste plan identifies a series of initiatives which must be implemented on the road to a more resource-efficient society. To a greater extent than previous waste plans, this plan places more emphasis on the need to reduce the quantity and hazardous nature of waste through preventing its generation in the first place. This is an area that is supported by the EU's waste hierarchy, which gives preventive work the highest priority. Experience shows that the most effective way of reducing resource consumption and environmental impact is to prevent the waste from being generated in the first place. Although recycling restores resources, it can only compensate for a minor proportion of the resources that are consumed and the environmental impact that arises in connection with the manufacture of new products. The plan sets out a number of priority areas where measures are needed. The environmental impact of the waste flows and the potential for improvement guided the selection of areas. Descriptions of objectives and the measures that can be implemented by various actors are presented within the following areas: Waste management within the construction and engineering sector Household waste Resource efficiency in the food-chain Waste treatment Illegal export of waste The measures are aimed at both public authorities and operators. Around forty actors are affected; see the appendix entitled 'Measures per actor'. The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency and Sweden's municipalities have important roles to play in the development of waste management and are affected by most measures. The aim is to rectify many of the problems that are currently associated with waste. This includes food wastage, insufficient 8 Sweden s Waste Plan

9 sorting of building materials, the leakage of hazardous substances from endof-life vehicles and the illegal export of waste. The plan is intended to supplement the Environmental Code and other waste legislation and to contribute to the attainment of relevant objectives within the environmental objective system. The plan's objectives are based on legislation within the EU 1 and are intended to bring about better resource efficiency and waste management. The government's interim objective for construction and demolition waste is for reuse, recycling and other material utilisation of non-hazardous construction and demolition waste to increase to 70 percent by weight by This figure is currently around 50 percent. The government has also established an interim objective for 2018 of increased sorting and biological treatment of food waste. There is considerable scope for environmental benefits within the field of household waste. This field encompasses many of the waste types which have the greatest impact on climate during their life-cycle. Examples are food, electrical and textile waste. The proposals in the plan include a strong initiative to increase recycling and reuse through information concerning possible environmental benefits, a review of applicable legislation and the promotion of partnerships with actors which collect and sell used products. In the plan, we present possible measures for increasing the collection of food waste and for reducing the amount of food waste. Examples of measures within other priority areas are: better supervision of end-of-life vehicles, preparation of an inventory and risk classification of landfill sites (Waste treatment) and inspections (Illegal export of waste). For many areas, promising initiatives and good examples with the purpose of inspiring others are presented. A wide-ranging dialogue with actors within waste management, research institutions and experts within various authorities forms the basis for the proposed measures in the plan. The approach to preparing the waste plan is described in Appendix Approach. 1 Directive 2008/98/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council. Summary 9

10 Why a waste plan? Definition of waste 'Waste' means any object or substance that the holder discards or intends or is obliged to discard. 3 A substance or object must be deemed a by-product rather than waste if it: 1. was produced in a manufacturing process where the main aim was not to produce the substance or object, 2. can be used directly without any processing other than processing that is normal in industrial practice, and it 3. will continue to be used in a manner which is acceptable from a health and environmental perspective and which does not breach any legislation or other statute. A substance or object that has become waste will cease to be waste (end-of-waste) if it has been handled in a way which involves recycling and fulfils the requirements regarding further use in accordance with provisions issued pursuant to Section 9 or 28 of Act (2011:734). From waste management to resource efficiency is Sweden's Waste Plan It supersedes the previous waste plan dating from 2005: A Strategy for Sustainable Waste Management Sweden's Waste Plan. An analysis of the effects of the previous waste plan is presented in the appendix entitled Evaluation of waste plan According to the Directive, all EU Member States are required to draw up waste plans. The countries must also develop special programmes for waste prevention, which must be completed by December In Sweden, the Swedish Environmental Agency 2 is responsible for drawing up and establishing national waste plans and programmes for waste prevention. For households in this plan, it is the households' waste that is covered and not what is defined in the Environmental Code as 'household waste'. The Environmental Code also covers household-like waste from activities. New terms used in the EU's Waste Directive 4 are "by-products" and "endof-waste". Both by-products and waste which has ceased to be waste are no longer classified as waste. In the plan, we focus on waste and its management. We have therefore decided not to consider these two terms further. Purpose of the plan The primary purpose of the national waste plan is to steer waste management towards greater resource efficiency. It contains objectives and a description of measures for a number of priority areas. The measures are intended to help reduce the quantity and hazardous nature of waste, better utilise the resources in waste, stop the dispersal of hazardous substances and improve waste management generally. In the waste plan, we also highlight what individual actors can do to achieve the objectives. Partnerships are also needed between many actors: municipalities, county administrative boards, public authorities, industry and the research community. The plan is based on a comprehensive consultation process with the actors concerned within the field of waste. The 2 Section 83 of the Waste Ordinance (2011:927). 3 Chapter 15 of the Environmental Code (1998:808). 4 Directive 2008/98/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council. 10 Sweden s Waste Plan

11 orientation and formulation of the waste plan have been discussed within the Waste Council and elsewhere. 5 The measures in the plan set out the direction towards a more resourceefficient society based on Sweden's environmental objectives and the EU's waste hierarchy. The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency will draw up a plan for the way in which we will monitor developments within the field. In the programme to prevent waste and the ongoing work within the field, the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency will continue to work on a number of the priority areas that are specified in this plan. In the programme, we will also draw up proposals for additional objectives, indicators and measures, and analyse the need for new instruments. Target groups The driving force of industry to develop products, services, recycling processes, etc. are important if we are to achieve a toxin-free and resourceefficient society. Politicians have a major responsibility to ensure that society is organised so that it is possible to prevent waste and so that waste management follows the waste hierarchy. The waste hierarchy shall apply as a prioritisation scheme for legislation and other instruments. Key target groups for the national waste plan are politicians and other decision-makers in municipalities and municipal companies, as well as decision-makers within industry. The plan provides guidance for everyone who is working to develop waste management in order to make it more sustainable and resource-efficient. It also provides guidance as regards which measures can be included in municipal waste management plans. Policy under development In June 2011, the government decided that a specially appointed investigator should review the field of waste. The purpose of the waste review 6 is to bring about waste management which is both effective for society in terms of resource management and the environment and simple for consumers and other user groups. The review is to primarily cover the organisation and responsibility for the collection and management of household waste, but certain aspects of industrial waste are also covered by the remit. The commissioned report is to be submitted during The national waste plan is to apply for the period The plan may need to be revised if the policy within the field changes. 5 The Waste Council is the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency's expert council for waste issues and consists of around 15 members from various areas of society. The Council is an advisory body only and not a decision-making body. On average, three meetings a year are held. 6 Directive 2011:66 Why a Waste Plan? 11

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13 1. Challenge and vision Why a Waste Plan? 13

14 We have much to gain from preventing waste. For example, if we reduce the quantity of household waste that is generated by just five percent, emissions of greenhouse gases would decrease by the equivalent of 300,000 tonnes of carbon dioxide per year. This is comparable with the emissions from the energy consumption of a medium-sized Swedish city (50,000 inhabitants). 8 The global population is rising, as is the number of countries experiencing economic growth. Historically, there has been a strong link between the quantity of waste that is generated and economic growth/consumption, i.e. waste quantities have increased when consumption has risen. The environment and climate are adversely affected. Demand for raw materials and minerals is increasing, yet the availability of many raw materials is decreasing at the same time. Influencing this development represents one of the biggest challenges of our time. In Sweden, waste management is considerably more resource-efficient today than it was during the 1990s. We have become much better at utilising the materials and energy that are contained in waste. The trend points towards rising quantities of waste, even though the objective within both the EU and Sweden is for quantities to decrease. There are scenario calculations which suggest that waste quantities in Sweden may double by 2030 if no action is taken to reverse the trend. 7 More waste is leading to higher overall costs and greater environmental impact from consumption and production, even though the management of each individual tonne of waste is actually improving. Ensuring that as little waste as possible is generated gives environmental benefits which are often considerably greater than the environmental benefits that the waste gives rise to through energy recovery or recycling. In cases where waste is generated in spite of measures, we need to become better still at utilising the materials and energy in the waste effectively. We also have a lot to gain from reducing the quantity of hazardous substances in waste. While the use of many of the most hazardous substances has ceased or decreased, the use of similar substances with somewhat less hazardous properties or with to some extent unknown environmental properties has increased at the same time. This applies to various types of flame retardant, plasticizers, etc. Large quantities of the most common heavy metals and pollutants also remain in products which have not yet become waste. Cleaner waste facilitates recycling and reduces the risk of the dispersal of hazardous substances from waste management. Working to promote resource-efficient material and waste management, free from hazardous substances, is important in order to achieve the overarching objective for environmental policy in Sweden. This objective is to hand over to the next generation (in 2020) a society in which the major environmental problems have been overcome, without causing increased environmental and health problems outside the borders of Sweden. Read more about the environmental quality objectives in the section entitled Objectives and clarifications concerning the field of waste. The Waste Hierarchy 9 in the EU's Waste Directive (see Chapter 3) shows how waste should be managed in order to achieve greater resource efficiency. As a general rule, resource efficiency increases, the further up in the hierarchy you go. 7 Östblom G, Ljunggren Söderman M and Sjöström M (2010) 8 Ekvall T (2008) 9 Article 4 of Directive 2008/98/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 19 November 2008 on waste. 14 Sweden s Waste Plan

15 A resource-efficient society vision What would a society within which waste quantities have been reduced and we have become better at utilising the resources in waste be like? Join us on a city tour in the year "The future is hidden in a veil of mist. We can't see. We don't know. But just for a moment, the fog disperses. Take the chance! Join us! We have ended up in a city. It is spring, with verdant greens and blackbirds singing. There is no rubbish to be seen rolling along the streets as the wind dances between the buildings. A man walks down the street with a pair of shoes in his hand. The shoemaker is just around the corner. It is cheaper to mend things than to buy new. A young woman goes up the stairs to borrow a drill from her neighbour. She has just moved in and was thinking of putting up some nice new bookshelves which she has inherited from her grandmother. We walk on and pass a rented house. The J family are going through their fridge to see whether they have any food waste which can be transformed into an exciting new dish. Refried beans, egg, pasta, cooked parsnips Well, something delicious can no doubt be made out of it. No food is thrown out unnecessarily. People do not want to waste resources. Skin, bones and other inedible things are collected in and turned into biogas. We continue and end up in a residential area. At the end of the street is a shed which contains the neighbourhood's shared tools. Lawnmower, hacksaw and axe. Why would everyone buy everything for themselves? By sharing ownership, we live more resource-efficiently and meet each other more often, leading to greater well-being. Back in the city centre. Two teenage boys are waiting for the clothes library to open. They're going to a concert tonight. If they borrow clothes, rather than buying new ones, they can go to twice as many concerts. At a café, in the shade beneath an apple tree in bloom sits an elderly man and an elderly lady, chatting about waste. "Imagine, in the past people used to throw away perfectly good things at the recycling centres. "Crazy," he says and puts his glass of orange juice down thoughtfully. "Yes, and the illegal export of hazardous waste. Thank goodness we managed to stop that, she says. They nod in agreement. It was no better before. Companies now design products so that they can be reused or recycled and they contain no hazardous substances. When buildings are demolished now, all materials are sorted at source. High-quality doors, cupboards and windows are recovered and reused. What cannot be used again is turned into new materials." The peek into the future is over. A dream. A vision. And a possible future. 1. Challenge and vision 15

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17 2. Waste management 2. Waste management 17

18 Changes in the management of waste in Sweden have been introduced gradually and have above all resulted in changes in the delegation of responsibility. During the 1990s, producer responsibility was introduced for packaging and news and pams (graphic papers). Since 2002, it has been prohibited to dispose of unsorted burnable waste at a landfill site. In 2005, the ban was extended to cover all organic waste with certain exceptions. We have replaced a system based on landfill with a system where the focus is placed on disposal with resource utilisation through recycling and incineration with energy recovery. In connection with the introduction of producer responsibility for various types of waste, the municipalities' responsibilities relating to waste have changed, partly through the abolition of the exclusive municipal right concerning the disposal of waste, both non-hazardous and hazardous, from undertakings. At the same time, the requirement for the sorting of burnable waste and the ban on the landfill of organic waste has led to greater demands being placed on municipalities and operators. The delegation of responsibility imposes requirements on partnerships between the various actors, but has also contributed to greater competition within the waste market. Sorting and collection of waste Household waste The municipalities are responsible for the collection and disposal of waste from households. The exception from this is waste that is covered by producer responsibility, which covers a high proportion of household waste in the form of paper, metal, glass and plastic. Among other things, producer responsibility means that producers must ensure that there are suitable collection systems and that a certain quantity of the waste undergoes recycling. In Sweden, we now have a statutory producer responsibility for eight product groups: packaging, tyres, news and pams (graphic papers), cars, electrical and electronic products (including incandescent bulbs and certain light fittings), batteries, pharmaceuticals, radioactive products and unclaimed radioactive sources. There are also voluntary undertakings similar to producer responsibility, for office paper and farm plastic. Today, the producers' collection system for packaging waste and news and pams (graphic papers) consists 10 of a nationwide scheme with recycling stations. Producers also subsidise the establishment of collection systems in residential areas where packaging waste and news and pams (graphic papers) are sorted and collected. Such collection systems are provided either by the municipality or by the property owner. The contractor that is hired by the municipality or the property owner delivers the collected waste to a collection point nominated by one of the producers. There, the collected waste is baled for forwarding and recycling. Behind the recycling stations is the limited company Förpacknings- och tidningsinsamlingen (FTI). A joint 10 Section 8 of Ordinance (2006:1273) on producer responsibility for packaging, Section 5 of Ordinance (1994:1205) on producer responsibility for news and pams (graphic papers). 18 Sweden s Waste Plan

19 usufruct agreement has been established with other suppliers of producer responsibility services concerning use of the recycling stations. FTI is owned by the four materials companies Plastkretsen, MetallKretsen, Returkartong and Pressretur. The companies have a collaboration agreement with Svensk GlasÅtervinning. The collection and treatment of packaging waste is financed via packaging taxes, which are paid by the producers who have decided to establish an affiliation with a materials company for each package that is placed on the market. Producers who are not affiliated to the material companies are obliged to take responsibility for collection and recycling themselves. Producers are responsible for ensuring that companies are given information on what they must do with used packaging. The municipality is responsible for ensuring that households are given information. The collection and processing of news and pams (graphic papers) is financed by the forestry industry. The municipality is also responsible for the disposal of bulky household waste. Bulky waste is often defined as the component of household waste which is heavy or bulky or has other properties which render it unsuitable for collecting in bags or containers. 11 In a report on the management of bulky waste in Sweden 12 it was concluded that the largest quantities of bulky waste are collected via the municipalities' staffed collection centres, or recycling centres, 13 to which households take their waste. Bulky waste that is not collected via the municipal recycling centres is instead collected from the property where the waste is generated. Collection systems within residential areas vary from municipality to municipality. They may involve the collection of bulky waste from special bulky refuse rooms provided by the property owner, or so-called 'campaign collections', where special refuse collection vehicles visit residential areas or towns on one or two occasions a year. A municipality may also offer collection to order or upon request. Both permanent and temporary containers may also be provided in areas of apartments where there are no bulky refuse rooms. 14 The increase in recycling has resulted in a relatively complex system for the collection of household waste. The current system requires sorting into fractions, depending on how the individual municipality specifies that sorting should be carried out (burnable waste, biological waste, bulky waste, plastic, metal, glass and paper packaging, newspapers, electrical waste, batteries, medicines, other hazardous waste and bottles and jars for recycling. This takes place both in the home and in the urban environment. SIFO surveys 15 show that households have become more satisfied with the collections (Table 1). They also indicate that both the services themselves and the collection levels could be further improved. 11 See for example Section 5 of NFS 2004:4. 12 Swedish Waste Management (2010). Report U2010: Normally known as recycling centres, but in some municipalities they are known as 'ecocycle centres' or 'reuse centres'. 14 Swedish Waste Management (2010), Report U2010: SIFO's Telefonbuss 2006 and Waste management 19

20 Table 1. Proportion of households (percentage) which are satisfied or very satisfied with collections. Type of waste Newspapers Packaging 80 a (plastic lowest, glass highest) Electrical waste Hazardous waste Bulky waste Food waste - 65 Batteries - 84 a In the 2006 survey, the questions were not subdivided according to packaging type. Source: SIFO's Telefonbuss 2006 and The households which in 2011 responded that the collections did not work very well gave the following reasons: Poor service/too far to walk/requires a car Collection centre untidy Poor information concerning sorting 45 percent 21 percent 14 percent One way of measuring availability is to carry out waste component analyses in order to determine how much waste ends up in the "wrong" system. An overview from 2011 of 246 waste component analyses shows that, in purely theoretical terms, around 60 percent of what is placed in household refuse bags could be sorted and undergo recycling. 16 The overview also shows that the collection system has a major impact on sorting. The highest sorting rates are seen for detached housing with collection close to the property. Here, the quantity of packaging and newspapers in the residual waste is half that of other households, and the total quantity of residual waste is almost 40 percent less. Commercial waste The responsibility for waste generated by undertakings has been transferred from the municipality to the individual operator. An operator is responsible for ensuring that its waste is managed in an acceptable manner from an environmental and health perspective. However, the operator is not responsible for management of the waste that is covered by the exclusive municipal right concerning waste that is comparable to household waste. In practice, this means that the municipality will dispose of waste that is comparable with household waste and that the operator will hire a contractor to dispose of the remaining waste. Alternatively, the operator may take the waste to the municipal recycling centre, where it will be accepted upon payment of a charge. 16 Swedish Waste Management (2011), Report U2011: Sweden s Waste Plan

21 As regards the collection of producer responsibility fractions, there are differences between small and large undertakings. In the case of smaller undertakings that generate insufficient volumes of waste, most municipalities offer the producers collection points to which undertakings can deliver their packaging free of charge. Larger undertakings often establish an agreement with collection contractors and pay for waste disposal themselves, or alternatively receive payment depending on the prevailing prices for the waste on the global market. Waste quantities The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency collates statistics concerning waste flows within society, the way in which waste is processed and how much waste is generated within different sectors. The statistics are used to monitor and evaluate measures within the field of waste, e.g. the Waste Directive's objectives at EU level and Sweden's environmental quality objectives. Every other year, Sweden reports waste statistics to the EU. The summary is based on information concerning waste which was generated two years before the report is submitted. More information on waste statistics, including methodology and quality descriptions, can be found in the appendix entitled Waste statistics and on the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency's website, Throughout the EU, almost 3 billion tonnes of waste are generated every year. Sweden accounts for a relatively high proportion of this waste. Per capita, Sweden lies in sixth place among the EU's Member States, with a quantity of waste per person which is more than twice the EU average. It is mining waste in particular which causes Sweden to generate such large quantities of waste. As regards household waste, Sweden, with approx. 500 kg per person and year, is neither high nor low compared with other EU countries. The corresponding figures for 2008 were 800 kg per person and year in Ireland and 300 kg per person and year for the Czech Republic. According to the waste statistics 17 almost 100 million tonnes of waste were generated in Sweden in Approximately 60 million tonnes consisted of waste from resource extraction, of which 83 percent was mining waste which was dumped close to the mines. Excluding waste from the resource extraction industry, the quantity of waste generated was 39 million tonnes. Of this quantity, 7 million tonnes were generated in connection with pulp and paper production. The energy, water, waste and construction sectors generated around 7.4 million tonnes of waste, while households generated around 5 million tonnes, the service sector around one million tonnes and the forestry, agriculture and fisheries industries approximately 300,000 tonnes. 17 The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency's Waste in Sweden 2008, Report 6362; Waste in Sweden 2006, Report 5868 and Waste in Sweden 2004, Report Waste management 21

22 Generation of waste, import: 0.7 Generation of waste, households: 5.2 Generation of waste, undertakings: 89 Waste for treatment Undertakings: 24.9 In-house treatment Undertakings: Recycling 2.8 Incineration 59.6 Landfill 0.1 Other disposal Figure 1. An overview of waste flows in Sweden (million tonnes). From Waste in Sweden Sweden s Waste Plan

23 Treatment of waste 9.4 Pre-treatment and sorting 4.8 Water treatment works 8.7 Recycling, including composting and digestion 6.2 Use as fuel 3.5 Landfill 1.3 Other disposal 6.9 Unknown treatment and other export 0.36 Export 2. Waste management 23

24 Of the 100 million tonnes of waste generated in Sweden in 2008, 76 percent was disposed off in landfills, 12 percent underwent recycling, 10 percent was used as fuel, and 2 percent consisted of untreated leachate. Based on these figures, it is apparent that Sweden is a country in which large quantities of waste are disposed of via landfills. The reason for this is again largely down to Sweden's mining activity. If the waste from mineral extraction is excluded, the picture is different. With this assumption, 15 percent is disposed of via landfill. Recycling accounted for 42 percent, 37 percent was used as fuel and 6 percent consisted of untreated leachate. The disposal of household waste via landfill in Sweden has fallen by more than in other EU countries. Just one percent went for landfill in Instead, the waste undergoes recycling or is incinerated. Waste from industry A large proportion of waste from industry originates from the resource extraction industry. It is dominated by our large mines and dressing plants and is by some margin the sector in Sweden which generates the most waste. In 2008, resource extraction accounted for almost 59 million tonnes of industry's total of around 70 million tonnes of waste. Other sectors which generate a lot of waste are the pulp and paper industry, which accounts for 7.4 million tonnes, and the metals industry, which accounts for almost 2.5 million tonnes. Collectively, other industry generates about as much waste as the metals industry. A considerable quantity of waste, 64.1 million tonnes, undergoes final treatment at the industrial plant where it is generated. Approximately one third (9.4 million tonnes) of the waste that is not treated at the location where it is generated is transported to special facilities, where it is pretreated and sorted. This is carried out in preparation for subsequent recycling, incineration or landfill disposal. Industry disposes and carries out the final processing of around 90 percent of its waste at the plant where the waste is generated. This is carried out in the first instance by the major industries such as mines, paper and pulp mills, as well as by iron, steel and other metal works. Some industries incinerate their own waste. This particularly applies to the paper and pulp industry, where bark waste and sludge are incinerated. The chemicals industry incinerates certain quantities of waste in the form of solvents. Internal landfill disposal primarily takes place within the mining industry, the paper and pulp industry and the manufacturing industry for metal and metal products. Approximately 9.4 million tonnes of waste pass through pretreatment or sorting facilities. This includes metal waste and scrap metal, paper and cardboard waste, ash, slag and other residues from incineration, plastic waste, mineral waste, hazardous oil and timber waste and mixed waste. Most of the sorted waste undergoes recycling, while a proportion is also sent for incineration and landfill. Household waste During 2008, households generated almost 5 million tonnes of nonhazardous waste. By far the largest component consists of what is known as household waste and other similar waste, which accounts for 2.4 million 24 Sweden s Waste Plan

25 tonnes. This waste primarily consists of ordinary household waste and bulky refuse which is delivered to recycling centres. Other major components are ordinary sludge - sludge from the treatment of municipal waste and other biological sludge products, newspapers, cardboard and corrugated cardboard, biowaste sorted at source which is sent for composting or digestion, glass and metal waste. This includes both general waste, which is delivered to recycling centres, and ordinary metal packaging, as well as hard and soft plastic. Waste that is composted by households is not included. The disposal of household waste via landfill in Sweden has fallen by more than in other EU countries. Just one percent went for landfill in Instead, the waste undergoes recycling or is incinerated. Quantity of household waste processed (tonnes) 5,000,000 4,000,000 3,000,000 2,000,000 1,000, Total quantity treated Incineration with energy recovery Recycling Landfill Biological treatment Hazardous waste Figure 2. Developments in the treatment of household waste; statistics from Swedish Waste Management. Hazardous waste Of the total quantity of waste generated in 2008, 2.3 million tonnes were classified as hazardous waste. Of this waste, the industrial, service and infrastructure sectors (energy, water, waste and construction sectors) all gave rise to approximately half a million tonnes of hazardous waste. The metals and chemicals industries are the industrial sectors which generated the most hazardous waste. The construction sector accounted for 274,000 tonnes, primarily in the form of contaminated soil and hazardous mineral waste. The energy sector's 235,000 tonnes primarily consists of fly-ash and waste from flue gas treatment in Hazardous waste The definition of hazardous waste is given in Section 3 of the Waste Ordinance 18. Hazardous waste is waste that has properties such as flammability, infectiousness or toxicity to people and the environment. Hazardous waste is indicated by an asterisk (*) in the waste list in Annex 4 to the Waste Ordinance. The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency may also issue provisions according to which other waste must be deemed to be hazardous waste. This will apply if waste has any of the hazardous properties in Annex 1 to the Waste Ordinance and there is no suitable asteriskmarked code in the waste list. 18 Waste Ordinance (2011:927) 2. Waste management 25

26 connection with waste incineration. Households also generate large quantities of hazardous waste (349,000 tonnes). Most hazardous waste generated by households consists of cars and electrical waste. Households therefore account for 15 percent of the hazardous waste. Various types of waste management gave rise to approx. 150,000 tonnes of hazardous waste. Table 2. Hazardous waste distributed between different sectors. Sector Hazardous waste (thousand tonnes) a Mineral extraction 3 Other industry 665 Services 590 Energy, water and waste 235 Waste and recycling 163 Agriculture and fisheries 19 Construction and engineering 274 Households 349 a The figures are in "wet weight" for the sectors which generate "wet waste". Source: Waste in Sweden 2008, Swedish Environmental Protection Agency Report 6362, Hazardous waste is relatively evenly distributed across a number of sectors. The service sector generates a lot of hazardous waste compared with nonhazardous. Import and export of waste A proportion of the waste that is generated in Sweden is sent to other countries for disposal. Sweden also receives waste. During 2010, 1,340,000 tonnes of waste were registered as being imported. A very high proportion of this waste was burnable waste which went for energy recovery, 1,080,000 tonnes (approximately 80 percent). This waste originated primarily from Norway. Approximately 100,000 tonnes went for metal recycling and 130,000 tonnes for other recycling. The quantity of waste registered as being exported during 2010 amounted to 470,000 tonnes. This includes fly-ash and flue gas treatment residues from waste incineration which is sent to Norway, around 20 percent. Not all types of waste that are imported into or exported from the country need to be registered with the competent authorities. The illegal transport of waste into and out of Sweden also occurs, but it is not clear what quantities are involved. For more information on the crossborder transport of waste, see the appendix entitled Cross-border transport and the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency's website. 26 Sweden s Waste Plan

27 Import/Import and Export/Export of waste (tonnes/year) 1,400,000 Imports Exports 1,050, , , Figure 3. Quantities of waste for notifiable transport into and out of Sweden. Treatment facilities A list of treatment facilities in Sweden is presented in the appendix entitled Treatment facilities. The list contains 'A' and 'B' facilities, i.e. facilities that have a permit issued by an environmental court (A) or those with a permit issued by a county administrative board (B). There are also many other smaller facilities that are notifiable to the municipality, known as 'C facilities'. C facilities are not included in the list, except in some cases where they were classified as either an A or a B facility prior to 2008, but reclassified as a C facility when the appendix to the Ordinance on environmentally harmful activity and health protection 19 was revised from 1 January From landfill to incineration surplus For many years, Sweden has had a capacity deficit as regards alternatives to landfill disposal. When the ban on the landfill disposal of burnable waste entered into force in 2002, the problem grew and some of the waste was therefore landfilled with a special exemption from the ban. The quantities of waste involved continued to increase during this period, which further increased the need for new capacity. In order to meet this need, treatment capacity has been considerably expanded, particularly as regards waste incineration. Capacity as regards biological treatment and recycling has also been increased. This has virtually eliminated the need to dispose of organic waste via landfill as a result of a shortage of treatment capacity. As recycling has increased, landfill disposal and the number of landfill sites has fallen sharply. The thresholds for the concentrations of various 19 Ordinance (1998:899) on environmentally harmful activity and health protection. 2. Waste management 27

28 substances that the waste must fulfil in order to be disposed of via landfill above ground have meant that certain types of waste cannot be disposed of in Sweden, as they do not meet the thresholds. This primarily concerns flyash from waste incineration, which contains excessively high concentrations of chlorides, among other things. It is exported to Norway, where it is used as backfill material in connection with the restoration of limestone quarries. Waste quantities fell during the financial crisis and economic downturn during the period The reduced quantities, combined with the substantial expansion in capacity, has resulted in a shortage of waste for the incineration plants. In some regions, this also applies to waste for digestion facilities. Despite the increasingly demanding competitive situation, there are in many cases plans to expand capacity for both incineration and anaerobic digestion. The level of interest in importing waste has increased and to some extent contributed to the capacity expansion. The Swedish waste incineration facilities have been filled through an increase in imports from Norway and an increase in the use of stored waste. In 2009, approximately ten percent of the capacity available for the import of burnable waste from Norway was being utilised. The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency believes that it is important to monitor this development and assess the consequences that this could have. Future capacity for waste treatment What quantities of waste will be generated years' time? What treatment facilities will we need then? The research programme Hållbar avfallshantering (Sustainable waste management) has created scenarios for quantities and treatment with various types of social development. All the scenarios indicate an increase in the quantities of waste being generated and the continuation of large quantities of waste being sent for landfilling and 20, 21 incineration. The policy that the EU and Sweden are marking out will require us to reduce waste quantities through preventing the generation of waste. The waste that is generated despite such measures must be managed in accordance with the waste hierarchy, i.e. first through preparing for reuse, followed by recycling, other recovery and finally disposal. If Sweden is to succeed in implementing this policy, we therefore believe that the capacity available for the anaerobic digestion of organic waste and recycling of various kinds must increase considerably over the next years, whilst the need for incineration capacity for Swedish waste will not increase compared with the current level. This conclusion is also supported by the various scenarios in the Sustainable Waste Management study which indicate the lowest increases in waste quantities. 22 The waste prevention initiatives will also result in smaller quantities of hazardous substances in products and materials. Even if we succeed in 20 Östblom G, Ljunggren Söderman M and Sjöström M (2010) 21 Ljunggren Söderman M (2011) 22 Ljunggren Söderman M (2011) 28 Sweden s Waste Plan

29 eliminating the most hazardous substances from all new products, they will remain in society for many years to come. We therefore believe that for the foreseeable future there will be a need to remove such substances from the cycle, through landfill disposal or incineration. The principles of self-sufficiency and proximity The Waste Directive establishes the principles of self-sufficiency and proximity. These principles primarily mean that within the EU there must be a network of facilities for the disposal (landfill or destruction through incineration) of waste and the recycling of household waste which makes it possible to process the waste within the European Union. This network must make it possible to process waste at one of the nearest facilities which has a suitable method for the waste concerned. Like all transport, the long-distance transport of waste has an adverse impact on the environment. This adverse impact should be set against the benefits or disadvantages for the environment associated with differences in treatment processes at the various facilities. For certain types of waste, there are only a few treatment facilities in Europe. The free mobility of goods and services, the rules concerning public procurement and rules concerning the import and export of waste are other factors which also impact on the choice of treatment facility. Objectives and clarifications concerning the waste field The environmental quality objectives describe the state of the Swedish environment that all activities should strive to achieve. The objectives must be achieved within one generation, i.e. by 2020 (2050 as regards the climate objective). Previous secondary objectives have been replaced by interim objectives, which set out steps on the road to achieving the environmental quality objectives and the generation objective. The government takes decisions concerning interim objectives. The clarifications must clarify what the objectives mean and are also used in the monitoring of the objectives. The idea behind the environmental quality objectives is that they will be monitored on an ongoing basis with the submission of an annual report to the government and an in-depth evaluation once per mandate period. Different authorities have a responsibility to monitor and evaluate various environmental quality objectives. In partnership with all the authorities which have responsibilities within the environmental objective system, the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency annually prepares a combined report for the government. The monitoring carried out for each environmental quality objective is presented on the environmental objective portal. Orientation for the generation objective The national generation objective states that the overarching goal of the environmental policy is "to hand over to the next generation a society in which the major environmental problems have been overcome, without causing increased environmental and health problems outside the borders of Sweden ". This means that the preconditions for solving environmental problems must 2. Waste management 29

30 be met within one generation and that environmental policy must be oriented towards the following states: ecosystems have recovered, or are on the way to recovering, and their ability to generate ecosystem services in the long-term has been safeguarded; biological diversity and the natural and cultural environment is conserved, promoted and utilised sustainably; human health is exposed to minimal adverse environmental impact, while the positive impact of the environment on human health is promoted; the cycle is resource-efficient and free from hazardous substances insofar as is possible, natural resources are conserved appropriately; the proportion of renewable energy is increasing and energy use is efficient with minimal impact on the environment; the consumption of goods and services causes the least possible problems for the environment and human health. The environmental quality objectives and waste management Many of the points above directly impact on the work relating to resource efficiency, waste management and hazardous substances. The environmental impact of waste also affects many of the national environmental quality objectives. Waste management is of greatest importance for the objectives Limited climatic impact, A toxin-free environment and A good built environment. Limited climatic impact The interim objective for limited climate impact states that, by the year 2020, emissions of greenhouse gases in Sweden from undertakings outside the system for the trading of emission rights must decrease by 40 percent compared with Estimates indicate that waste management accounts for approximately eight percent of total greenhouse gas emissions in Sweden. 23 The majority of these emissions consist of methane gas from the landfill disposal of degradable waste, but the incineration of plastic, the transport of waste and biological treatment of waste also contribute to the emissions. Current waste management has also meant that total emissions of greenhouse gases have decreased. Through the increase in recycling, we have been able to replace the new production of various materials such as metals and plastic. In this way, greenhouse gas emissions have been reduced and resources have been conserved. The incineration of waste can also replace fossil fuels, which also reduces emissions of greenhouse gases. 23 Sundqvist J-O (2010) 30 Sweden s Waste Plan

31 A good built environment The objective for 'A good built environment' is that cities, urban areas and other built environments must constitute a good and healthy living environment and contribute to a good regional and global environment. Natural and cultural values must be protected and developed. Buildings and facilities must be located and designed in an environmentally friendly way which promotes the appropriate management of land, water and other resources in the long term. According to one of the clarifications, the objective is intended to ensure that: waste management is effective for society, simple to use for consumers and prevents waste, and at the same time conserves the resources in waste that is generated insofar as is possible and minimises the impact of the waste on and risks concerning health and the environment. A toxin-free environment The objective for 'A toxin-free environment' is for the occurrence of substances in the environment that have been created or extracted by society not to threaten human health or biological diversity. Concentrations of anthropogenic substances are close to zero and their impact on human health and ecosystems is negligible. Concentrations of naturally occurring substances are close to background levels. The work to achieve the objectives under 'A toxin-free environment' has a major impact on waste management. Concentrations of hazardous substances in waste complicates the handling, processing and recycling of waste today. The impact of waste management on the scope to achieve 'A toxin-free environment' is difficult to assess and quantify, as the waste contains a considerable quantity of hazardous substances which can be dispersed into the environment in different ways. Discharges may also occur in connection with the handling of waste, e.g. through flue gases in connection with waste incineration or through leachates from landfill sites. Hazardous substances may also be spread in the natural cycle when they are present in small quantities in waste that undergoes recovery. Discharges can also occur in connection with accidents, illegal dumping or other incorrect handling of waste. Estimates indicate that discharges of lead, cadmium and mercury from waste management account for approximately 20 percent of all discharges of these substances into the atmosphere and aquatic environment in Sweden. 24 A high proportion of these discharges originates from the landfill disposal of mining waste. Interim objectives The government has established interim objectives which can govern and set out clear steps on the way to the societal changes that are necessary in order to achieve the environmental quality objectives and the generation objective. The following interim objectives are included as objectives in the plan: 24 Sundqvist J-O (2010) 2. Waste management 31

32 Greater resource efficiency in the food-chain The interim objective concerning greater resource efficiency in the foodchain means that by 2018 at least 50 percent of food waste from households, institutional kitchens, shops and restaurants must be sorted and treated biologically so that plant nutrients are utilised, with at least 40 percent being treated so that the energy is also utilised. Greater resource efficiency within the construction sector The interim objective concerning building and demolition waste means that by 2020 preparation for reuse, recycling and other material utilisation of non-hazardous building and demolition waste must be at least 70 percent by weight. This objective is the same as that in the Waste Directive; see below under Other objectives. Other objectives During 2009, the national objectives 25 for recycling and material utilisation for news and pams (graphic papers) 26 and almost all packaging types were achieved. 27 The exception was plastic, where recycling was slightly below the objective. The recycling objective for end-of-life vehicles was also achieved. 28 For electrical waste, collection amounted to 16.5 kg per Swede, which is well above the EU requirement of 4 kg per person. 29 Objectives have also been established concerning the reuse and recycling of household waste and building and demolition waste in the Waste Directive 30, which must be achieved by As regards household waste, the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency's assessment is that we will achieve the objective. However, this will be difficult in the case of building and demolition waste. See also under the respective sections concerning Building and demolition waste and Household waste - recycling and collection. The objective in the Landfill Directive 31 to reduce the amount of biodegradable waste which goes to landfill has been achieved by a good margin. 25 Swedish Environmental Protection Agency (2012). Report Ordinance (1994:1205) on producer responsibility for news and pams (graphic papers). 27 Ordinance (2006:1273) on producer responsibility for packaging. 28 Directive 2000/53/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 18 September 2000 on end-of-life vehicles. 29 Directive 2002/96/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 January 2003 on waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE). 30 Directive on waste (2008/98/EC). 31 Council Directive 1999/31/EC of 26 April 1999 on the landfill of waste. 32 Sweden s Waste Plan

33 Environmental impact of waste management and treatment Waste incineration Measured emissions of dioxins from waste incineration have remained within the range grams per year over the past ten years, 32 which represents a relatively small proportion of total dioxin emissions in the country. However, there is uncertainty concerning the actual atmospheric emissions of dioxins, because emissions are normally only measured twice a year. A high proportion of dioxins from the incineration of waste ends up in fly-ash which is disposed of as hazardous waste where the risk of leaching is considered to be low. In spite of this, it would be positive if dioxin concentrations in ash could be reduced further. In addition to fly-ash, residues of less contaminated slag/bottom ash remain after incineration. Fires at waste storage sites Atmospheric emissions from fires at waste storage sites may represent an important source of emissions. Fires occur at waste storage sites every year. Our knowledge of the magnitude of emissions from these fires is very inadequate, but as regards dioxins for example it may concern 3 8 grams per year, 33 which is greater than the combined emissions from all waste incineration in Sweden. Landfills Landfills concentrate large quantities of pollutants and environmental toxins in a limited area. Over time, these substances are leached out into the surrounding environment, causing a risk to human health and the environment through the pollution of land and water. Emissions of methane from organic waste from landfills still account for the majority of greenhouse gas emissions from waste management. The leaching of heavy metals from mining dumps also accounts for a substantial proportion of total discharges of heavy metals into the aquatic environment from waste management. 34 The magnitude of the environmental and health-related effects of a landfill will depend on its location, the safety measures that are put in place and the properties of the waste. At older landfills, large quantities of toxic substances can often be found which are treated much more cautiously today than was previously the case, e.g. heavy metals such as mercury and cadmium. Recycling Waste for recycling may also contain substances and materials which can pose health and environmental risks if the waste is disposed of incorrectly. In the case of recycling, the waste is often processed in several stages, e.g. 32 Swedish Waste Management (2010) Svensk Avfallshantering 2010 (Swedish Waste Management 2010). 33 Sundqvist J-O (2010) 34 Sundqvist J-O (2010) 2. Waste management 33

34 through separation, fine-distribution, heating and other techniques. Hazardous substances present in the waste (e.g. electrical waste) can be released during processing and cause health risks in the working environment for those working at the recycling facilities and also result in the dispersal of hazardous substances into the environment. Emissions of heavy metals account for a high proportion of the total heavy metal discharges into the atmosphere from waste management. 35 Biological treatment The environmental problems caused by biological treatment are atmospheric emissions of methane, nitrous oxide and ammonia and leachate discharges. There are also problems associated with odour. Methane emissions from biogas plants are normally small. 36 Transport of waste within Sweden Collection and transport are believed to account for around 8 percent of all emissions of greenhouse gases from the actual waste management process. 37 The dominant waste types are paper, metal and household waste which is collected at many sites in relatively small quantities at each location. Management of hazardous waste In 2007, the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency carried out a survey of the management and inspection of hazardous waste. 38 One conclusion from this survey was that most hazardous waste ends up where it should. Other conclusions were that the inspection authorities believe that undertakings are largely aware that their hazardous waste is disposed off by an approved recipient and that the inspection authorities also believe that nonconformities such as dumping or tipping are relatively uncommon. Although waste management is largely effective, there are deficiencies which need to be rectified in order to prevent people and the environment from being exposed to the hazardous substances that can be found in the waste. One example is that households could be better at sorting their hazardous waste. There are calculations which indicate that between 4,000 and 6,000 tonnes of hazardous waste are disposed of via household refuse every year. 39 There are also deficiencies in the management of hazardous waste by businesses, particularly in the case of smaller enterprises. The handling of end-of-life vehicles could be improved. The inspection authorities have reported that dismantling is not always carried out correctly. This could result in hazardous substances being dispersed in the environment and hamper recycling. 35 Sundqvist J-O and Palm D (2010) 36 Sundqvist J-O and Palm D (2010) 37 Sundqvist J-O (2011). Verbal communication. 38 Swedish Environmental Protection Agency (2007). Report Swedish Waste Management (2005). Report 2005: Sweden s Waste Plan

35 Instruments within the field of waste The Environmental Code's portal section and general rules of consideration form the basis for application of the EU's waste hierarchy. The waste policy and the existing instruments within the field of waste have effectively steered disposal away from landfill disposal towards greater energy recovery and recycling. Future instruments need to do more to guide waste disposal towards the other areas of the hierarchy, towards the prevention of waste. Instruments to promote recycling in Swedish waste legislation primarily consist of bans and taxes which discourage landfill disposal. The producer responsibility promotes sorting, collection and recycling of certain waste flows. There are also requirements concerning the sorting of burnable waste which promote energy recovery. In addition to the legislation, there are also political objectives which promote the biological treatment of food waste. Economic instruments in the form of government investment grants have also been a driving force. Together with the expansion of district heating, the tax on the landfill disposal of waste and the landfill ban have resulted in a reduction in landfill disposal and an increase in energy recovery from waste. Since 2010, the capacity available for the incineration of waste in Sweden has exceeded the quantities of waste that are available. This situation has led to lower gate fees being levied by the incineration plants. It has therefore become relatively cheap to incinerate waste compared with processing through recycling. The producer responsibility has contributed to a high proportion of packaging waste undergoing recycling. Vehicles, tyres, electrical waste and batteries are also collected via separate systems for recycling and safe disposal. A further aim of the producer responsibility is to reduce the amount of waste, but the effects of this are difficult to measure and the legislation has so far had a limited effect in this regard. It is also unclear as to how the producer responsibility has encouraged producers to design products in a way which makes them easier to recover materials from. The effects of the landfill tax are not unequivocally positive. Taxable landfill has undoubtedly reduced markedly, but it is uncertain how much virgin material has actually been replaced through the recovery of materials. The landfill tax promotes the recovery of waste. In some cases, it is also not clear whether the landfill tax is promoting waste management which is best from an environmental perspective. When waste is used in new ways, considerable demands are placed on the resources of the inspection authorities to ensure that the use is appropriate from a resource perspective. Use of the waste could for example involve a risk of hazardous substances being dispersed. Research into instruments within the field of waste is also under way both globally and in Sweden. The research programme Sustainable Waste Management has collated experiences from many instruments. 40 Sustainable Waste Management is financed by the Swedish Environmental Protection 40 Bisaillo M, Finnveden, Noring M, Stenmarck Å, Sundberg J, Sundqvist J-O and Tyskeng S (2009) 2. Waste management 35

36 36 Sweden s Waste Plan Agency and will be concluded during The programme is expected to result in the submission of proposals for new instruments, among other things.

37 3. Towards greater resource efficiency 3. Towards greater resource 37

38 Sweden's waste management functions relatively well. Major improvements have been made in recent decades and Sweden is one of the leading countries in the EU as regards material and energy recovery. The next challenge is to promote a more resource-efficient society. Many initiatives are under way within the EU to promote the more sustainable use of our resources and to reduce the use and dispersal of hazardous substances. The work to prevent waste is an important example which has clear links to the work relating to resource efficiency, sustainable consumption and production and also to chemical and product legislation. There are also obvious links with other work and other legislation, e.g. the EU's Seventh Environmental Action Programme and the Ecodesign Directive. 41 In this chapter, we present some general examples of what needs to be done in order to achieve greater resource efficiency. Chapter 4 contains a number of measures to improve resource efficiency in various waste flows, e.g. increased reuse and recycling. We will continue the work to draw up proposals for specific objectives, measures and instruments within the framework of the waste prevention programme, which will be reported to the EU by December The EU's waste hierarchy a starting point The preamble to the EU's Waste Directive states that waste policy should aim to reduce the use of resources and favour the practical application of the waste hierarchy. Resource efficiency is partly about utilising the ecosystem services as appropriately and efficiently as possible so that societal benefits increase without a corresponding increase in environmental impacts. Working in accordance with the EU's waste hierarchy 42 is one way of achieving greater resource efficiency. The five steps of the waste hierarchy: Prevention Preparing for reuse Recycling Other recovery, e.g. energy recovery Disposal, e.g. landfill The EU's Waste Directive states that the waste hierarchy is to apply as a prioritisation scheme for legislation and policies concerning the prevention and 41 Ecodesign Directive (2005/32/EC). 42 Article 4 of Directive 2008/98/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 19 November 2008 on waste. 38 Sweden s Waste Plan

39 management of waste. There must therefore be rules and instruments which govern waste management in accordance with the hierarchy. The Directive also states that when the waste hierarchy is applied, Member States must implement measures to promote the alternatives that give the best results for the environment as a whole and that it may be necessary to deviate from such a hierarchy with regard to specific waste flows where appropriate due to technical feasibility, economic vitality and environmental protection, for example. Prevention Preparation for reuse Recycling Other use, e.g. energy Disposal, e.g. landfill Figure 4. The five steps of the waste hierarchy: In general, resource efficiency increases, the higher up in the hierarchy you go. According to the hierarchy, waste must be prevented in the first instance. If this is not possible, the waste must be prepared for reuse, recycling or energy recovery. As a last resort, it should be disposed of at a landfill. The requirements of the Waste Directive concerning national programmes for the prevention of waste is one way of further emphasising the waste hierarchy. The Directive also contains express requirements on Member States to promote reuse and recycling. The waste hierarchy and the Environmental Code The government bill for the Environmental Code already contained text corresponding to that of the EU's waste hierarchy: "In the choice between reuse, recycling, energy recovery and disposal, the method that gives the best results from a resource efficiency perspective without overlooking other important environmental considerations should be prioritised. In most cases, this will mean that reuse is chosen before recycling and that energy recovery should only be used thereafter, which in turn should normally be preferable to disposal." As described above in the section entitled "Instruments within the field of waste", there is strong support in the Environmental Code for work to promote resource efficiency. Some examples of how the rules in the Environmental Code can be used to prevent waste are given below: In connection with the assessment of permits and inspections, municipalities and county administrative boards must apply the general rules of consideration in Chapter 2 of the Environmental Code. Chapter 2 Section 5 of the Environmental Code states that "anyone who carries on an activity or takes measures must conserve raw materials and energy and utilise the 3. Towards greater resource 39

40 opportunities that exist as regards reuse and recycling". With the support of the efficiency principle in connection with permit assessment, the permit authority may impose requirements concerning measures to promote reductions both in the quantities of waste that are generated and in the quantities of hazardous substances in the waste. This could for example concern the imposition of requirements concerning the choice of technology to reduce the quantities of waste generated and the use of waste/recycled material instead of virgin material, if the risk of pollution does not make it unsuitable. These requirements can be imposed if they are not deemed unreasonable (too expensive relative to the benefits) in accordance with Chapter 2 Section 7 of the Environmental Code. In connection with inspections, the inspection authority may carry out checks to ensure that the operator is following the efficiency principle. Municipalities and county administrative boards may also impose a requirement for the operator to acquire a knowledge of how the waste quantities generated and the hazardous nature of the waste can be reduced in the activity (pursuant to Chapter 2 Section 2 and Chapter 26 Section 19 of the Environmental Code). Such requirements may for example be imposed on a company that is to conduct an environmental impact assessment (EIA) and in connection with inspections. The relevant requirements for an EIA are set out in Chapter 6 Sections 3 and 7 of the Environmental Code. What do we need to do? In order to achieve a resource-efficient society, many different types of instruments and measures will probably be required. A reduction in new production would give the greatest environmental benefits. Although recycling is very valuable, it can only compensate for a proportion of the resource consumption and environmental impact that arise in connection with the manufacture of new products. There are already many examples of initiatives to promote reuse and recycling with the potential to replace new production. It is important to continue the development of instruments which help to reduce the consumption of new resources and materials. The environmental effects of manufacturing and use differ between different products and services. The handling of different types of waste affects the environment to varying degrees. The environmental benefits of reuse and recycling for example also differ between different types of waste. The instruments should therefore focus on the waste flows that have the potential to give major environmental benefits. The responsibility to increase resource efficiency and sustainable waste management is shared by many organisations at various levels within society. The initiatives that are needed can be summarised as follows: Prevent waste According to Article 29 of the Waste Framework Directive 43, Member States are required to establish a waste prevention programme by no later than Directive 2008/98/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council. 40 Sweden s Waste Plan

41 December In the programme, Member States must establish objectives for the prevention of waste. The aim of objectives and measures (pursuant to Article 29) must be to break the link between economic growth and the environmental impact that is linked to the generation of waste. The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency is working to develop a Swedish programme for the prevention of waste. This work includes an analysis of the instruments that should be used. Annex IV to the Framework Directive gives examples of measures which Member States should consider in the work relating to the programme for waste prevention. Some examples of measures are: The promotion of research and development into cleaner and technologies which favour resource efficiency. The promotion of ecodesign. 46 Economic instruments such as incentives for clean purchases or the introduction of an obligatory payment by consumers for a given article or element of packaging that would otherwise be provided free of charge. The promotion of reuse and/or the repair of appropriate discarded products or their components. A good example is food waste. Reducing food wastage reduces resource consumption throughout the entire production chain from the production of raw materials to the finished product. Despite the opportunities for anaerobic digestion and the production of biogas, there are considerable resource-related and environmental benefits associated with preventing food wastage. The recycling of food waste through biogas production and nutrient recovery only compensates for the resource consumption associated with foodstuff production to a limited degree. The production of biogas from food waste is estimated to compensate for just 10 percent 47 of the impact on climate caused by production of the food. Preventing waste The definition of waste prevention is given in Article 3 of the Waste Framework Directive. Prevention means measures taken before a substance, material or product has become waste, that reduce: a) the quantity of waste, including through the re-use of products or extension of the life span of products; b) the adverse impacts of the generated waste on the environment and human health; or c) the content 44 of harmful 45 substances in materials and products. Common to all preventive measures is the fact that they must be taken before a substance, material or product has become waste. This may involve manufacturing products which last longer and which can be repaired and reused. Incineration and recycling to reduce the quantities of waste sent for landfill are not examples of waste prevention measures. Many actors must work together in the work relating to prevention. Some examples of key actors are designers, buyers, producers and researchers. 44 In the Swedish translation, the term "halten is used, while in the English version "content" is used, which should be translated as "innehållet". 45 The term 'harmful substances' is used in the Waste Directive. We interpret this as being the same as 'hazardous substances' as defined in the chemical legislation. 46 In the work relating to waste prevention, ecodesign is used as a general concept, e.g. in Annex IV of the Waste Directive, where it is defined as: the systematic integration of environmental aspects into product design with the aim to improve the environmental performance of the product throughout its whole life cycle. It is therefore not limited to products and environmental aspects that are covered by the EU's Ecodesign Directive. 47 Hanssen O.J (2011) 3. Towards greater resource 41

42 Manufacture better (sustainable and recyclable) products It can take many years from the design stage of a product until it becomes waste. If we are to rapidly reduce resource usage, it is therefore important that today's products are resource-friendly. As legislation concerning producer responsibility, ecodesign and the ban on the use of hazardous substances is introduced and applied, the products that are available on the market change. However, experience shows that the development of better products is taking place relatively slowly and on occasions perhaps even in the wrong direction. Modern materials and products are rarely designed so as to facilitate reuse, repair and recycling. There is considerable potential for improving product design. Some examples are manufacturing products that last longer, making it possible to repair products and replace parts and optimising design and material selection. Possible instruments include requirements concerning longer guarantee periods and repairability. Economic instruments which reduce the costs associated with repair services are another example. Utilising the resources that are stored in society. One way of increasing resource efficiency alongside waste prevention and recycling is to utilise the materials which are available within society and which are no longer used, so-called 'urban mining'. A corresponding approach to landfills, known as 'landfill mining', is also possible. There is also potential to increase the collection of products that are stored in the home but no longer used, e.g. end-of-life mobile telephones. The key point is to utilise materials that have already been extracted in the most effective way. Focus the EU work on improved resource efficiency. Legislation aimed at increasing reuse and recycling will not necessarily impact on trade between EU member states. It is therefore possible to regulate this at national level. However, legislation aimed at reducing resource consumption through, for example, the regulation of design, sale and use of products needs to be common to the whole of the EU. The participation of Sweden in the EU within areas that directly or indirectly impact on waste management should therefore be focussed on preventive measures, such as product design. Initiatives are also required to contribute to and support the EU's flagship for resource efficiency 48 (within EU 2020), which contains a route map for a more resource-efficient society. 49 The initiative is a broad one and will help to break the link between economic growth and resource use. Resources must be used sustainably and the environmental effects must be minimised. The route map for a resource-efficient Europe contains milestones which set out what needs to be done in order to get us on the right path. Measures are also required in the short term to kick-start the process. Two of the milestones are to achieve the following by 2020: 48 COM (2011) COM (2011) Sweden s Waste Plan

43 Waste is managed as a resource and the quantity of waste that each person generates has reduced. The recycling and reuse of waste is a financially profitable alternative for public and private sector organisations as a result of the widespread sorting of waste at source and functional markets for secondary raw materials. More materials are recycled, including materials with substantial environmental effects and raw materials of vital importance. The waste legislation has been fully implemented. The illegal transport of waste no longer occurs. Energy recovery is limited to materials which cannot be recycled; landfilling has been virtually eliminated and high-quality material recycling is safeguarded. The quantity of edible food that is discarded within the EU should have halved. Work to increase high-quality recycling in the long-term. Recycling is an important step on the road to greater resource efficiency. We need to work with a long-term perspective to ensure that recycling increases and recycled materials are of such good quality that they become an attractive alternative to new raw materials in connection with manufacturing. Some of the challenges in the work are described below. Many of today's products contain substances which can be harmful to health or the environment. Hazardous substances may also be dispersed in the natural cycle when they are present in waste that is sent for recycling. As recycling increases, it is becoming increasingly important to assess the risks associated with hazardous substances in waste for recycling. In the case of waste which contains hazardous substances, it is in some cases justifiable to deviate from the waste hierarchy and incinerate or landfill waste instead. To ensure that recycling increases without an associated risk of people and the environment being exposed to hazardous substances, we need to review how instruments intended to promote recycling should be formulated. The instruments should be formulated to increase the availability of and trust in recycled materials and to make them an attractive alternative to new raw materials. Economic instruments which discourage landfill and incineration may promote recycling without taking into consideration the quality of the recycling. In some cases, this may lead to less demanding requirements concerning the quality of the material, with the result that contaminated soils may also be used. In turn, this may mean that environmental and health protection requirements may need to be introduced for new areas of use. Some form of instrument is required to prevent an increase in recycling from being hindered by the overcapacity that is developing within waste incineration. As facilities and infrastructure for waste management involve substantial investment, such an instrument must be long term and there must be no uncertainty over whether it will remain in force. Coordination should take place with economic instruments within energy policy. 3. Towards greater resource 43

44 Strengthen the links between waste and product legislation. Current waste legislation contains rules which require hazardous substances in waste to be dealt with in an acceptable manner as regards the environment and health. Some of these regulate the removal of hazardous substances and components prior to recycling. Waste legislation is weaker as regards the use of recycled materials in new products. When recycled materials are used as a raw material, it is the product legislation which applies instead. It is this legislation which must ensure that recycled hazardous substances are not used in toys, food packaging and food products, for example. In some cases, recycled materials may contain substances/contaminants which are not present in the virgin material that it replaces. As there is no general product legislation which regulates the content of hazardous substances in recycled materials, there may be a risk that these substances/contaminants will be passed on to the new product. When the use of a hazardous substance is prohibited in new products, it may remain in waste for many years to come. The issue of better coordination between waste, product and chemical legislation was brought up in the government-commissioned report Bättre EU-regler för en giftfri miljö (Better EU rules for a toxin-free environment), published by the Swedish Chemicals Inspectorate in collaboration with the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency in February The report presents strategies and proposals for regulations concerning waste and chemicals. Some examples are: A new EU strategy for toxin-free and resource-efficient cycles and improved coordination between waste, product and chemical legislation. Sweden should work towards a strategy within the EU which is aimed at achieving resource-efficient cycles which are free from hazardous substances insofar as is possible. The strategy should improve the coordination between waste, chemical and product legislation and safeguard the safe use of recycled materials from a health and environmental perspective. In the work relating to the strategy, Sweden should particularly highlight the following objectives: Substances that are difficult to recycle should not be used Measures and instruments to promote recycling should focus on the materials which are most valuable from a resource efficiency perspective and which have a low content of hazardous substances. In order to promote recycling which is sustainable in the long term, identical requirements must be imposed on recycled and newly produced materials with regards to their content of hazardous substances. 44 Sweden s Waste Plan

45 A new instrument analysis will improve the coordination and simplify the rules The Swedish Chemicals Inspectorate and the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency intend to initiate an analysis of the following issues: Which instruments and measures are most effective and appropriate for regulating hazardous substances in a life-cycle perspective? Which instruments and measures are most appropriate for achieving synergies between the elimination of toxins and resource efficiency? How can we ensure that the decisions in the various regulations all pull in the same direction? Such an analysis represents an important basis for the work on a strategy which will improve the coordination between the waste, chemicals and product legislation. The results of the analysis are needed in order to bring about better coordination between the provisions in the chemicals, product and waste legislations and can be initiated nationally and then utilised and developed at EU level. The full report to the government can be found on the Swedish Chemicals Inspectorate's website. Increase the level of knowledge and the communication of risks relating to hazardous substances Extensive work is under way to increase our knowledge and disseminate information concerning hazardous substances in products, e.g. through the EU's chemicals legislation, REACH. This information should be formulated and disseminated so that it can also be used within the field of waste. As recycling increases, it is becoming increasingly important to assess the risks associated with hazardous substances in waste for recycling. Our knowledge of which hazardous substances can be found in older products is often inadequate and our knowledge of the content of waste is often even worse. The early identification of products whose content of hazardous substances makes them difficult to dispose of may contribute to a reduction in the use of hazardous substances. 3. Towards greater resource 45

46

47 4. Priority areas 4. Priority areas 47

48 Developments within Swedish waste management show many positive trends. However, we need to become better at reducing the quantities and hazardous nature of waste. We need to reduce the risk of dispersing hazardous substances and improving waste management generally within certain sectors. It must also be made easier for households to sort waste. Against the background of the identified deficiencies and the scope for improvements with regard to the management of resources and the environment, measures within the following areas are prioritised in this plan: Waste management within the construction and engineering sector Household waste Resource efficiency in the food-chain Waste treatment Illegal export of waste Basis for selection All the above areas are prioritised on the basis of the potential for improvements. As regards the first three areas, there are also recycling objectives in the Waste Directive and/or interim objectives for the environmental quality objectives. If the government establishes additional interim objectives concerning the prioritised areas, these will be implemented in the national waste plan. The areas were selected in consultation with actors within the field of waste during the comprehensive anchoring of the plan which took place. IVL Swedish Environmental Research Institute 50 has assessed the environmental impact of various waste flows based on the waste statistics that are reported to the EU. This assessment shows that mixed waste from the construction sector, among others, and household waste are the waste types which generate the largest emissions of greenhouse gases in terms of total emissions from production, resource extraction and waste management. The calculations concern total quantities. Per tonne of waste, electrical waste accounts for the largest greenhouse gas emissions, followed by textile waste. Measures to increase the opportunities for preventing and recycling these types of waste have the potential to generate substantial environmental benefits. The Royal Institute of Technology has also studied the potential to increase recycling. This study shows that there is theoretically considerable potential to increase recycling, particularly the recycling of paper and plastic (Figure 5). 51 These fractions are found in both household waste and in mixed waste from establishments and undertakings. Waste from construction and demolition accounts for the largest quantities of mixed waste from undertakings. Other activities which generate mixed fractions include small businesses, shops, camping sites, hospitals, ports, the armed forces, etc. 50 Sundqvist, J-O and Palm D (2010) 51 Ambell C, Björklund B and Ljunggren Söderman M (2010) 48 Sweden s Waste Plan

49 Total quantity of waste in Sweden in 2006 (ktonnes) 1,600 1,400 1,200 1, Paper Metal Plastic Glass Gypsum Textiles Rubber Source-sorted Household waste and other similar waste Mixed undifferentiated materials Figure 5. Total quantities of waste in Sweden in 2006 for seven material fractions. The sorted fraction (black) goes for recycling. The white (household waste) and grey (commercial waste) parts of the columns concern the quantities that are sent for incineration. From Industriavfall, Christine Ambell, Anna Björklund, Maria Ljunggren Söderman (2010). As regards construction and demolition waste, household waste and resource efficiency in the food-chain, the objectives and measures primarily concern increasing resource efficiency. There are areas where there is considerable potential for reducing emissions of greenhouse gases to prevent, reuse and recycle waste to a greater extent. As regards waste treatment and illegal export, the measures are in the first instance aimed at reducing the dispersal of hazardous substances (see the section on the environmental impact of waste management). Table 3. The table indicates where the potential for improvements lies within the prioritised areas. Area Construction and demolition waste Potential to increase resource efficiency X Potential to reduce the dispersal of hazardous substances X Household waste X (X) Resource efficiency in the food-chain X Waste treatment (X) X Illegal export of waste (X) X X= considerable potential, (X) = less potential 4. Priority areas 49

50 The plan contains no measures concerning mining waste, despite the large quantities and substantial environmental impact in this area. The handling of mining waste is closely linked to mining operations in general and should be managed in this context. The EU's Directive on the management of waste from extractive industries has recently been introduced into Swedish law and has begun to be applied. As a result, the management of mining waste is not considered further in this plan, despite its considerable environmental impact. Objectives and measures From waste management to resource efficiency Objectives and measures are proposed for all prioritised areas. Unless stated otherwise, the objective year is The objectives are indicated by the government's interim objectives to the environmental quality objectives or by the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency: = Interim objective to the environmental quality objectives. = The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency's objective, indicates what should be achieved within the area. Within the prioritised areas, there are, in addition to these objectives, a series of other objectives in various directives and ordinances (e.g. the producer responsibility ordinances). The measures in the plan give examples of what different actors need to do to ensure that the objectives are achieved. Some of the measures are requirements that already exist in law, but where compliance may be deficient. Other measures are voluntary. The measures are aimed at both authorities and operators. In total, it concerns some forty different actors. The actors that are affected by most measures are the municipalities and the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency. A list of the measures being proposed for each actor is presented in the appendix entitled 'Measures per actor'. The objectives and measures for the prioritised areas should be used as a guide in the municipalities' waste planning, where local circumstances and challenges also impact on the direction. In municipalities where construction activity is limited, for example, there is also no need for specific objectives and measures for this area for obvious reasons. There are also good examples within many areas. They are intended to provide inspiration and show what can be done. Summary of objectives Waste management within the construction and engineering sector Construction and demolition waste By 2020, preparation for reuse, recycling and other recovery of non-hazardous construction and demolition waste must be at least 70 percent by weight. 50 Sweden s Waste Plan

51 Waste in construction works The use of waste and materials in construction works that is safe from an environmental and health perspective shall increase. Household waste Reuse and preparation for reuse The reuse of household waste shall increase, partly through it becoming easier for households to deliver materials and products for reuse or for preparation for reuse. Textiles The reuse of textiles and recycling of textile waste shall increase. Recycling and collection The recycling of household waste shall increase and at least 90 percent of households shall be satisfied with collections. Electrical waste and batteries The collection of electrical waste for recycling shall increase, particularly as regards small items of electrical waste. Litter generation Litter generation shall decrease in urban areas, in natural areas and along coasts. Resource efficiency in the food-chain Reduced food waste food waste shall decrease. Recovery of plant nutrients and energy from food waste By 2018, at least 50 percent of food waste from households, institutional kitchens, shops and restaurants shall be sorted and processed biologically so that plant nutrients are utilised, with at least 40 percent being processed so that energy is also utilised. Waste treatment End-of-life vehicles All end-of-life vehicles shall be delivered to authorised vehicle dismantlers and the decontamination and dismantling of end-of-life vehicles shall be improved. Closed landfills The risk of adverse environmental impacts from closed landfills shall decrease. All municipalities and county administrative boards shall have identified, listed and risk-classified all closed landfills. 4. Priority areas 51

52 Control of atmospheric emissions from waste incineration Facilities which incinerate waste 52 shall continuously sample emissions of dioxins and furans. Fires at waste storage sites All waste shall be stored and subject to controls in such a way that fires at waste storage sites do not occur. Illegal export of waste to other countries No illegal transport of waste from Sweden shall occur. 52 The objective encompasses facilities which receive household waste or waste which contains not insignificant quantities of halogens and metals, e.g. waste which consists of mixed fractions from undertakings (such as construction and demolition, etc.). Facilities which only receive clean timber waste or other biofuels are not covered by the objective. 52 Sweden s Waste Plan

53 Waste management within the construction and engineering sector Large quantities of waste are generated and used in the construction and engineering sector. Substantial environmental benefits can be achieved by preventing, preparing for reuse and recycling the waste to a greater extent. The objectives set out in the Waste Directive concerning the reuse and recycling of construction and demolition waste show that the EU is prioritising the issue. The chapter consists of two parts. The first part concerns waste which is generated in connection with construction and demolition work. The second part concerns waste which is used in engineering works, e.g. in connection with road building or as fill material or alternatively as construction material at landfills. Some of the waste that is used in connection with construction works consists of mineral waste from the construction and demolition sector. This includes concrete. This waste is covered by the EU's objectives for construction and demolition waste. Waste that is sometimes used in engineering works, but which is generated in other sectors, is not covered. This concerns mining waste, dredged sediments and ash. Construction and demolition waste The construction and demolition sector generates large quantities of mixed waste, which should be reused and recycled to a greater extent. The sector also generates considerable quantities of hazardous waste. According to the waste statistics from 2008, ten percent consists of hazardous waste. In order to improve the management of waste, construction materials must be manufactured so that it is possible to separate and sort, the content of hazardous substances must be limited and information concerning materials and construction products that have been used in a building must be made available. Objectives By 2020, preparation for reuse, recycling and other recovery of nonhazardous construction and demolition waste must be at least 70 percent by weight. 4. Priority areas 53

54 Interpretation and monitoring The objective includes the use of waste as fill material in connection with the restoration of land or landscaping. The precondition is that such use actually replaces other material. Energy recovery is not included in the objective, nor is the recycling of clean soil and aggregates or hazardous waste. The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency will monitor the objective based on the national waste statistics. In 2010, approximately 50 percent of construction and demolition waste was recycled according to the waste statistics, but the information is subject to considerable uncertainty. What needs to happen The reuse and recycling of construction and demolition waste needs to increase. For this to happen, better sorting of waste for both reuse and recycling is required, particularly in connection with demolition. In the case of demolition, the inventory of buildings needs to improve. Materials that can be reused and recycled must be identified. It must also be possible to sort out hazardous waste. What the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency will do Continue the work to compile reliable statistics for construction and demolition waste. Prepare guidance concerning the way in which the general rules of consideration in the Environmental Code and the waste hierarchy should be applied in connection with inspections of the management of construction and demolition waste, and how the cooperation between municipal construction boards and environmental boards can be developed. Monitor developments and, when necessary, propose additional measures and instruments to achieve the EU's recycling objectives. Examples of what other actors need to do The building and property sector Keep the sector's guidelines updated in accordance with, among other things, the clearer requirements concerning prevention and reuse. Property owners and developers Impose clear requirements concerning competence on those who are to prepare inventories of buildings prior to demolition. Further standardisation work will probably be required. Through planning, create the necessary preconditions to ensure that the inventories provide an adequate basis prior to the demolition stage and ensure that the results are taken further throughout the entire demolition process. Impose requirements concerning the handling of construction and demolition waste in procurement and monitor to ensure compliance with the requirements. 54 Sweden s Waste Plan

55 Property owners/developers and the demolition industry collectively Evaluate the current certification requirements for the environmental inventory of properties and, when necessary, develop the requirements as regards the preparation of inventories prior to demolition. Developers and construction contractors Impose a requirement according to which construction materials must not contain hazardous substances which could hinder the recycling and management of construction and demolition waste. Develop the sorting of waste at source and identify solutions as regards the possible reuse of surplus construction materials, e.g. through delivering it to a common recipient and retailer, instead of for waste recycling. Demolition enterprises Ensure that information from the inventory and instructions for the demolition process reach everyone concerned and develop methods which encourage the correct sorting of the waste. The recycling industry Develop systems for the reuse of construction and demolition materials. Together with developers, the demolition industry and material users, continue to develop systems for the quality assurance of recycled materials. The construction materials industry Invest in the development of construction materials which can easily be reused and recycled through, for example, making them easy to separate and avoiding hazardous substances in particular. Invest in the development of techniques to increase the use of recycled construction materials in new products. The municipalities Carry out inspections concerning the management of construction and demolition waste and create routines so that the environmental protection department is informed in connection with the preparation of inventories and when demolition is commenced. National Board of Housing, Building and Planning Prepare guidance concerning the revised requirements of the Swedish Planning and Building Act concerning the management of construction and demolition waste. 4. Priority areas 55

56 Good examples Guidelines for waste management in connection with construction and demolition The construction sector's Ecocycle Council has drawn up guidelines for the construction and property sector's working methods as regards the management of waste from the construction and demolition of houses. These guidelines mean, among other things, that: there is a base level for the sorting of waste at source, the quantity of waste for retrospective sorting or landfill must be minimised, an inventory of all materials must be prepared in connection with all demolitions, a waste management plan must be prepared in connection with all construction and demolition projects, requirements must be imposed on contractors in connection with procurement relating to waste management and that waste management must be monitored. Construction material declarations Many manufacturers and suppliers of construction materials have drawn up construction material declarations for their products in accordance with the guidelines issued by the Ecocycle Council. The declarations are primarily intended to be used for environmental assessments of the use of particular construction materials. They can also be used to document the environmental properties of built-in materials and provide a basis for future inventory and demolition. Environmental certification of buildings An increasing number of property owners and developers are certifying their buildings today. There are more certification systems available which include the management of waste during the construction process itself. The systems also include chemical use, which in the long term will have an effect when the building is to be inventory and demolished. BASTA BASTA is a system which is intended to lead to the phasing out of hazardous substances from construction products. The chemical composition of the products must meet a number of requirements concerning properties in order for the product to be registered in the system's database. Anyone who is choosing products can easily search in the database without having to be a chemicals expert. All waste management in contracts Some of the major construction companies also arrange for recycling companies to take responsibility for waste management at the construction site. This improves the quality of the fractions sorted at source. It also reduces 56 Sweden s Waste Plan

57 the overall cost of waste management. As the employees can also carry out other service-oriented tasks, the model can also be used for smaller projects. Situation description The statistics concerning construction and demolition waste are inadequate. However, they do show that mineral waste accounts for the vast majority, almost 80 percent, of such waste. The composition of construction and demolition waste varies depending on where the waste is generated. For example, a high proportion of construction and demolition waste from new build and alterations consists of wood waste which goes to energy recovery. The inadequacy of the statistics mean that it is not possible at the present time to say with any certainty how far from the EU's recycling objectives Sweden actually is. The principal reason for this is the uncertainty associated with the way in which mineral waste such as concrete, brick and asphalt is dealt with. A proportion is used for construction purposes, while another fraction is disposed of on landfill. The distribution is unknown. Assuming that the distribution is the same as for mineral waste, the recycling of all construction and demolition waste is currently around 50 percent. The management of mineral waste is decisive as regards the possibility of achieving the recycling objective, as it is such a dominant fraction. However, this does not mean that the handling of other waste is of no significance as regards the fulfilment of the requirements in the Framework Directive. Other waste must also be recycled in order to ensure that the objective is achieved, and the Directive imposes requirements concerning greater reuse and recycling in general. The fact that not all construction and demolition waste is currently recycled is also the result of a lack of a suitable technique for recycling certain waste types and fractions that are not entirely uncontaminated. As it is often not possible to isolate completely uncontaminated fractions, a technique which can handle the contaminants must be developed. The use of waste in new products is also being restricted by uncertainties over the quality of the recycled materials. Historically, there have been major deficiencies in the handling and recycling of construction and demolition waste. Construction waste is easier to sort into uncontaminated fractions than demolition waste, as the materials are not assembled in the same way. An increase in sorting at source in close collaboration with recycling companies can reduce the cost of waste management. The management of construction waste has improved considerably in recent years. However, further work to reduce the quantities involved remains to be done. The management of demolition waste has also improved. Nevertheless, there remain deficiencies in the management of such waste throughout the entire chain from the inventory of buildings to the use of recycled materials in new products. Even if the inventory is carried out correctly and the information is passed on to the control plan and those performing the demolition, management of the waste may still be deficient. This in turn means that the waste is sent for centralised sorting as a mixed fraction. As it is difficult to sort the waste retrospectively, the central sorting process produces inferior results and a greater proportion of the waste is 4. Priority areas 57

58 sent as a mixed fraction for incineration or landfill. The scope to sort the mixed fraction is affected by the types of waste that are present. Gypsum is an example of a waste type which complicates sorting. There is no evidence to suggest that the positive trend that has been apparent in recent years is being interrupted. However, the question is whether the pace of development is sufficiently high. Driving forces and obstacles The primary driving force for increasing the sorting, and thereby recycling, of construction waste is the costs associated with the waste management. Mixed fractions that are sent for centralised sorting cost considerably more than sorted waste. In turn, this depends on landfill costs and the level of demand among energy facilities for high-value fuel fractions. In other words, the recycling companies incur higher costs and receive lower revenues from the mixed fractions and compensate for this and the sorting costs through higher prices. Legislation Many demolition measures are statutory or notifiable. Pursuant to Chapter 6, Section 8(3) of the Planning and Building Ordinance (2011:338), notifications must include information on the time at which the demolition works are scheduled to commence. The work may not commence until the construction board has issued a written approval. In such a written approval, the construction board must establish a control plan. There should normally also be a designated person who is responsible for controls with relevant knowledge and experience. This person's duties include assisting the developer in the preparation of a proposal for a control plan and, as regards demolition measures, assisting in the inventory of hazardous and other waste. The control plan must state what hazardous waste the demolition measures may give rise to and how hazardous and other waste should be dealt with. The municipal environmental administrations are responsible for inspections concerning the management of construction and demolition waste. The scope of the inspections varies between municipalities. The inspections are hindered by the fact that the inspection authorities have no guidance as to how issues concerning recycling and resource efficiency should be managed within the inspections. Waste generated during construction works Large quantities of materials are consumed in the construction of roads and other installations. There are good opportunities here to utilise suitable waste which is generated by other activities and thereby reduce the extraction of virgin materials. However, the recycling of waste must not result in pollutants being introduced into facilities to such an extent that they constitute a risk to human health or the environment. 58 Sweden s Waste Plan

59 Objectives The use of waste and materials in construction works that is safe from an environmental and health perspective shall increase. Monitoring The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency will monitor the objective based on the national waste statistics. An assessment of whether the use is safe from an environmental and health perspective will be carried out in consultation with the inspection authorities. What needs to happen? The use of waste and materials that is safe from an environmental and health perspective must increase. For example, the landfill tax should be reviewed, so that it encourages the safe use of waste from an environmental and health perspective. Exceptions should still be made for waste for which the best use is landfill disposal. At a regional level, greater coordination is required between activities that generate waste and surplus materials for construction purposes and the suppliers of conventional ballast. Examples of what the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency and other actors can do What the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency will do Evaluate the effects of the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency's manual on the recycling of waste in engineering works. Evaluate the effects of the landfill tax and how it could be amended, where applicable. Guidance concerning alternatives to the landfill disposal (e.g. treatment and recycling) of contaminated soils. Various alternatives for the disposal of contaminated soils should be developed by the measure study that is carried out for the contaminated area. The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency, the county administrative boards and the municipalities Impose requirements that require alternative measures, such as the treatment and recycling of contaminated soils, to be studied and considered in connection with remediation projects. The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency and the Swedish Geotechnical Institute (SGI) Promote technological development through the collation of experience and knowledge and the dissemination of information concerning available and potential remediation techniques. 4. Priority areas 59

60 The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency and the Geological Survey of Sweden (SGU) Disseminate good examples of projects within the framework of statefunded remediation where contaminated soil has been treated and recycled. The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency and the Swedish Transport Administration Disseminate good examples from completed projects where materials management issues have been managed in a way which facilitates good resource efficiency within the framework of the EIA process for roads and railways, e.g. through the EIA example database. Waste producers and waste users Develop permit applications which show the total impact on human health and the environment as a result of the use of waste in construction works. The properties of the waste, the design of the structure and the relevant surroundings should be clearly stated. Waste producers which generate similar waste can prepare information jointly. Strive to achieve a mass balance in connection with the design of facilities in order to reduce transport and the need for materials from quarries and the landfill disposal/storage of material. The county administrative boards Draw up regional material efficiency plans to support the municipalities' planning of materials management and land use as regards suitable sites for quarries and the temporary storage of materials. The county administrative boards and the municipalities Impose requirements concerning better reporting of materials management in EIAs for roads and railway plans. The Swedish Transport Administration Continue to develop its materials database for trade with information on excavated materials. Prepare information on how waste from the activities performed is managed. Review the possibility for using mass balance plans in order to compile statistics, where appropriate through additions to the procurement requirements that the Swedish Transport Administration imposes as regards material management plans. Research needs There is a need to develop methods for waste sampling, so that the impact on human health and the environment of using waste for construction purposes can be assessed in both the short and the long term. Our level of knowledge and the dissemination of information concerning available and potential remediation techniques for contaminated lands needs 60 Sweden s Waste Plan

61 to increase. New methods need to be developed and existing methods need to be tested, adapted to Swedish conditions and monitored in the short and the long term. The Swedish Geotechnical Institute (SGI) currently has overall responsibility for research, technological development and knowledge acquisition as regards contaminated land. Good examples Materials database The Swedish Transport Administration has developed a materials database for the trading of and information concerning excavated materials. The development of this type of database to also encompass information concerning geotechnical and environmental properties can facilitate the assessment of possible applications for both operators and inspection and permit authorities. The assessment time can be minimised if the authorities receive complete notification and permit/licensing documents. This also applies to consultation and permit processes for projects and activities where the intention is to use the materials. Situation description Statistics concerning the amount of waste that is being utilised for construction purposes need to be improved. The quantity of waste used to cover landfills or as construction materials in connection with construction projects that are covered by requirements concerning environmental reporting amounted to 4,000 tonnes during This waste largely consisted of minerals, as well as some ash and sludge. The statistics do not cover material that the steel industry classifies as by-products and contaminated soils that have been treated and reclassified as non-hazardous mineral waste. The statistics also do not cover information concerning the quantities of waste that are being used for road construction purposes, etc. The statistics are also inadequate as regards the mineral waste that is generated by the construction and demolition sector. The construction sector's waste amounted to 2.25 million tonnes during 2008 and largely consisted of mineral waste in the form of brick, insulation, gypsum and excavated materials. The majority of this waste is probably used as construction materials at landfills or transported to landfills to inert waste. Some is also used for other construction works. The quantity of waste that is used for construction purposes can be compared with the total quantity of extracted virgin material. Sweden's use of ballast materials is compiled annually by the Geological Survey of Sweden (SGU). The total ballast production during 2007 amounted to approximately 100 million tonnes. 4. Priority areas 61

62 Table 4. Available waste fractions. Waste quantities with technical properties which enable them to be used in construction works. The quantities largely concern Type of waste Quantity (million tonnes) Mining waste 59 Excavated materials 6 Sludge 4.3 Dredged sediment 3.4 Waste from metal production Waste from incineration Source: Summary of materials and areas of use Background information in the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency's report to the government Återvinning av avfall i anläggnings arbeten (Recycling of waste in construction works), SGI, 2007 The type of waste that has the greatest potential for use as a replacement for natural ballast material is mining waste. However, because of the geographic location of the mining waste, the possibilities for recycling remains limited, as access to the waste is largely limited to the north of Sweden, while the greatest demand is in the south. Excluding mining waste, 17 million tonnes of waste with the potential to replace natural materials remain. Excavated materials represent the type of waste which can replace natural ballast materials in the greatest quantity. This type of waste also has a recycling rate of almost 100 percent according to SGI's study. The extent to which recycled excavated material is actually used to replace other materials is not indicated by the study. An evaluation of the effects of the Landfill Ordinance 53 shows that the major driving forces behind the recycling of waste result in waste sometimes being used in unnecessary or overdimensioned structures. Such use does not replace the use of virgin materials. Instead, the disposal must be considered as landfill which has not been assessed on the basis of the requirements in the landfill regulations. In turn, this may result in a greater risk of diffuse dispersal and exposure to pollutants. Obstacles and driving forces The strongest driving force behind the use of waste is currently the avoidance of transport and landfill costs. However, this is less relevant to waste which is exempt from landfill tax and which can be accepted at landfills for inert waste, where the landfill costs are lower. As waste that is disposed of via landfills which exclusively accept certain types of inert waste is exempt from landfill tax, there is no incentive to reuse clean soil or rock material, for example. However, the landfill tax represents a very strong driving force for identifying alternatives to landfill for other waste types. 53 Swedish Environmental Protection Agency (2010), Report Sweden s Waste Plan

63 The strong pressure on recycling places demands on the resources of the inspection and permit authorities and often leads to difficult assessments. The fact that there is uncertainty over quality levels, both technical and environmental, as regards certain types of waste also contributes to a preference for conventional ballast over the waste. The uncertainty concerning quality and what can be accepted complicates the assessment of applications and notifications concerning the use of waste. The requirement to notify the municipal environmental boards of the use of not entirely uncontaminated waste also involves a delay. As such notification must be given at least six weeks in advance, it is difficult to rapidly use slightly contaminated soil which have been generated by one project in another project. Difficulties in handling the materials during this period, e.g. through finding facilities for temporary storage, mean that in many cases it is easier to dispose of the materials, even though it may be suitable for recycling. The waste from an activity is often only sufficient for a small part of a construction project. This causes added costs to be incurred when not all the materials can be sourced from a single location. It can also cause technical problems. Coordination between activities which generate waste or surplus material which is suitable for construction purposes and suppliers of conventional ballast can reduce the problem. The customer would then only need to contact one supplier. Such coordination would have to take place at regional level and is particularly important in major urban areas, where a high proportion of construction projects are being carried out. Legislation Quality criteria concerning the point at which different types of waste cease to constitute waste (End of waste) are in the process of being drawn up within the EU. Waste that fulfils the criteria is not covered by the waste legislation, but by product legislation such as REACH, the EU's chemicals regulation. It is not yet clear whether criteria will be drawn up for waste that is used for construction purposes. If such criteria are prepared, it will probably mean that waste that fulfils the criteria may be used freely. Such "productification" will probably facilitate the use. 4. Priority areas 63

64 Household waste There is considerable potential for reducing the environmental impact by better utilising the resources in household waste. The quantities of household waste being generated increased dramatically during the 1990s. Preventing this waste represents a major challenge. Here, reuse is an important route; if products remain in the "sphere of consumption" for longer, less waste will be generated. ktonnes/year Figure 6. Quantities of household waste generated in Gothenburg. (Source Profu) The category of household waste contains many of the waste flows which give rise to the greatest climatic impact during their life-cycle. 54 Examples are electrical and textile waste. There is considerable potential within all areas to reduce the environmental and climatic impact. According to the EU's Waste Directive (2008/98/EC), preparation for reuse and recycling of waste materials, which must at least cover paper, metal, plastic and glass from households, must increase to a total of at least 50 percent by This chapter considers: reuse and preparation for reuse textiles collection and recycling 54 Sundqvist J-O and Palm D (2010) 64 Sweden s Waste Plan

65 electrical waste littering Household waste covers everything from ordinary kitchen waste, packaging, toys, batteries and clothing to bulkier items such as garden waste, furniture and white goods (bulky refuse). The waste varies in terms of both its nature and its composition. This in turn results in variable requirements concerning collection and processing. This chapter considers waste from households and does not cover measures for so-called 'comparable waste' from activities. Reuse and preparation for reuse The waste hierarchy means that the prevention of waste should be given the highest priority in waste management and that preparation for reuse should take priority over the recovery of energy from waste, for example. From a resource perspective, it is almost always beneficial to reuse all types of product. The greatest environmental benefit of reuse stems from the fact that the manufacture of new products is avoided or delayed. The study from Alelyckan eco centre in the municipality of Gothenburg (see below) indicates considerable potential for the environment, e.g. with regard to greenhouse gas emissions. However, there are certain factors which have a negative impact on this positive environmental effect, e.g. if the reused products have a higher energy consumption than corresponding new products. The environmental benefits of reusing such energy-intensive products rather than replacing them with more energy-efficient products may therefore be reduced or in some cases eliminated altogether. There are also other risks associated with the reuse of products, as some older products contain hazardous substances which should be phased out of the cycle. Objectives The reuse of household waste must increase, partly through it being made easier for households to deliver materials and products for reuse or for preparation for reuse. Monitoring The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency will monitor this objective, partly through contacting Swedish Waste Management and the municipalities in order to obtain information concerning the work of the municipalities relating to reuse. In order to monitor the quantities of waste that go for reuse, material flow calculations will also be used. The municipalities can monitor the effects of offering reuse at the recycling centres through measuring the proportion of products that are delivered for preparation for reuse. 4. Priority areas 65

66 What needs to happen? The reuse of materials and products needs to increase. This can take place through facilitating the delivery of waste by households for preparation for reuse in various ways. There is also a need to clarify the role and responsibilities of the municipality as regards preparation for reuse. Households need to become more aware of the environmental benefits of reuse compared with material and energy recovery from waste. What the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency will do Disseminate good examples of initiatives to promote reuse, for both private actors and municipalities. Provide guidance on how 'eco parks' can be established. Review the way in which the legislation can be adapted so that it clearly states the responsibilities of the municipalities as regards preparation for reuse and what applies in relation to the competition legislation. Analyse instruments for promoting the emergence of enterprises that operate with the field of preparation for reuse. Examples of what other actors can do The municipalities Work to ensure that products and waste that households wish to deliver to recycling centres are directed for reuse and preparation for reuse via private actors, municipal recycling centres/eco centres or other systems. Provide information on the environmental benefits associated with reuse and propose actors who will accept used products as part of the information on waste management given to municipal inhabitants. Work with actors who accept used products and offer them sites for collection within the municipality. This could for example take place at recycling centres, as well as at other sites within the municipality. The Swedish Consumer Agency Provide guidance on the legal situation as regards warranty periods and competition, for example, when products are sold on the second-hand market. The guidelines should be prepared in collaboration with the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency and the Swedish Competition Authority. 66 Sweden s Waste Plan

67 Good examples The Alelyckan eco centre in Gothenburg The Alelyckan eco centre in Gothenburg brings together functions for recycling, reuse and waste sorting at a single location. Since 2007, the centre has been run by recycling office of the City of Gothenburg in collaboration with the City Mission and Bergsjön district council. The centre has a sorting centre, Återbruket för byggnadsmaterial, the City Mission's second hand shop, Returhuset with repair workshop, an eco-café and a shop, as well as a recycling centre. Many of those working at the centre do so within the framework of various forms of labour market measures. Visitors to the eco park are welcomed by shops selling items such as second-hand clothes, furniture, construction materials and electronics. They then pass a sorting station where employees will actively ask whether anything can be donated for second-hand sale. Only after passing the sorting station will they drive in and dispose of their waste at the recycling centre. Figure 7. Photographs of the Alelyckan in Gothenburg eco centre. Every year, the Alelyckan eco centre in Gothenburg prevents 360 tonnes of waste through products being reused instead of discarded. If all recycling centres in the country were to be converted to eco centres like Alelyckan, 80,000 tonnes of waste would be prevented through reuse. If these products were to be reused, it would reduce greenhouse gas emissions equivalent to 300,000 carbon dioxide equivalents per year. This is equivalent to 100,000 cars travelling 15,000 km each. The consumption of primary energy would decrease by the equivalent of the heating requirements of a large Swedish city Ljunggren Söderman M, Palm D and Rydberg T (2011) 4. Priority areas 67

68 Inspirational trade fair to promote reuse During 2011, recycling organisation Gästrike Återvinnare carried out the project Ta till vara (Take care). The project involved four separate activities aimed at communicating the benefits of reuse to households. The project offered workshops and lectures concerning reuse, provided the county governor with a smart jacket made from curtain fabric, invited students to create furniture for the garden made from scrap metal and organised an inspirational trade fair for the home in partnership with a number of aid organisations involved in second-hand products. All the activities attracted attention in the media and communicated the message that it is possible to give things a longer or a completely new life via simple means. Situation description The market for second-hand goods is increasing year on year. Vintage and second-hand goods have increasingly been accepted and even become trendy. Today, it is a matter of course for many households to sell or donate not only second-hand cars but also other items such as furniture, toys and clothing, instead of discarding it as waste. Many private actors are working on reuse via the Internet, e.g. Blocket.se, Tradera.se, E-bay.com, Beg. se, Recycla.se, Byggigen.se, Smartsell.se and Terracycle.se. There are also deposit banks, second-hand bookshops, auction rooms, flea markets, shops for second-hand construction materials and second-hand shops selling used goods on site. Yet many items that could be reused are still discarded. Some items are in such good condition that they could be reused immediately, whilst others need to be touched up or repaired before they can be sold on. One reason why such objects are discarded is that households can find it a long-winded and lengthy process to find actors who will accept their waste, prepare it for reuse and sell it on. On occasions, it may also be the case that households do not believe that something they think of as waste could be of value on a second-hand market. Many people are aware of the environmental benefits of sorting their packaging according to source. However, they are unaware that the environmental benefits of delivering products and waste for reuse are usually considerably greater. Some municipalities have found a way of working on reuse within the framework of their municipal remit. In addition to the Alelyckan eco centre in Gothenburg, there is also The House of Opportunities in the municipality of Emmaboda and the Recycling Market in the municipality of Luleå. In some municipalities, 'reuse containers' are provided in connection with the recycling centres which are run by charity organisations, e.g. in Järfälla, Knivsta and Hudiksvall. A number of other municipalities are planning to provide facilities for preparation of waste for reuse, e.g. through constructing eco centres. Some municipalities are also selling what has been recycled in partnership with charity organisations. 68 Sweden s Waste Plan

69 Textiles In Sweden, approximately 15 kg of textiles are consumed per person per year. 56 Of this amount, approximately 8 kg is incinerated and 3 kg is reused by charity organisations. The remaining 4 kg is accumulated (e.g. in a wardrobe) or undergoes other waste processing where it is difficult to measure the quantities involved. This waste processing is not optimal from an environmental perspective. Textile waste flows are small in terms of weight, but they still represent important flows in terms of the environment. The production of new textiles generates approximately 15 kg of carbon dioxide per kg of textile. The manufacturing process consumes large quantities of water, energy and chemicals and represents a risk for both the environment and human health. There is a need to optimise the reuse of textiles from an environmental perspective, using either instruments or voluntary obligations. New cost-effective methods for textile reuse need to be developed in order to enable the recycling of textiles which are unsuitable for reuse. New textiles should also be designed for reuse and/or recycling. Objectives Reuse of textiles and recycling of textile waste shall increase. Monitoring In order to monitor the quantities that go for reuse and recycling, material flow calculations will also be used. 57 The municipalities will monitor measures to promote the reuse of textiles through waste component analyses of bagged and container waste. What needs to happen? In order to reduce the environmental impact of textile handling, there must be changes in consumption and production patterns. Textiles that are manufactured need to be designed so that they are sustainable and can be reused or recycled. Consumer awareness of the environmental benefits of reuse compared with energy recovery needs to increase. It must be easy to deliver clothing for reuse. Techniques for the recycling of textiles in Sweden need to be developed. It is important that recycling does not contribute to the dispersal of hazardous substances in the environment. In connection with the development of recycling techniques, the focus should be placed on the textiles which are most valuable to recycle from a resource perspective and which also have a low content of hazardous substances. 56 Carlsson A, Hemström K, Sörme L and Stenmarck Å (2011) 57 Carlsson A, Hemström K, Sörme L and Stenmarck Å (2011) 4. Priority areas 69

70 What the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency will do Initiate a dialogue with the textile industry concerning which measures to improve the environment are important to implement nationally and within the EU. Promote the development of recycling techniques which do not contribute to the dispersal of pollutants, e.g. via the Nordic collaboration within which our knowledge of how textile recycling techniques in the Nordic countries can be developed as a way of contributing to 'green growth'. Work with the Swedish Chemicals Inspectorate to identify solutions for reducing the quantities and hazardous properties of textile waste. Participate in campaigns, research projects and networks with the aim of increasing the period of time over which textiles are used. Examples are the policy project within the research project being financed by Mistra - Future fashion. Develop better statistics concerning textile material flows. Analyse the advantages and disadvantages, as well as the possible effects of instruments within the framework of the national programme for waste prevention. In collaboration with the industry and municipalities, prepare guidance concerning what constitutes a good second-hand actor for clothing waste. Examples of what other actors can do The municipalities Establish collection containers or other collection systems for textiles at all recycling centres in collaboration with second-hand actors. Permit second-hand actors to site containers for textile collection at other locations within the municipality and ensure that requirements are imposed on these actors to ensure that a good/professional actor is hired. Inform households as regards what they should do with their textile waste and the environmental benefits of reusing textiles. Objectives and measures for collecting textiles should be considered in the municipal waste plan. Second-hand actors Define what constitutes a good second-hand actor, as there are actors that are unprofessional. A dialogue and interaction with the municipalities and the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency is also needed with regard to this. The textile industry Take the initiative to promote greater voluntary producer responsibility where used clothing is delivered for preparation for reuse or recycling. 70 Sweden s Waste Plan

71 Develop designs which result in a long lifetime and enable reuse and recycling. Examples of research and study needs Research into techniques for the recycling of textiles, including an analysis of the textiles that are most suitable for recycling from a resource perspective and with regard to their content of hazardous substances. Research/studies into economic instruments, e.g. producer responsibility. Good examples Clothes libraries Clothes libraries work in the same way as a library, except that you borrow clothes instead of books. The idea is based around enabling people to renew their wardrobe without contributing to any increase in consumption. See for example Voluntary initiatives Many companies take on a voluntary producer responsibility for clothing by promoting reuse. There are clothing brands which allow customers to hand in second-hand garments at their stores. In return, customers are offered a discount on new garments. The garments that are handed in are environmentally labelled and sold on as second-hand garments in selected stores, or turned into new products in the company's range. Other companies offer commission-based second-hand sales of their own brand via certain stores or the internet. A number of outdoor clothing companies manufacture new garments using recycled clothes made from polyester. Companies use a recycling system where consumers deliver their worn-out clothing to special boxes at stores, which is then sent for recycling. A number of actors within the industry have joined forces to identify solutions for the textile waste to which they are contributing. The aim is to achieve a closed life-cycle for the clothes and textiles that they sell, where everything that cannot be reused is recycled. Situation description The consumption of textiles is increasing year on year. During the period 2000 to 2009, the net inflow of clothing and domestic textiles increased by almost 40 percent, measured in terms of tonnes. We currently consume around 15 kg of textiles per person per year in Sweden. Of this, around 8 kg is discarded in bagged and container waste, and around 3 kg is collected by voluntary organisations. 58 The rate of reuse of clothing and textiles via voluntary organisations in Sweden is currently around five percent. In addition to this, clothes are reused through being inherited from siblings or donated/sold through other 58 Carlsson A, Hemström K, Sörme L and Stenmarck Å (2011) 4. Priority areas 71

72 contacts. According to the voluntary organisations, there is scope for an expanded market for second-hand clothing in Sweden. 59 However, there is no significant recycling of textiles in Sweden today. There is however considerable interest in textile recycling, and recycling processes are being studied at the university college in Borås. There are no common guidelines for the organisation of textiles collections. The ability of voluntary organisations to collect clothing varies between the municipalities. Mistra, the Swedish Foundation for Strategic Environmental Research, is set to invest SEK 40 million in a four-year interdisciplinary scientific research programme concerning sustainable fashion - Mistra Future Fashion. The aims of this programme are to contribute to a more sustainable society, to enhance the competitiveness of the Swedish fashion industry and expertise relating to sustainability and to identify innovative solutions. Legislation There is currently no producer responsibility for textiles, despite the considerable environmental benefits of reuse and recycling. Recycling and collection The recycling of household waste which consists of paper, metal, plastic and glass can increase further. Much of the focus is placed on measures aimed at improving collection, as this is a precondition for increased recycling. Objectives The recycling of household waste shall increase, and at least 90 percent of households shall be satisfied with collections. The EU's objective for 2020 is for the reuse and recycling of paper, metal, plastic and glass from households 60 to increase to at least 50 percent. The recycling of food waste can also be included in the objective. A number of different methods can be used to calculate the objective. Depending on the type of waste and the method chosen, calculations for 2008 show that the level of recycling in Sweden varies from 39 to 62 percent. 61 By making it easier for households to deliver their waste for recycling, e.g. through collections in residential areas 62, recycling can be increased further. The effects of increasing household waste recycling, including biological treatment, by 65 percent by 2015 have been evaluated. 63 The evaluation shows that increasing collection to this level in such a short period of time 59 Palm D (2011) 60 Other materials from other sources can also be included provided that these waste flows are similar to waste from households. 61 Sundqvist J-O (2008) 62 Ek C (2011) 63 Profu (2011) 72 Sweden s Waste Plan

73 will entail considerable adjustment for society. The evaluation also shows that there is uncertainty over the degree of recycling, particularly as regards packaging. Monitoring The national waste statistics include information concerning the quantities of household waste that are being recycled. The statistics are based on information from the packaging and newspaper collection organisation Förpacknings- och tidningsinsamlingen (FTI) and municipalities (through Swedish Waste Management). There is however some uncertainty concerning the quantities of newspapers and packaging that are actually recycled. Work is under way to improve the statistics. The objective concerning the level of service provided to consumers and their attitude towards collections will be monitored via surveys with questions concerning the organisation, availability and safety of collection systems and the extent to which they are satisfied with the collections. This monitoring will be carried out by the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency in collaboration with the municipalities and producers. What needs to happen? It must be made easier for consumers to sort their waste at source. In order for this to happen, sites must be made available for the collection of waste with good accessibility and a design which blends in with the urban environment. There is also a need to develop techniques for collection and recycling. Recycling also needs to become more profitable. There is also a need for better statistics for the monitoring of established objectives. What the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency will do Revise the regulations concerning municipal waste planning. There is for example a need to adapt the regulations to the new waste regulations. Develop the waste statistics in collaboration with Swedish Waste Management and FTI, so that it is possible to monitor how much household waste is being recycled. Monitor developments and, when necessary, propose instruments for promoting recycling. Examples of what other actors can do The municipalities View waste management as part of the infrastructure. Waste planning should be coordinated with other social planning within the municipality, e.g. energy and physical planning. Sites and land need to be allocated for waste management in the planning process. 4. Priority areas 73

74 Develop waste planning by continually monitoring and evaluating the plans. 64 Develop the work relating to information/communication to households. Households need to regularly be given information concerning why, what and how they should sort. Strive to follow the waste hierarchy, which for example should lead to an increase in reuse wherever possible and the prioritisation of recycling over energy recovery. Swedish Waste Management Swedish Waste Management continually develops guidance and good examples for a good level of service concerning hazardous household waste and bulky waste. 65 These need to be communicated to those responsible for waste planning in the municipalities. Swedish Waste Management and FTI Develop robust methods for monitoring how much household waste is recycled in consultation with the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency. 66 FTI Develop and improve collection systems for waste for newspapers and packaging in order to make it easier for consumers to deliver their sorted waste. Systems need to be coordinated with municipal collection systems. The recycling industry Develop new methods and techniques to promote recycling. Property owners Lease appropriate sites for sorting at source and inform residents of the waste management in consultation with the municipality. The packaging industry Design packaging so as to limit its volume and weight and so as to facilitate recycling and the opportunities to empty the packaging. National Board of Housing, Building and Planning Inform and guide municipalities and other actors involved concerning the requirements of the Swedish Planning and Building Act, which require waste management to form part of the physical planning process. 64 Swedish Waste Management's manual on municipal waste planning (2006:13) and the manual on the collection of hazardous waste and bulky waste (to be published) may provide support in this regard. 65 Assignment number This monitoring could for example show collection percentage, correct sorting percentage (proportion of packaging in producers' systems and vice versa); recycling (proportion of rejects, etc.). 74 Sweden s Waste Plan

75 Good examples Book of ideas concerning waste sites The Swedish National Board of Housing, Building and Planning has prepared the following document: Avfallshantering tillgänglig, säker och estetisk. Inspiration och vägledning vid planering och byggande av avfallsutrymmen, återvinningsstationer och återvinningscentraler. (Waste management - available, safe and aesthetic. Inspiration and guidance in connection with the planning and construction of waste sites, recycling stations and recycling centres). It is a book of ideas that is aimed at the actors which exert an influence over the organisation of the waste collection system. The document gives examples of how waste sites can be designed. A description is also given of how waste issues should be taken into consideration in the planning and building process. Situation description The recycling of household waste has increased considerably since the early 1980s. However, the quantities involved have decreased somewhat since In 2009, 35 percent of household waste was recycled, which corresponds to 170 kg per person. 67 Waste component analyses of bagged and container waste show that there is scope to increase recycling. 68 Table 5. Recycling in kg per person and year a Newspapers Office paper Paper packaging Metal packaging Plastic packaging Glass packaging Electronics Refrigeration units Metal from household waste Total a No figures are available for paper and packaging in Source: Svensk Avfallshantering 2011 (Swedish Waste Management 2011), Swedish Waste Management The municipalities are responsible for the collection and disposal of waste from households. The exception from this is waste that is covered by the producer responsibility, which covers a high proportion of household waste 67 Swedish Waste Management (2010), Svensk avfallshantering 2010 (Swedish Waste Management 2010). 68 Swedish Waste Management (2011), Report U2011: Priority areas 75

76 in the form of paper, metal, glass and plastic. Among other things, producer responsibility means that producers must ensure that there are suitable collection systems in place and that a certain proportion of the waste is recycled. Uncertainties as regards the delegation of responsibility between municipalities and producers have resulted in a number of cooperation problems. The actors involved also have differing views on what constitutes a suitable collection system. Some reasons as to why recycling is not more prevalent: Deficiencies in existing collection systems There are deficiencies in the current collection systems, such as long distances to collection sites. This is partly linked to the fact that insufficient consideration has been given to waste issues in the physical planning process. There is often insufficient space available for source sorting in homes. Collection systems for recycling do not cover all household waste As regards waste that is not covered by the producer responsibility, the collection process is often not adapted to recycling. Metal is collected at all recycling centres. However, only certain municipalities accept plastic and gypsum for recycling. Packaging and products are not designed for recycling Producers must design packaging so that its volume and weight are limited to what is required to ensure a good level of safety and hygiene, and to ensure that it goes for reuse and/or recycling. 69 It is difficult to say how much producers have adjusted to these requirements. Municipalities are also responsible for inspections within this area, but have in principle not carried out any inspections. There is overcapacity within the field of waste incineration in Sweden. Low gate fees for waste for incineration are reducing the incentive to sort waste for recycling. Legislation Chapter 15 of the Environmental Code contains a definition of household waste, as well as provisions concerning the responsibility of the municipalities to transport and process household waste (the municipal refuse collection obligation). Newspapers and packaging are often covered by producer responsibility. The aim of producer responsibility is to reduce the quantity of waste, promote recycling and bring about more environmentally friendly product development. Producers have a responsibility to provide collection systems and ensure that waste is dealt with in an environmentally acceptable way. Producers must consult municipalities with regard to issues concerning the design of the system. They must also report to the Swedish 69 Ordinance (2006:1273) on producer responsibility for packaging 76 Sweden s Waste Plan

77 Environmental Protection Agency on the extent to which products that have been launched on the market are collected and dealt with. The municipalities are responsible for operational inspections as regards collection systems. The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency is responsible for inspection guidance. Electrical waste and batteries The recycling of electrical waste in Sweden is at a high level, but there is potential to increase it further, particularly as regards small items of electrical waste. The design of the products is of major importance as regards the scope to reduce the environmental impact of the increased quantities of electrical products in society. Objectives The collection of electrical waste for recycling shall increase, particularly as regards small items of electrical waste. 'Small items of electrical waste' means smaller products which are allocated space for disposal in household waste bins, e.g. incandescent bulbs, batteries and toys. Objectives for this area are also set out in the EU's Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive (WEEE). 70 Monitoring This objective will be monitored through use of the producers' reports to the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency concerning sold quantities of electrical and electronic products and collected and processed quantities. Waste component analyses will be carried out in order to monitor developments in incorrectly sorted electronic waste. What needs to happen? The collection of electrical products and batteries needs to increase. Handling of the waste that is collected needs to be improved and recycling needs to increase. The industry must be motivated into manufacturing products that are energy-efficient, durable and free from hazardous substances. What the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency will do Work within the EU to ensure that environmental considerations such as improved durability, the potential for repair and the content of hazardous substances are taken into consideration in connection with the design of new products. 70 Directive 2002/96/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 January 2003 on waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE). 4. Priority areas 77

78 Continue the work to review flows and stored quantities of electrical and electronic products in Sweden. Evaluate the possibility of introducing economic instruments aimed at mercury in batteries in the same way as for cadmium. Develop better information concerning the flows of various materials to recycling to which the producer responsibility concerning batteries and waste from electrical and electronic products gives rise (WEEE), e.g. plastic. Develop guidance and guidelines with the aim of facilitating the work of municipalities relating to inspections within the field of WEEE and batteries. Examples of what other actors can do The municipalities In collaboration with the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency, the municipalities should carry out inspections of producers and actors that act on behalf of the producers. Increase inspections regarding the way in which refrigerators are dealt with to ensure that they are handled appropriately, so that ozone-degrading substances do not leak out into the environment. Producers of electronic and electrical products Facilitate the collection of small items of electrical waste in particular. Improve the information disseminated to the public concerning why it is important that electrical waste is collected and where such waste can be delivered. Situation description Internationally, Sweden is very highly placed as regards the quantities of electrical waste that are collected. The EU's Directive contains a requirement for at least 4 kg per person per year to be collected. In Sweden, this figure is around 16 kg per person per year. It is also apparent that Sweden is a very technology-intensive country which makes extensive use of electrical products, meaning that there is considerable potential here for widespread collection measured in terms of quantities per person. A review of flows and stored quantities of electrical and electronic products in Sweden has been carried out by SMED on behalf of the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency. 71 Some types of battery still contain cadmium and mercury. These substances are very harmful for the environment and human health, and it is important that the quantity of these batteries is minimised. According to the Battery Directive 72 Sweden as a country has little scope to ban them. 71 SMED (2011) Kartläggning av flöden och upplagrade mängder elektriska och elektroniska produkter i Sverige Directive 2006/66/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 6 September 2006 on batteries and accumulators and waste batteries and accumulators. 78 Sweden s Waste Plan

79 However, we do have the opportunity to use financial instruments to reduce their use. In order to reduce the environmental impact of electrical waste, products that are placed on the market must be durable, energy-efficient and free from hazardous substances. One aim behind the producer responsibility is to motivate producers into manufacturing products that are designed to facilitate recycling and reuse through the cost of collecting and recycling products. Although the level of collection is high, some electrical waste is discarded erroneously in household refuse bins or through the packaging collection system. In 2008, Swedish Waste Management estimated that almost 12,000 tonnes of electrical waste per year, or around 1.3 kg per inhabitant, ends up in the wrong place. 73 The storage of old electrical products (such as mobile telephones) is also a problem. Delivering these products for recycling would decrease the extraction of raw materials and save energy. Another problem is that electrical waste that is not collected is transported to developing countries, where it can cause considerable health-related and environmental problems, as these countries generally do not have effective waste management systems (see the section on the illegal export of waste). Legislation The producer responsibility for batteries and waste from electrical and electronic products (WEEE) is regulated by two EU Directives, which are each implemented in Sweden through their own ordinance 74. The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency shares the responsibility for inspections with the municipal board which is responsible for inspections in accordance with the Environmental Code, except as regards the provisions that concern the way in which collections are to be organised locally. The municipal board itself is responsible for inspections within this area. A new EU Directive for WEEE is in the process of being negotiated. The new Directive will result in major changes and a new Ordinance will probably have to be drawn up in Sweden. The collection levels in the new Directive are expected to be based on collections measured as a proportion of the average of the three previous years' sales. This calculation model can also be found in the Battery Directive. Litter generation Many people believe that litter generation is rising. 75 There are many negative effects of litter generation, including injury to animals and people, higher refuse collection costs, adverse effects on the tourist industry and 73 Swedish Waste Management (2008). Report 2008:3. 74 Ordinance (2008:834) on producer responsibility for batteries and Ordinance (2005:209) on producer responsibility for electrical and electronic products. 75 Keep Sweden Tidy (2010) 4. Priority areas 79

80 outdoor recreation, the dispersal of chemicals and environments that are perceived as unpleasant and unsafe. Objectives Litter generation shall decrease in urban areas, in natural areas and along coasts. Monitoring The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency will monitor the work of municipalities to reduce litter generation based on the "litter measurements" that are taken by the municipalities. Methods for taking such measurements shall be made available to the municipalities by the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency and Keep Sweden Tidy. As methods for non-urban environments are developed and made available, developments in litter generation should also be monitored in these environments. Methods that are currently being developed include measurements along coastlines and beaches, in park areas and landscaped areas in urban areas, as well as in smaller built-up areas. What needs to happen? The work to reduce litter generation requires various approaches. Attitudes towards litter generation need to be altered. It is for example important to make it clear that it is neither acceptable nor permitted to discard litter. Municipalities and other actors need to be made aware of their role in the work to influence the attitudes of people and thereby reduce litter generation. The focus should be switched from reacting to the problem by increasing cleaning measures to preventing the occurrence of litter generation instead. Municipalities need tools and guidance concerning the way in which they can fulfil their responsibilities and develop their work to reduce litter generation. Keep Sweden Tidy needs to continue its active work relating to information campaigns to change attitudes, cooperate with municipalities, schools and companies, method-related work, etc. Educational work at nurseries and schools concerning litter generation issues represents an important element in the work to teach children and adolescents not to drop litter. What the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency will do On behalf of the government, the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency will carry out a special initiative to reduce litter generation from 2011 through to April This encompasses litter generation in urban environments, nature and along coastlines. The work is being carried out in collaboration with the Keep Sweden Tidy foundation. The work is partly be carried out in a dialogue with the Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management. As part of the work, litter measurement methods will be developed for different environments. The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency will: 80 Sweden s Waste Plan

81 Provide guidance and information to the municipalities concerning how they can work in a structured and long-term manner to reduce litter generation, partly through action plans. Develop and make available methods for litter measurement. Litter measurement is a tool for identifying effective measures. In this way, the municipalities will be able to evaluate the initiatives that are carried out in order to reduce litter generation. The government assignment will be carried out in a dialogue with the actors concerned, including Keep Sweden Tidy, municipalities, Swedish Waste Management and the Swedish Association of Local Authorities and Regions, as well as Förpacknings- och Tidningsinsamlingen (FTI). In connection with the revision of the regulations concerning the content of municipal waste plans, the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency also intends to supplement these regulations with a requirement for the waste plan to contain measures to combat litter generation. What other actors can do The municipalities Read the information and guidance that is being developed by the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency. Identify and prepare an inventory of problems relating to litter generation in order to develop an action plan with effective measures to reduce litter generation. Carry out activities aimed at reducing litter generation together with other actors within the municipality. This could for example involve the provision of more litter bins, more frequent emptying, school projects, local information campaigns and litter picking activities. Monitor the effects of the activities that are carried out, e.g. via litter measurements. Develop partnerships between the various departments within the municipality. Maintain a dialogue and exchange experiences with other municipalities in order to learn from good examples. Keep Sweden Tidy Inform the municipalities how they can work in a structured and longterm manner to combat littering. Develop and make available methods for litter measurement. Develop reporting systems for illegal fly-tipping and methods for how the municipalities should respond to fly-tipping. Further develop the Skräpplockardagarna (Litter picking days) national campaign. 4. Priority areas 81

82 Good examples The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency and Keep Sweden Tidy will work to enable municipalities to exchange experiences and find out about good examples via the internet, etc. A number of municipalities are already working to identify a more sustainable solution to the problem of littering. Examples include Mölndal's PelleKan and Gothenburg's Safe, beautiful city. Situation description In September 2010, Keep Sweden Tidy carried out a Sifo survey concerning litter in which 41 percent of respondents said that they believed that the discarding of litter in society has increased. Studies show that litter generation can contribute to a negative spiral. Areas that have become littered often attract graffiti and other vandalism. This results in an area that is perceived as unpleasant and unsafe. The most common litter object is cigarette stubs, but chewing gum, snuff, paper products and plastic are also common litter objects in our towns and cities. In the Sifo survey, respondents were also asked why they throw litter onto the ground. The most common answer was a lack of litter bins or 'laziness'. As regards illegal fly-tipping, a more coherent picture is needed of how extensive the problem is and what methods are needed in order to manage it. Legislation In their work to combat littering, the municipalities can make use of the following legislation: the starting point is Chapter 15 Section 30 of the Environmental Code. This provision contains a general ban on litter generation in areas to which the public have access or can see. Penal provisions for litter generation are set out in Chapter 29 Sections 7 and 7a of the Environmental Code and concern littering and the less serious form of the offence involving only small amounts of litter. Section 4 of Act (1998:814) and associated special provisions concerning street cleaning and signage states that municipalities have a responsibility to restore areas that have become littered to a condition that is reasonable given the circumstances of the town/city, the location of the site and the circumstances in general. However, this obligation only applies in cases where no one else is responsible for the littering according to the law or other statute or special provisions, which probably means specific provisions which impose the responsibility on a party other than the municipality. The Act also contains certain obligations for property owners and the right for the municipality to require property owners to carry out measures. In some cases, litter generation can also be an environmentally harmful activity if it poses a risk to human health, e.g. through pollution of the ground. In such cases, Chapter 9 of the Environmental Code can also be applied. 82 Sweden s Waste Plan

83 Resource efficiency in the food-chain Greater resource efficiency in the food-chain can have major socio-economic and environmental benefits. Resource efficiency is about utilising and recycling the nutrition and energy that is present in the waste that is generated in connection with the production and consumption of food products. Efficiency is also about ensuring that the food that is produced is not discarded unnecessarily. This chapter considers: reducing food waste recycling of plant nutrients and energy from food waste Reducing food waste Production of the food that is discarded in Sweden is estimated to give rise to approximately 2 million tonnes of carbon dioxide. This calculation includes the greenhouse gas emissions that are generated during production, processing and distribution. The production of food also gives rise to other environmental problems, such as over-fertilisation and the dispersal of hazardous substances, including pesticides. The food product sector is also one of the most water-intensive sectors. Thus we can generate substantial environmental benefits through eating the food that we produce rather than discarding it. Objectives Food waste shall decrease. Interpretation and monitoring Food waste is defined in the national waste plan as biological waste from the food-chain (households, restaurants, institutional catering, shops, the food product industry, primary production) which cannot be consumed for commercial or other reasons. It is worth noting that the term 'catering waste' is also defined in Commission Regulation (EU) No 142/2011. It is defined there as all food waste from household kitchens, restaurants and catering facilities. The latter definition is narrower and does not cover the food product industry, shops or primary production. The term 'food waste' also encompasses readily biodegradable waste which is poured down the sink (liquid food products such as milk) or rinsed out of packaging, etc. 4. Priority areas 83

84 Food waste also includes wastage which could be avoided and food waste which is unavoidable, i.e. the parts of food products that are not normally eaten. Food wastage is defined as food that is discarded, but which could have been consumed if it had been handled differently. It is food wastage that can be reduced. The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency will monitor the objective based on the national waste statistics. No information is currently available concerning waste from primary production. What needs to happen? All actors in the chain need to contribute and work together in order to ensure that the objective is achieved. Awareness of the problem needs to increase and attitudes need to change. Our knowledge of how we can avoid food wastage needs to increase and everyone who works with food must take more responsibility to reduce food wastage in their part of the chain. What the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency will do Through working with other actors who have an interest in and a responsibility for the issue, disseminate knowledge concerning quantities of food waste, the causes of food wastage, how it can be reduced and what we gain through doing so (environmentally and financially). Develop better statistics concerning the quantities of food waste that are generated in different parts of the food-chain, broken down between avoidable (wastage) and unavoidable food waste. Highlight good examples to the municipalities of how they can work to reduce food wastage in collaboration/consultation with the Swedish National Food Administration. Collate good examples aimed at restaurants, school kitchens and catering facilities concerning what they can do to reduce their food wastage in collaboration/consultation with the Swedish National Food Administration. Investigate and present the most cost-effective measures for reducing the total quantity of food waste throughout the food-chain. Examples of what other actors can do The municipalities Increase awareness and understanding among local inhabitants concerning the importance of food wastage for the environment and the economy. One way is to work on lifestyle projects which include food wastage. Educate and inform school kitchens and catering facilities in the municipality's enterprises concerning the importance of reducing wastage and how they can go about it. Packaging producers Develop consumer-packaged products from a holistic perspective, with the aim of ensuring that packaged products are easy to empty, protect the 84 Sweden s Waste Plan

85 product throughout its use and appropriate for the consumers' needs in terms of size. Shops, wholesalers, catering facilities and restaurants Monitor and establish objectives concerning the quantities of food products that are discarded and returned, and train staff how they can reduce food wastage. Develop order management and identify sales methods which do not result in food wastage as a result of overbuying. Find creative methods and new business concepts to utilise residual waste and food products which are approaching their sell-by/use-by date. Reach agreement within the industry concerning a system which does not encourage over-ordering through the possibility of returning unsold food to the wholesaler free of charge. Inform customers about the difference between "best before date" and "use by date" and about how sensitive food products should be stored in the home. The Swedish National Food Administration Give advice to consumers concerning how food wastage can be reduced. Identify areas where a revised application of food legislation could reduce food wastage without compromising food safety. Give advice to relevant actors, e.g. institutions and shops, about how applicable food legislation can be interpreted with the aim of reducing food wastage. Integrate issues concerning food wastage into the formulation of advice concerning meals at nurseries, schools and care institutions. The Swedish National Agency for Education Integrate knowledge concerning wastage into school education, e.g. in home economics. The National Board of Housing, Building and Planning Investigate the possibility of introducing a requirement to plan for good food storage facilities in connection with the new-build and refurbishment of homes. The possibility of revising building norms and standards, introducing rules which impose requirements in connection with planning permission, or alternatively reaching voluntary agreements, should be investigated. The Swedish Board of Agriculture Map quantities and the causes of food wastage in primary production. Develop proposals for measures to reduce wastage. 4. Priority areas 85

86 Research needs There is an overarching need to increase our knowledge of causes, quantities and possible measures in every link in the food chain and to bring about changes in production, attitude and behaviour in both the producer and the consumer links in the chain. Good examples Personal mentor - Eco teams Mentoring families to adopt a sustainable lifestyle has been shown to produce good long-term results, partly in order to reduce food wastage. This could for example take place in so-called Eco teams, which have already been established in the Netherlands and Great Britain. These teams can be compared with study or discussion groups, within which objectives, challenges, monitoring and feedback are established with the aim of preventing waste. ( The Leva livet! (Live life!) project The Live life! pilot project was carried out during This project was run by the City of Gothenburg. A number of ordinary families and a couple of "Gothenburg profiles" participated in the project and tried out a new, enjoyable and greener life for a year. In addition to targets concerning waste reduction, there were also targets concerning the impact on the climate caused by consumption and travel. The best family succeeded in reducing its waste by 60 percent. 'Eat soon' labelling One food-chain has introduced a new system for date labelling. Instead of discarding food with a short date, it is marked with a green "eat soon" label and sold at a reduced price. The new labelling and price reductions encourage customers to buy products with a short date and reduce the quantities of food that are discarded. Chefs in the store Some shops have employed chefs to prepare lunches and evening meals from food products which are approaching their "best before" or "use by" date. The cooked food is then sold in the shop. Food banks One initiative which is primarily being carried out for social reasons, but which is also helping to reduce food wastage, is so-called 'food banks'. Food which is approaching its 'best before' date is collected at these food banks and then distributed to aid organisations and other recipients. Food banks have been introduced in many countries. They have been in use in Great Britain for 15 years with very positive results. In Sweden, one company has started to distribute food which is approaching its 'use by' date from shops to a charity organisation, e.g. shelters for the homeless. The Salvation Army also has plans to set up food banks at a number of locations around the country. The system is based on restaurateurs and shop owners paying a small sum of money to get rid of their 86 Sweden s Waste Plan

87 surplus food. The money covers the costs of transport and freezer storage. This makes it possible to supply high-quality food to homeless shelters, women's shelters and other recipients. Situation description The most recent statistics indicate that the quantity of food waste generated in Sweden is around one million tonnes per year. 76 The agricultural sector is not included in these statistics. food waste is generated in a number of different links in the food-chain - in connection with production and by wholesalers, suppliers, shops, restaurants and catering facilities, as well as by households. Households account for the single biggest proportion, approximately 670,000 tonnes per year. This is equivalent to approximately 72 kg/person per year or 0.8 kg food waste for a family of four every day. A high proportion of household food waste, 65 percent, consists of 'unavoidable waste', e.g. coffee-grounds, potato peel and banana skins. This means that one third of household waste is food that is discarded unnecessarily, e.g. bread, whole fruit and vegetables. 77 Table 6. food waste per sector and household Sector Quantity (tonnes) Share (%) Agriculture - - Food product industry 171, Food stores 39,000 4 Restaurants 99, School kitchens 26,000 3 Hospital kitchens - - Households 674, Of which unavoidable food waste 435,000 (65%) Of which unnecessary food waste 239,000 (35%) Total 1,010,000 Source: Jensen C, Stenmarck Å, Sörme L and Dunsö O (2011). Causes of food wastage The causes of food wastage vary between the various parts of the foodchain. Wastage in food product industries can for example arise in connection with the delivery of damaged ingredients, the switching of a product on a production line or faults in production. In shops, wastage is often caused by the passing of the 'best before' date. 78 Possible underlying reasons behind lapsed expiry dates include errors in as- 76 Jensen C, Stenmarck Å, Sörme L and Dunsö O (2011) 77 Jensen C, Stenmarck Å, Sörme L and Dunsö O (2011) 78 Stenmarck Å, Hansen OJ, Silvennoinen K, Katajajuuri JM and Werge M (2011) 4. Priority areas 87

88 sessing orders, irregular buying patterns among consumers, campaigns run by competitors or the company itself or inappropriate product placement on shop shelves. It may also be the result of the shop prioritising a broad and long-lasting range in order to target the customer base that expects this. The return systems for dairy products and bread also represent a problem. They reduce the incentive for shops to seek to sell out of these food products, as they can return the goods at virtually no expense. In restaurants, wastage occurs in connection with the preparation of food in the kitchen and in connection with serving. Wastage from food preparation in kitchens largely arises as a direct result of difficulties in predicting how many guests will come, which in turn results in difficulties preparing the right amount of food. In connection with serving, there is a particularly high risk in the case of self-service buffets. It is also difficult to maintain routines for reducing wastage with high staff turnover levels and a large number of employees. Wastage from catering facilities and school kitchens is often the result of too many portions being prepared. Financial routines can also impact on food wastage by a catering facility. There may be a risk of budgeting for too much and thereby also consuming too many resources so as not to receive a reduction in funding in the following year. There is probably considerable potential to reduce wastage. As regards school kitchens, it is considered entirely possible to carry out measures which could halve the quantity of wastage. Wastage by households is largely about consumption patterns, behaviour and attitudes. The fast pace of life with rising expectations concerning living standards means that households today often do not have sufficient time to spend preparing food more than is necessary. This results in a greater risk of wastage as a result of the planning of purchases being neglected, overbuying leading to food products becoming out of date, best before dates being misinterpreted, not all ingredients or residual food waste being utilised and packaging not been emptied fully. What is being done? The Swedish National Food Administration is working to reduce the environmental impact of the food-chain. One current project is focussing on reducing food wastage in the home and at schools. Background information concerning wastage and storage, as well as the provision of advice to households, was published in SLU is mapping the quantities and causes of food wastage in shops in a three-year research project. Stockholm Consumer Cooperative Society has carried out a number of studies concerning food wastage and is actively working on the issue. The society has also prepared educational material for schools concerning how schools can work to reduce food wastage. The Swedish farmers' co-operative Lantmännen has conducted campaigns targeted at households. The Swedish Board of Agriculture has financed projects under the Matlandet Sverige (Foodland Sweden) initiative. One project is entitled Minskat svinn i livsmedelskedjan ett helhetsgrepp (Reduced wastage in the food-chain - a holistic approach) and involves an assessment of the quantities and causes of wastage and possible improvement initiatives concerning a number of products in the 88 Sweden s Waste Plan

89 food-chain as a whole. The project is jointly financed by the Federation of Swedish Food Industries and the Swedish Food Retailers' Federation. Another project, entitled Du kan vinna på att låta svinnet försvinna (You can gain by eliminating wastage) is preparing an inventory of the quantities of food wastage and the climatic impact of wastage for a number of products throughout the chain. The Swedish Board of Agriculture has just begun work to map wastage in primary production. The Swedish Rural Economy and Agricultural Societies is training dietary managers and environmental coordinators in municipalities through workshops under the Minska matsvinnet (Reduce food wastage) project. Karlstad University is carrying out a study into the links between food wastage and packaging design. At the initiative of the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency, Stockholm Consumer Cooperative Society and the Swedish National Food Agency, the SaMMa group (the Network for the Reduction of Food Waste) has been established. This is a network for authorities, researchers, stakeholder organisations and the industry, within which actors from different parts of the food-chain work together to identify solutions to jointly contribute to reducing food wastage. This could involve the collation and dissemination of knowledge, the development of indicators and the identification of essential measures. Recovery of plant nutrients and energy from food waste Failing to utilise the nutrients and energy in food waste is a waste of resources. For example, food waste contains phosphorous and potassium, which are both finite resources. The biogas from digestion can replace fossil fuels. Emissions of particles and nitrogen oxides can also be reduced if the gas is used as a fuel for vehicles. Objectives By 2018, at least 50 percent of food waste from households, institutional kitchens, shops and restaurants must be sorted and processed biologically so that plant nutrients are utilised, with at least 40 percent being processed so that energy is also utilised. Interpretation and monitoring The objective encompasses food waste which is processed biologically in such a way that the plant nutrients can be recovered. Biological processing covers both composting and digestion. Biogas is formed during digestion, which means that both plant nutrients and energy can be recovered. In the case of composting, the plant nutrients are recovered, whilst the energy is given off in the form of heat. The objective can be achieved through digesting at least 40 percent of food waste and composting at least 10 percent. Both centralised composting and home composting can be included, provided the compost is used in such a way that the nutrients can be utilised. 4. Priority areas 89

90 In cases where food waste is digested along with other substrates such as manure or slaughterhouse waste, the food waste can be included in the objective provided that the digestion residues can be reused as a fertiliser. This is provided there is no risk of dispersing undesirable substances. In the case of digestion along with waste fractions, there is a risk that the digestion residues will contain excessively high concentrations of undesirable substances. These digestion residues can however be included in the objective if the properties of the digestion residues from the treatment works are such that there is no risk of dispersing hazardous substances and that there is a market for the digestion residues. This also applies to food waste which is ground down using a kitchen waste grinder and transported through the sewer system to the digestion chambers of the wastewater treatment plants. However, not all the nutrients and energy that are contained in the food waste can be recycled, partly because of the degradation of organic material in the sewer networks. However, the primary reason is the processes at the wastewater treatment plants. Such added food reduces the quantity of biogas compared with if the food waste had been transported by road for digestion at biogas plants for waste. The content of nitrogen and potassium is also reduced. When calculating attainment of the objective for food waste grinders, not all food waste that is ground down in the waste system can therefore be considered in the objective. In consultation with the actors concerned, the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency will specify how the calculation should be performed. In its monitoring of the objective, the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency will use the national waste statistics as a basis. As regards the recovery of nutrients, information from Swedish Waste Management will be used. What needs to happen? The development of systems for the collection of food waste for digestion needs to increase. More municipalities need to participate. Techniques for the collection, pre-treatment, digestion, handling and dispersal of digestion residues need to be developed and improved. What the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency will do Monitor developments and, when necessary, propose instruments for achieving the objective. Update the general recommendations concerning methods for the commercial storage, digestion and composting of waste (NFS 2003:15). Investigate the possibility of imposing mandatory requirements for the regular measurement of methane emissions from biogas plants and upgrade plants (like the voluntary obligation), e.g. the form of general regulations. Together with the industry, monitor developments in capacity for biogas production. Continue the work to develop better statistics for the collection and biological treatment of food waste. 90 Sweden s Waste Plan

91 Examples of what other actors can do The municipalities More municipalities need to introduce and increase the collection of food waste for digestion. The municipalities and actors which invest in new digestion capacity Expand digestion capacity in the regions where there is a shortage of processing capacity. Inspection and permit authorities In connection with inspections and testing pursuant to the Environmental Code, highlight the risk of the leakage of methane gas from pre-treatment, digestion and any upgrading to vehicle gas. Issues concerning the quality assurance of digestion residues in connection with their use as biofertiliser should also be highlighted to enable plant nutrients to be utilised. Swedish Waste Management, Swedish Water & Wastewater Association and other affected industry organisations Work to ensure the quality-assurance of biofertiliser and soil improvement products based on food waste. Develop the work relating to the voluntary undertaking to limit methane emissions from biogas and upgrade facilities to cover more facilities (including digestion chambers at wastewater treatment plants). Disseminate knowledge concerning the collection of food waste, pretreatment, digestion and upgrading, as well as the handling of digestion residues. The recycling industry Develop methods and techniques to increase the collection and recycling of food waste. Research needs There is a need for research and greater knowledge within a number of areas, including: The content of concentrated nutrients in digestion residues (biofertiliser). Optimisation of pre-treatment and digestion processes. Communication, behaviour and evaluations in connection with the collection of food waste. Mapping of sources of undesirable substances in digestion residues. Development of collection techniques, e.g. for urban areas and organisations generating large quantities of food waste. 4. Priority areas 91

92 Situation description During 2010, just 9.7 percent of food waste from households, restaurants, catering facilities and shops was processed through digestion. Around 13 percent of food waste was composted, almost half of which was composted by households. 79 The rest of the food waste went for incineration. Virtually all the digestion residues that are produced are used as fertiliser within agriculture (biofertiliser). Most of the biogas is upgraded to vehicle fuel. The remainder is used for electricity or heating generation. Over half of Swedish municipalities had more or less developed systems for the collection of food waste in A further 60 municipalities had plans to introduce a system for the sorting of food waste at source. There is generally sufficient capacity to receive food waste for composition or digestion in Sweden. There is a trend towards increased digestion. There may however be capacity shortages regionally. A problem associated with the digestion and upgrading of biogas to vehicle fuel is that leakage of the greenhouse gas methane can occur. It is important to control and limit these emissions. Swedish Waste Management is working on a voluntary undertaking for biogas and upgrade facilities, where the facilities must carry out regular checks to ensure that any leaks of methane are detected and rectified. Driving forces and obstacles According to municipal actors, the previous interim objective of waste under the "A good built environment" environmental quality objective of "At least 35 percent of food waste from households, restaurants, catering facilities and shops shall be recycled through biological treatment in 2010" has been a driving force in the development of separate collections of food waste for biological treatment. State investment support has also contributed to this trend. Enterprises in rural areas can apply for support through the Rural development programme, which is managed by the Swedish Board of Agriculture. The rising demand for biogas is another key driving force. The importance of increasing the digestion of organic waste is highlighted in the national biogas strategy from the Swedish Energy Agency. Collection costs represent a barrier to an increase in the sorting of food waste. It is currently cheaper to collect the waste for incineration. This is primarily because the costs associated with separate collections would be higher. The gate fees levied by incineration plants have also been reduced. This is partly because the incineration tax has been withdrawn, but also because competition for the waste has increased, putting downward pressure on prices. The cost of selling the digestion residues represents another barrier. The high water content of digestion residues makes it expensive to transport and distribute. The tax on artificial fertilisers has also been withdrawn, which makes it difficult for digestion residues to become a competitive alternative. 79 Swedish Waste Management (2011), Svensk avfallshantering 2010 (Swedish Waste Management). 92 Sweden s Waste Plan

93 The requirements imposed on food product companies and agriculture may also be a barrier. There may also be regional barriers. For example, the availability of cultivated land may be limited around the major cities and in agricultural communities with high livestock densities, where there is already a shortage of land for the spreading of animal manure. Legislation In order to reduce the environmental impact associated with digestion and composting, general recommendations and a manual have been published by the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency (NFS 2003:15). These recommendations are based on Chapter 2 Section 3 of the Environmental Code. They encompass temporary storage, digestion and composting, primarily of food waste and food product-related waste. Rules concerning the management of food waste are also set out in the legislation concerning animal by-products which are regulated by the following EU Regulations: Regulation (EC) No 1069/2009 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 21 October 2009 laying down health rules as regards byproducts and derived products not intended for human consumption and repealing Regulation (EC) No 1774/2002. Commission Regulation (EU) No 142/2011 of 25 February 2011 implementing Regulation (EC) No 1069/2009 of the European Parliament and of the Council. Animal by-products are for example food waste which can be used in connection with composting and conversion to biogas. In Regulation (EU) No 142/2011, catering waste is defined as "all food waste, including used cooking oil originating in restaurants, catering facilities and kitchens, including central kitchens and household kitchens". Pursuant to Annex V to Regulation (EU) No 142/2011, it is only permitted to impose national requirements concerning conversion to biogas and the composting of food waste. The handling of former food products from shops and the processed food industry may therefore not be covered by national requirements, but must comply with the EU requirements that are imposed in both the abovementioned legislations. These facilities must be approved by the Swedish Board of Agriculture. 4. Priority areas 93

94 Waste treatment Although waste treatment in Sweden is reasonable effective, there are still areas where there is considerable potential for improvement. This section proposes measures within the areas of end-of-life vehicles, leakage from older landfills, atmospheric emissions in connection with waste incineration and fires at waste storage sites. Waste often consists of many different substances and materials which can cause major environmental effects if the waste is not treated correctly. Demanding requirements are therefore imposed concerning treatment methods and protective measures for facilities that treat waste. Inspections of the facilities represents an important instrument for ensuring that the requirements are met. End-of-life vehicles End-of-life vehicles are classified as hazardous waste until all hazardous liquids and components have been removed from them. Vehicles contain everything from oils, batteries and electronics to heavy metals such as lead and mercury. The content of hazardous substances and components in vehicles, combined with demanding recycling targets, is imposing demanding requirements on both vehicle manufacturers and those who ultimately dispose of end-of-life vehicles. Objectives All end-of-life vehicles shall be delivered to authorised vehicle dismantlers and the decontamination and dismantling of end-of-life vehicles shall be improved. The objective for the recycling of vehicles is regulated by an EU Directive called the ELV Directive (ELV, End-of-Life-Vehicles). 80 The current objective is for at least 85 percent of the average weight per vehicle and year to be reused or recycled. Of this, no more than five percent may be energy recovery. In 2015, this requirement increases to 95 percent reuse or recycling, of which no more than ten percent may be energy recovery. 80 Directive 2000/53/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 18 September 2000 on end-of-life vehicles. 94 Sweden s Waste Plan

95 Monitoring The objective will be monitored through the annual reports from the producers. What needs to happen? In order to achieve better control over the recycling objectives in the ELV Directive, the extent of reporting must increase, as must the quality of what is reported. The decontamination and dismantling of end-of-life vehicles needs to be improved to ensure that hazardous waste is removed and to reduce the waste that remains following shredding (fluff, shredder residue). The illegal dismantling of vehicles in Sweden must cease. Greater supervision is needed in order to achieve this. What the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency will do Draw up inspection guidance for vehicle dismantlers. Examples of what other actors can do The municipalities Inform their inhabitants of the risks associated with taking their vehicle to an unauthorised vehicle dismantler. Monitor to ensure that all authorised vehicle dismantlers in the municipality submit a recycling report every year. Increase inspections of dismantling carried out by vehicle dismantlers. Inform the county administrative board of cases where it is believed that authorisation should be revoked. Increase inspections and monitoring of illegal vehicle dismantlers. A prosecution notice must always be issued when an illegal vehicle dismantler is discovered. County administrative boards Monitor vehicle dismantlers' authorisations, e.g. through the introduction of routines to revoke authorisations that are not utilised. Vehicle manufacturers Ensure that vehicle dismantlers affiliated to the producers' reception system decontaminate and dismantle end-of-life vehicles to the extent that is required in order to achieve the objectives. Ensure that all affiliated car dismantlers report and assure the quality of the underlying information that is received (quantity of hazardous waste that is removed, etc.). The objective concerning the recycling of vehicles will increase to 95 percent from 2015 (average weight per vehicle and year). This means that materials that are not as profitable to recycle as metal (such as glass and 4. Priority areas 95

96 plastic) must also be recycled. The quantity of shredder residue (fluff) that is sent for landfill must be reduced. Promote the reuse of used car components. Situation description A large number of vehicles become waste every year. In 2010, over 175,000 vehicles were dismantled. End-of-life vehicles are classified as hazardous waste until all hazardous liquids and components have been removed from them. Vehicles contain everything from oils, batteries and electronics to heavy metals such as lead and mercury. However, other materials such as plastic and glass must also be removed. This imposes demanding requirements on both producers and those who must ultimately dispose of the endof-life vehicles. The producer responsibility 81 for vehicles places the responsibility for achieving the recycling objectives on the producers (as regards vehicles that are delivered to the producers' reception system). An important step along the way is for vehicles to be designed in such a way as to facilitate the dismantling process. It is the producers who must ensure that there are reception sites (usually vehicle dismantlers) to which end-of-life vehicle can be delivered free of charge. The producers also have a reporting obligation to the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency. Authorisation is required in order to operate as a vehicle dismantler. This authorisation is granted by the county administrative board. According to the Motor Vehicle Dismantling Ordinance 82 an annual report must be submitted to the producers, with a copy to the municipality in which the business is based. This report must contain the information that the producers require in order to calculate the level of recycling and reuse. Around half of the country's approximately 300 vehicle dismantlers currently submit reports. This means that the background information for calculating achievement of the objective is subject to considerable uncertainty. End-of-life and dismantled vehicles are shredded at one of the country's seven shredding facilities. The waste product produced, known as 'shredder residue', primarily consists of plastic and rubber, which is considered to be burnable organic waste. In 2009, 80,000 tonnes of fluff was sent for landfill from vehicles, electrical waste, etc. through dispensations from the landfill ban granted by the county administrative boards. In order to achieve the objective to reduce the quantities sent for landfill, in combination with the tightening of the recycling objectives for vehicles, the motor industry will have to develop new solutions. Through a survey distributed to all municipalities, the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency has reviewed the inspection of vehicle breaking facilities. A high proportion of the municipalities replied that they had discovered serious deficiencies in connection with inspection visits to vehicle dismantlers, and that in a number of cases injunctions were issued. Around 81 Ordinance (2007:185) on producer responsibility for vehicles. 82 Motor Vehicle Dismantling Ordinance (2007:186) 96 Sweden s Waste Plan

97 33 percent of the country's municipalities reported that they have had cases involving illegal vehicle dismantlers. The results show that there is a considerable need for, and much to gain from, increasing inspections further. Legislation The objective concerning the recycling of vehicles is set out in the ELV Directive (see above). The primary purposes of the Directive are to prevent the generation of waste from vehicles, to promote reuse and recycling, and to reduce discharges of environmentally harmful liquids and substances into the atmosphere, ground and water. The Directive also bans all use of lead, mercury, cadmium and hexavalent chromium, with certain exceptions which are specified in an annex to the Directive. On behalf of the government, the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency has investigated the disposal of end-of-life vehicles. The report on the investigation was submitted in June The investigation covered the way in which environmental considerations are taken into account in connection with motor vehicle dismantling, the handling of surrendered vehicles by municipalities, inspections, attainment of the recycling objectives and the distribution of responsibility between the economic actors. The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency has presented a number of measures in response to the remit; see the report Uttjänta bilar och miljön, Redovisning av regeringsuppdrag 83 (End-of-life vehicles and the environment, Report to the government). Disused landfills According to Section 4 of the Waste Ordinance (2001:1063), landfill is defined as a disposal procedure which involves the placing of waste in a landfill. Section 5 of the same Ordinance states that the term 'landfill' refers to a storage site for waste. A closed landfill site is a waste storage site which is no longer in use and which is not covered by the Landfill Ordinance. Old closed landfills represent a risk as regards pollution of the ground, groundwater and surface water, but also as regards gas generation. The environmental protection measures at and locations of these older landfills are generally inferior to the landfills that are in operation today. In the case of older, closed landfills, little or no sampling of leachate is usually carried out. Building on or adjacent to closed landfills is also associated with risk. Objectives The risk of adverse environmental impacts from closed landfills shall decrease. All municipalities and county administrative boards shall have identified, inventoried and risk-classified all closed landfills Priority areas 97

98 Monitoring The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency will monitor the objective, partly on the basis of information in the national database for contaminated lands and partly through contact with the municipalities and county administrative boards. What needs to happen There is a need to identify, inventory, risk-classify and, when necessary, perform protection measures at closed landfills. This need is highlighted in the government report entitled Åtgärder för levande hav (Measures for a living sea) (Skr. 2009/10:213) and in the Baltic Sea Action Plan. The inventory and risk classification of closed landfills provides an overview of the extent of the problem and represents an important basis for future land exploitation and the handling of spatial planning matters. What the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency will do Complete the guidance for the inventory, investigation and risk classification of old landfill sites. The purpose of the guidance is to facilitate the work of the inspection authorities relating to closed landfills and to enable similar assessments to be carried out. Examples of what other actors can do The municipalities Prepare an inventory and risk classification of all closed landfills in the municipality. Investigate and carry out risk assessments on landfills where the risk classification indicates a "high risk" or "very high risk". Implement measures to reduce the risk of exposure to, and the dispersal of hazardous substances from, the landfills for which the municipality is responsible. Investigate who is responsible for the landfills. Impose a requirement for measures to be undertaken by the party that is responsible for reducing the risk of the dispersal of hazardous substances, or alternatively investigate the possibility of state funding for remediation if the area has been given a high priority and no party has been designated as responsible. County administrative boards Prepare an inventory and risk classification of the closed landfills which the board is responsible for inspecting. Investigate and carry out risk assessments on landfills where the risk classification indicates a "high risk" or "very high risk". Investigate who is responsible for the landfills. Impose a requirement for measures to be taken by the party that is responsible for reducing the risk of exposure to and the dispersal of hazardous substances. 98 Sweden s Waste Plan

99 What the actors/industry needs to do Actively participate in the work and assist the inspection authorities through the provision of background information for use in the preparation of inventories and risk classifications. Implement measures to reduce the risk of the dispersal of hazardous substances from the landfills for which the party concerned is responsible. Swedish Association of Local Authorities and Regions and Swedish Waste Management Investigate whether refuse collection charges could be used to finance environmental protection measures relating to closed municipal landfills. There is a need for this, as state funding for remediation cannot be used for measures which relate to contaminated lands where responsibility has been assigned. Research needs The possibilities to develop resource-efficient recycling and recovery of metals and minerals through 'landfill mining' should be investigated. Situation description There is currently no national overview of the number of closed landfills or any assessment of the environmental risk that they pose. The number of closed landfills is estimated to be several thousand. EBH-stöd is the county administrative boards' joint database of potentially contaminated lands in Sweden. All areas suspected of being polluted by past or present industrial activity which may have given rise to contamination are registered in the database. The database has been developed to cover the entire process relating to contaminated land from the identification phase to the remediation phase. EBH-stöd contains 3652 waste landfills, of which 1194 or 33 percent have been risk-classified. As our knowledge concerning the risks associated with closed landfills is limited, the resources for measures cannot be prioritised and distributed on the basis of importance and risk. There are considerable variations between the municipalities. However, municipalities usually have a good knowledge of the closed landfills that exist, and in some cases a first step in the preparation of an inventory has been taken through archive studies, for example. However, step two in accordance with MIFO (the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency's methodology for inventories of contaminated lands) has often not been taken, i.e. there is no complete site inventory with sampling and analyses. Driving forces and obstacles There is a risk that the work relating to the preparation of inventories and measures relating to closed landfills is taking place slowly. The municipalities are probably responsible for the retrospective treatment of most of the closed landfills, but they must prioritise their resources. The inspection authorities (municipalities and county administrative boards) must therefore be active. Demand for land can also have a positive impact on the remediation 4. Priority areas 99

100 work relating to closed landfill. Industrial landfills can represent a valuable resource, and interest in landfill mining could become a driving force to remediate the landfills concerned. Legislation The regulations concerning the content of municipal waste plans (NFS 2006:6) contain a requirement according to which the plan must include information concerning and a risk assessment of closed landfills. If the municipality has been an operator, planned and implemented measures to prevent nuisances must be reported. According to the Swedish Environmental Code, the operator is responsible for the remediation of contaminated land, but a property owner may also be responsible. The state grant for remediation may not be used for the remediation of landfills for which the municipality or another party is responsible. Control of atmospheric emissions from waste incineration Most Swedish waste incineration facilities are effective and maintain a high level of quality. Confidence in waste incineration can be boosted further through better data concerning emissions of pollutants such as dioxins and furans. Objectives Facilities that incinerate waste must continually sample dioxin and furan emissions. The objective encompasses facilities which receive household waste or waste which contains not insignificant quantities of halogens and metals, e.g. waste which consists of mixed fractions from activities (construction and demolition, etc.). Facilities which only receive uncontaminated wood waste or other biofuels are not covered by the objective. Continual sampling means that samples are continuously taken of the flue gases that are generated during the incineration process. 84 Monitoring The objective is monitored via environmental reports or via the requirements concerning reporting that follow from the Industrial Emissions Directive. 84 A commonly used method is to carry out sampling continuously over a measurement period of several weeks and to then send the sample for analysis. A mean value for atmospheric emissions is then determined for the measurement period. 100 Sweden s Waste Plan

101 What needs to happen? More facilities that incinerate waste need to introduce continuous sampling of dioxins and furans in flue gases. The introduction of continuous sampling in this way would increase our knowledge both concerning actual emissions of dioxins and furans by the facilities concerned, and concerning the total emissions from waste incineration in Sweden. As measurement data will enable lessons to be learned, one indirect consequence may be that emissions will be further reduced. What the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency will do Provide guidance concerning the recommendation that waste incineration facilities should continuously sample dioxins and furans. Collate, evaluate and disseminate information concerning experiences relating to the continuous sampling of dioxins and furans. Examples of what other actors can do Swedish Waste Management in partnership with the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency Collate, evaluate and disseminate information concerning experiences relating to the continuous sampling of dioxins and furans. Permit authorities Impose conditions relating to the continuous sampling of dioxins and furans in legal and administrative cases concerning sampling carried out at facilities that combust waste-classified 85 fuel. Operators Improve the sampling of dioxins and furans in collaboration with the inspection authorities. Situation description Most Swedish facilities that incinerate waste-classified fuel are effective and maintain a high level of quality as regards the environment. In order to maintain this level of confidence, it is important that these facilities have control over their emissions. During the 1980s, there was a strong focus on emissions in connection with the incineration of household waste. At the end of the 1980s, the facilities carried out improvements as the legislation was tightened. For example, a requirement was introduced concerning better combustion conditions, better flue gas treatment and better control. Measured atmospheric emissions varied from 0.5 to 2.6 grams per year during the period , which is just a fraction of what they were in the early 1980s. However, the 85 Facilities that incinerate waste that are covered by Ordinance (2002:1060) on waste incineration. 4. Priority areas 101

102 possibility that higher emissions than those measured may be occurring over both shorter and longer periods of time cannot be excluded. It is believed that continuous sampling would verify and have a positive impact on this. Dioxins and dibenzofurans are chlorinated environmental toxins that are formed during the combustion of organic material together with chlorine. The chlorine may originate from waste fractions that contain chlorine, e.g. PVC plastic. However, many biofuels such as wood also contain small amounts of chlorine. Dioxins and dibenzofurans belong to the type of substances that are toxic, fat-soluble and persistent. They have been widely demonstrated in the environment, in fish and in mammals, as well as in human breast milk. There is some uncertainty concerning the magnitude of atmospheric emissions of dioxins and furans. Dioxin and furan emissions are normally measured via random sampling twice a year. From these random samples, annual emissions are then calculated by scaling up the emissions based on the facility's annual operating hours. When calculating total annual emissions in this way, there is a risk that abnormal variations in emissions will not be detected. Emissions are often larger in connection with operational changes and upon start-up and shut-down. Emissions can also be influenced by the fuel being used. Random sample measurements taken during normal operation therefore involve a risk of underestimating average annual emissions. At a national level, there is therefore also a risk of underestimating emissions from waste incineration. For the past ten years or so, equipment has been available for the continuous sampling of accumulated emissions, but with delayed analysis. Such measurements are relatively common at waste incineration facilities in France, Germany, Austria and Belgium, but are only used by one facility in Sweden. Driving forces and obstacles As regards some facilities, the measurement method can help to improve process control and reduce emissions of dioxins and furans. It can also contribute to good and consistent results from flue gas treatment equipment. For both the industry and individual facilities, high-quality documented measurement data may also be valuable in the event of waste incineration being called into question in public opinion or the mass media, e.g. as a result of an individual event at a facility in Sweden or abroad. Legislation The current general requirement within the EU is that dioxins and furans must be measured at least once every six months through random sampling carried out over a period of six to eight hours. During the first year of operation, measurements must be taken every three months. Within the EU, the need for better control over actual emissions is considered to be so strong that the Waste Incineration Directive contains a provision according to which the European Commission will decide the date from which such measurements are to be introduced, once suitable methods for the continuous measurement of dioxins and furans become available. 102 Sweden s Waste Plan

103 This provision is repeated in the Industrial Emissions Directive, which will supersede the Waste Incineration Directive. Fires at waste storage sites Fires at waste storage sites can give rise to emissions of hazardous substances. The risk of fires can be prevented through appropriate storage and monitoring. Objectives All waste shall be stored and subject to controls in such a way that fires at waste storage sites do not occur. Monitoring The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency will monitor the objective through the use of statistics from the Swedish Civil Contingencies Agency concerning the number of fires at waste plants. The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency will also monitor the safety measures that the inspection and permit authorities impose on operators. What needs to happen The waste needs to be stored and subject to controls in such a way that fires at waste storage sites do not occur. If a fire should still occur despite such measures, there is a need for good methods for extinguishing the fire. What the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency will do The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency will follow up the safety measures that the inspection and permit authorities impose on operators. Examples of what actors can do The Swedish Thermal Engineering Research Institute and the Swedish Fire Research Board, in consultation with the actors concerned Prepare guidance concerning the safe storage of waste to ensure that fires do not occur. There is a proposal for a research programme (see below), which will result in a manual with guidelines and measures. Inspection and permit authorities Impose requirements concerning safety measures in connection with inspections and testing in order to reduce the risk of fires. The rescue services Develop methods for extinguishing waste fires in collaboration with the industry. Research needs There is insufficient knowledge and guidance concerning the safe storage of biofuels and waste fuels. The collaborative industry body Värmeforsk and Brandforsk has therefore taken the initiative to instigate a research 4. Priority areas 103

104 programme within this field. The aim is to increase our level of knowledge concerning fire risks, storage methods, extinguishing methods, etc. It will provide a better basis for risk analyses and preventive safety work. The programme will result in a manual with guidelines concerning measures to reduce the risk of fires. The manual will be aimed at authorities and waste, energy and forestry companies. Situation description Large quantities of waste are stored awaiting incineration. This partly concerns seasonal storage when waste that is generated during the summer is stored until the winter season, as demand for heating is low during the summer. Waste is also stored in anticipation of incineration capacity being expanded. However, this type of storage has decreased as the capacity has increased. Fires occur at waste storage sites every year to varying extents. During such fires, emissions of hazardous substances such as dioxins, PAH and PCB occur. Our knowledge of the magnitude of such emissions is very limited. In the case of dioxins for example, this could involve 3-8 grams per year. This can be compared with emissions of dioxins from conventional waste incineration which varied between 0.5 and 2.6 grams per year during the period In addition to atmospheric emissions, there is also a risk of the dispersal of hazardous substances from the water that is used for fire-extinguishing purposes. Emissions from fires at waste and biofuel storage sites generally account for a high proportion of total emissions from fires in Sweden. 104 Sweden s Waste Plan

105 Illegal export of waste to other countries The illegal transport of waste to developing countries is a global environmental problem which has attracted considerable attention in recent years. Such exports have an impact on human health and the environment, as the receiving countries often lack sufficient capacity to deal with the waste in a safe manner. Examples of waste that is exported illegally from Sweden are electrical waste, lead batteries and end-of-life vehicles. Greater awareness of the regulations that apply among both exporters and authorities, as well as better inspections, would be an important step on the road towards the objective: the elimination of all illegal export. Objectives No illegal transportation of waste from Sweden occurs. Monitoring The Swedish Environmental Protection Authority will monitor the objective through collating information concerning the number of cases of illegal waste transportation in Sweden that are stopped. The number of cases of waste transportation from Sweden discovered by authorities abroad will also be used as an indicator. What needs to happen? The supervision of cross-border waste transportation needs to be carried out in a manner that is both cost-effective and appropriate and meets the applicable requirements. The inspection authorities' knowledge of illegal crossborder waste transportation needs to increase. The authorities must have a knowledge of why and how the supervision is carried out. Collaboration between the authorities concerned, such as the inspection authorities, customs authorities, police authorities and prosecution authorities, needs to be improved in order to prevent the illegal export of waste. The development of this collaboration is important if the inspection control is to be effective throughout the waste chain, i.e. from the generation of waste until final recycling or disposal. The level of knowledge among exporters of used goods to developing countries must increase in order to prevent the illegal export of waste. The guidance concerning when something is a product and when it is waste must be made clearer. 4. Priority areas 105

106 What the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency will do Draw up a national action plan for the supervision of cross-border waste transportation. The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency, county administrative boards, customs authorities, police and prosecution authorities must actively participate and develop both the plan and other work in the formalised national collaboration group that has been established for cross-border waste transportation. Together with the county administrative boards, develop the inspection guidance so that the inspection authorities begin to work on the issue to a greater extent. Draw up and disseminate guidance concerning how one decides what is a used product and what is waste. The material must be suitable for use by both exporters and authorities. Arrange seminars for authorities and operators in order to increase the level of collaboration and knowledge concerning the transportation of waste across borders. Examples of what other actors can do The county administrative board and municipalities Increase the level of knowledge concerning the transportation of waste. Increase inspections and review the organisation and orientation of the inspections, which needs to encompass the entire waste chain. This means that inspections will be carried out from the moment the waste is generated, during transportation through to its final destination and where the waste is physically handled in between, e.g. at storage sites and/or in activities where waste is handled. The actors/industry Exporters and waste managers must raise their level of knowledge of the regulations that apply to cross-border waste transportation. Situation description Despite strict regulation, there are still major problems associated with the transportation of hazardous waste from industrialised countries to developing countries where it is not dealt with in an environmentally acceptable manner. In addition to the risk of adverse effects on health and the environment, metal recycling is often ineffective in many countries to which electrical waste, for example, is exported. Only a few metals are recycled and even then only to an inferior recycling level. This results in the need to extract more virgin material from the Earth's crust, which in itself has a major environmental impact (local emissions, energy use, etc.). There is currently considerable ignorance of the regulations that apply to the export of waste among exporters of used goods. Authorities and exporters of used goods often have differing opinions over what is considered 106 Sweden s Waste Plan

107 waste. This often results in the illegal export of waste. This knowledge gap needs to be filled so that the export of used goods can take place in a manner which does not cause environmental problems in receiving countries. According to the evaluation carried out by the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency in 2009, there are also deficiencies in inspections concerning cross-border waste transportation. There are for example deficiencies in the knowledge of authorities concerning why and how the inspections should be carried out. Difficulty in deciding when something is waste and when it is a product complicates the inspection process. Improvements have been implemented since the publication of the study. However, there is still considerable potential to improve the inspections if the authorities concerned are given the resources to work on the issue. Driving forces and obstacles Economics is an important driving force behind illegal waste transportation. High processing costs in Sweden and EU compared with those in countries in Africa and Asia provide an incentive to export. Quite simply, waste is transported to reduce costs. Transport costs from industrialised countries to developing countries are also often low. A lot of waste is also transported to developing countries under the pretence that it consists of used goods. This particularly applies to electrical waste and end-of-life vehicles, but car tyres and clothing, as well as other types of waste, are also being transported. Life-expired products that are considered waste in Sweden may still have a relatively high value in developing countries. Even if a product cannot be reused, it may still be valuable as a result of the metals it contains or its potential use as a spare part. Legislation The Basel Convention, which entered into force in 1992, and EU legislation contain regulations which are intended to protect human health and the environment, and prevent the illegal transportation of waste. The most important legislation concerning cross-border waste transport is Regulation (EC) No 1013/2006. This Regulation applies as Swedish legislation. The Regulation contains the rules that apply to the transportation of waste across borders. Depending on the waste being transported and the country to which it is being transported, the transport may be notifiable, subject to an information obligation or prohibited. It is for example forbidden under any circumstances to transport hazardous waste for recycling or disposal from Sweden to a country that is not a member of the EU or OECD. 4. Priority areas 107

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109 5. Source list 5. Source list 109

110 Ambell C, Björklund A and Ljunggren Söderman M (2010). Potential för ökad materialåtervinning av hushållsavfall och industriavfall, KTH Samhällsplanering och miljö, Miljöstrategisk analys fms Swedish Waste Management (2005). Trender och variationer i hushållsavfallets sammansättning. Plockanalys av hushållens säck- och kärlavfall i sju svenska kommuner. Report 2005:05. Swedish Waste Management (2006). Handbok i kommunal avfallsplanering Vägledning för ett framgångsrikt arbete. Report 2006:13. Swedish Waste Management (2008). Vart tar smått elavfall från hushåll vägen? Studie av plockanalyser samt hushållens attityder och agerande. Report 2008:3. Swedish Waste Management (2010). Avfallshantering Swedish Waste Management (2010). Hantering av grovavfall i Sverige. Report U2010:05. Swedish Waste Management (2011). Nationell kartläggning av plockanalyser av hushållens kärl- och säckavfall. Report U2011:04. Bisaillon M, Finnveden G, Noring M, Stenmarck Å, Sundberg J, Sundqvist J-O, Tyskeng S. (2009) Nya styrmedel inom avfallsområdet? TRITA-INFRA-FMS 2009:7. Miljöstrategisk analys fms, KTH, Stockholm. Carlsson A, Hemström K, Sörme L, Stenmarck Å (2011). Kartläggning och mängder av textilavfall. SMED report 46. Directive 2000/53/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 18 September 2000 on end-of-life vehicles. Directive 2002/96/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 January 2003 on waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE). Directive 2005/32/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 6 July 2005 establishing a framework for the setting of ecodesign requirements for energy-using products and amending Council Directive 92/42/EEC and Directives 96/57/EC and 2000/55/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council. The Ecodesign Directive. Directive 2006/66/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 6 September 2006 on batteries and accumulators and waste batteries and accumulators. Directive 2008/98/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 19 November 2008 on waste and repealing certain directives. Directive 2011:66. Särskild utredare för översyn av avfallsområdet. Chapter MB15 of the Environmental Code (1998:808). Ek C (2011). En översiktlig samhällsekonomisk analys av ökad materialåtervinning i Perstorp municipality. Swedish Environmental Protection Agency. 110 Sweden s Waste Plan

111 Ekvall T (2008) Waste prevention: Environmental effects and policy instruments. Presented at Nordic Workshop Waste Resource Management and Climate Actions, Fredrikstad, Norway, 10 June Hanssen OJ (2011) Food waste in Norway in a value chain perspective, Østfoldforskning, Norway. Hemström K, Stenmarck Å, Sörme L and Carlsson A (2012). Kartläggning av flöden och upplagrade mängder elektriska och elektroniska produkter i Sverige SMED Report 102. Jensen C, Stenmarck Å, Sörme L and Dunsö O (2011). Matavfall 2010 från jord till bord, SMED Report No. 99. COM (2011) 21. A resource-efficient Europe Flagship initiative under the Europe 2020 strategy. COM (2011) 571. Roadmap to a Resource Efficient Europe. Ljunggren Söderman M. (2011). Förändrade ekonomiska förutsättningar för hanteringen av svenskt avfall av nya styrmedel, draft report, IVL Swedish Environmental Research Institute, Gothenburg. Ljunggren Söderman M, Palm D and Rydberg T (2011). Förebygga avfall med kretsloppsparker. Analys av miljöpåverkan, IVL report B1958, IVL Swedish Environmental Research Institute. Swedish Environmental Protection Agency (2006). Avfall i Sverige 2004, Report Swedish Environmental Protection Agency (2007). Hantering och tillsyn av farligt avfall. En uppföljning. Report Swedish Environmental Protection Agency (2008). Avfall i Sverige 2006, Report Swedish Environmental Protection Agency (2010). Avfall i Sverige 2008, Report Swedish Environmental Protection Agency (2010). Effekter av deponiförordningens införande. Report Swedish Environmental Protection Agency (2011). Uttjänta bilar och miljön, Redovisning av regeringsuppdrag. Swedish Environmental Protection Agency (2012). Samla in, återvinn! Uppföljning av producentansvar för Report The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency's regulations and general recommendations concerning the handling of burnable waste and organic waste (NFS 2004:4). Palm D. (2011) Improved waste management of textiles. Report B1976. IVL Swedish Environmental Research Institute. Council Directive 1999/31/EC of 26 April 1999 on the landfill of waste. 5. Source list 111

112 Profu (2011). Utvärdering av föreslaget nationellt miljömål för materialåtervinning Underlag till Sveriges nationella avfallsplan. SFS 1994:1205. Ordinance on producer responsibility for news and pams (graphic papers). SFS 1998:899. Ordinance on environmentally harmful activity and health protection. SFS 2002:1060. Ordinance on waste incineration. SFS 2005:209. Ordinance on producer responsibility for electrical and electronic products. SFS 2006:1273. Ordinance on producer responsibility for packaging. SFS 2007:185. Ordinance on producer responsibility for vehicles. SFS 2007:186. Motor Vehicle Dismantling Ordinance. SFS 2008:834. Ordinance on producer responsibility for batteries. SFS 2011:734. Amendment of the Environmental Code Act. SFS 2011:927. Waste Ordinance SGI (2007). Sammanställning av material och användningsområden. Underlag i Naturvårdsverkets regeringsuppdrag Återvinning av avfall i anläggningsarbeten. SIFO (2006). SIFO' Telefonbuss SIFO (2011). SIFO' Telefonbuss Stenmarck Å, Hansen OJ, Silvennoinen K, Katajajuuri JM, Werge M (2011), Initiatives on prevention of food waste in the retail and wholesale trades. TemaNord 2011:548. The Keep Sweden Tidy Foundation (2010) Skräprapporten 2010 En studie av skräpet i tio svenska kommuner. Sundqvist J-O (2010). Miljöpåverkan från avfall miljöpåverkan från avfallssystemet. PM IVL Swedish Environmental Research Institute. Sundqvist J-O (2010). Beräkning av återvinningsmål för hushållsavfall och byggavfall enligt ramdirektivet för avfall (2008/98/EC). IVL Swedish Environmental Research Institute Sundqvist J-O (2011). Verbal communication. IVL Swedish Environmental Research Institute. Sundqvist J-O and Palm D (2010). Miljöpåverkan från avfall underlag för avfallsprevention och förbättrad avfallshantering. IVL Report B1930. IVL Swedish Environmental Research Institute. Östblom G, Ljunggren Söderman M and Sjöström M (2010). Analysing future waste generation soft linking a model for waste management with a CGE-model for Sweden. Working Paper 118, National Institute of Economic Research, Stockholm. 112 Sweden s Waste Plan

113 6. Appendices

114 Appendix Approach Appendix Waste statistics Appendix Treatment plants Appendix Cross-border transportation Appendix Consequences, actors Appendix Environmental assessment Appendix Evaluation of the Waste Directive Appendix Evaluation of the Waste Plan for 2005 Appendix Measures per actor These appendices can be downloaded from the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency's website, Sweden s Waste Plan

115 From waste management to resource efficiency Report 6560 SWEDISH ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY ISBN ISSN The waste plan sets out what we must do to create a more resource-efficient society. To a greater extent than previous waste plans, it places more emphasis on the need to reduce the quantities of waste that are produced through preventing its generation. This approach is supported by the EU's waste hierarchy, which gives waste prevention the highest priority. The plan contains measures that are aimed at both authorities and operators. Around forty different actors are concerned. The information in the plan concerning what needs to be done is also aimed at politicians, officials, the media, corporate environmental managers, students and other interested parties. From waste management to resource efficiency is intended to provide guidance and inspire local and regional waste planning in the country. The aim is to rectify many of the problems that are currently associated with waste. These problems include the discarding of large quantities of food that we could eat, insufficient sorting of construction materials, leaking of hazardous substances from end-of-life vehicles and illegal export of waste. Much is being done to limit the quantities of waste that are generated and to prevent the dispersal of hazardous substances. Establishing systems for sustainable waste management and the effective management of natural resources represent a major challenge given rising consumption levels and cross-border global trade. Swedish EPA SE Stockholm. Visiting address: Stockholm Valhallavägen 195, Östersund Forskarens väg 5 hus Ub, Tel: , fax: , [email protected] Internet: Orders Ordertel: , orderfax: , [email protected] Address: Arkitektkopia AB, Box , SE Bromma. Internet: