Motivation To Learn A Foreign Language In Malaysia

Transcription

1 GEMA Online Journal of Language Studies 73 Motivation To Learn A Foreign Language In Malaysia Ainol Madziah Zubairi [email protected] Centre for Languages International Islamic University Malaysia Isarji Hj Sarudin [email protected] Centre for Languages International Islamic University Malaysia Abstract Many nations have addressed the need to produce graduates who are multilingual in the effort to compete in the global society. Malaysia has acknowledged the importance of proficiency in a third language in order to develop human capital that drives the k- economy as well as competes in the international arena. This study investigated Malaysian students motivation to learn a foreign language. Triangulation of methods consisting of survey questionnaire, document analysis and focus group discussion were employed for data collection. A survey based on a 16-item questionnaire was formulated and more than 500 students from University Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM) and Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM) responded to the survey. Responses to the survey were subjected to the Rasch and descriptive analyses in order to capture salient features of students responses. The findings of the study indicate that UKM and UiTM students were extrinsically and intrinsically motivated to learn a foreign language. The results of the t-test, however, indicate a significant difference in terms of the motivation of students from the two universities. Keywords: foreign language learning, policy, extrinsic and intrinsic motivation, Malaysian students Introduction In an increasingly interdependent world, knowledge of foreign languages is seen not only as an added advantage which has become crucial in accessing foreign technology but also is systematically associated with one s meaningful and constructive engagement in politics, security, global trade and education. It has become an economic commodity. In order to participate in the global economy, one has to be adequately equipped with the ability, knowledge, skills, and attitudes to understand and communicate effectively. Consistently, educational leaders have been emphasizing the need to foster foreign language competency among students (Zeszotarski, 2001; Welles, 2004; Christian et al., 2005 and Ainol et al., 2007). The United States Department of Education has been funding periodic nation-wide surveys since 1958 to gauge the development of foreign language programmes across

2 GEMA Online Journal of Language Studies 74 institutions of higher education (Welles, 2004). Puhafl, Christian, and Rhodes (2000) surveyed the policies and practices of foreign language education in 19 nations. They reported that successful foreign language programmes shared several common features, including (a) an early start for students to learn the languages, (b) a coherent teaching and learning framework, (c) strong leadership, (d) the status of the foreign language as a core subject, (e) rigorous teacher education, (f) integration of the foreign language within content domain, and (g) creative use of technology. In addition, general awareness and recognition of economic, social, cultural, scientific and religious aspects also underscore the features of an effective foreign language curriculum. The National Council of State Supervisors of Foreign Languages (2009) summarizes six significant studies and reports over the past twenty years on the increasing need for students to be proficient in at least two languages. Among others the reports highlighted that: 1. foreign language education is ranked at the same level as the basic academic fields such as English, mathematics, computer science, social studies, and the natural sciences. 2. learning to speak a second language is no longer reserved for the elite. Having a citizenry that is proficient in more than one language is now a matter of the nation s security. 3. higher education should require competency in a foreign language as an admission requirement. 4. one way to raise standards in education is to produce fluent foreign language graduates by teaching foreign languages in elementary schools, and then in middle schools and high schools. 5. knowledge of foreign languages is one of the most important skills that K- 12 students will need to develop to prosper in the 21 st century. Issues concerning foreign language education captivated discussions in almost all countries in Asia, Europe and the United States as early as Such discussions revolved around many interesting themes ranging from politics, economy, and sociocultural factors and employing quite a number of dynamic and progressive approaches. In particular, demand for foreign language education is an anticipated reaction by government officials, educationists, and public and private institutions of higher learning as these stakeholders need to keep up with the onslaught of globalization and decentralization. The core of discussions on foreign language education lies initially in the issue of proficiency. A nation whose citizens are proficient in foreign languages is bound to have the distinct advantage of being better-placed to have access to foreign technology that is crucial to nation-building (Daud, 1994; Kagoshiman, 1991). Additionally, knowledge of foreign languages is essential to be able to better understand a country s social and cultural peculiarities. As a multi-racial country in an interdependent world, Malaysia is also affected by the global economic crisis. Employment situation in Malaysia necessitates the need for graduates to acquire employable skills including proficiency in a third language.

3 GEMA Online Journal of Language Studies 75 According to the National Higher Education Strategic Plan Beyond 2020 (The Ministry of Higher Education, 2007), Proficiency in the third language is vital for developing human capital that drives the k-economy as well as gears the country towards competitive innovation in the international arena, (p.62). Malaysian universities are encouraged to provide learning opportunities for students to be proficient in a third language such as Mandarin, Tamil, Japanese, French or Spanish, (p.66). Furthermore, the third language will allow graduates not only to get access to the latest technology and information but also to get an added advantage in an increasingly multicultural and diverse work environment where more opportunities are opened to a workforce that is competent in several languages. The importance of foreign languages in a borderless world is more evident when nation building is highly dependent on the acquisition and transfer of foreign technology. As a developing country, Malaysia has set up the International Languages Teacher Training Institute to provide training courses in foreign languages for Malaysian teachers and foreign students especially from South-South countries (Sarban Singh, 1999). Foreign languages are also offered at almost all major public institutions of higher learning in Malaysia such as at UM, UPM, USM, UUM, IIUM, UMS, UKM, UiTM and UNIMAS (Ainol et al., 2007). In view of the increasing expectations for graduates to be knowledgeable about a foreign language there is a need to conduct more research in this area particularly concerning the motivation of Malaysian students to learn a foreign language at institutions of higher learning. Extrinsic and intrinsic motivation models have been used to explain the importance of attitudes and beliefs for enrollment, success, and attrition rates in foreign language classes (Dornyei, 1994; Williams, 1994; Skehan, 1991). Extrinsic motivation refers to an individual s external motivation that comes from outside an individual with rewards such as money or grades (Dornyei, 1994). These types of rewards provide satisfaction and pleasure that the task itself may not provide. Intrinsically motivated people, on the other hand, experience enjoyment in the pursuit of their interests and in the absence of external rewards or controls (Deci & Ryan, 1985; Pintrich, 2000). Even though the literature acknowledges a plethora of research in the understanding and practices of foreign language programmes (Zeszotarski, 2001), more information is needed on the policies and practices of foreign language programmes at Malaysian institutions of higher education especially in terms of planning and developing programmes based on the motivation of students for learning a foreign language. Considering the nation s quest to be recognized as a centre of educational excellence, it is imperative to study this concern systematically. Knowing the beliefs and attitudes students have with regard to learning a foreign language is important for teachers, curriculum designers, and policymakers alike (Ainol et al., 2007; Isarji et al., 2007). The primary objective of the study was to investigate Malaysian students motivation to learn a foreign language, particularly students at Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM) and Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM). Two research questions were formulated for the purpose of the study as follows:

4 GEMA Online Journal of Language Studies What is the motivation of Malaysian students at UKM and UiTM to learn a foreign language? 2. Is there a difference between the motivation of Malaysian students at UKM and UiTM to learn a foreign language? Methodology Participants More than 500 Malaysian students who studied foreign languages and 18 staff who taught foreign languages at UKM and UiTM participated in the study. Data collection and analysis Triangulation of methods consisting of a cross-sectional survey based on a six-point Likert scale, document analysis and focus group discussion were employed for data collection. According to Morgan (1988), in a focus group discussion, people from similar backgrounds or experiences are brought together to discuss a specific topic of interest to the researcher(s). One of the benefits of a focus group discussion is its ability to elicit information in a way which allows researchers to find out why an issue is salient, as well as what is salient about it (Morgan,1988). As a result, the gap between what people say and what they do can be better understood. The result of the focus group discussion is presented in the discussion of findings. Written documents pertaining to course structure, course outline, and programme policy were obtained from UKM and UiTM and analyzed accordingly. A survey based on a 16-item questionnaire was also conducted. The responses were subjected to the Rasch and descriptive analyses in order to capture salient features of students responses. The 16-item questionnaire was developed based on a synthesis of items appearing in the literature on the reasons to learn a foreign language (Kimura et al., 2001; Schmidt et al. 1996; and Carreira, 2004) The data were subjected to the Rasch instrument model for validation of the instrument using WINSTEPS version 3.48 (Linacre & Wright, 2000). Further analyses to capture both the motivation to learn a foreign language and the difference in terms of the motivation were conducted using the SPSS software version 12. The SPSS analysis was used to provide descriptive statistics and to determine the statistical significance of the different motives for learning a foreign language. Data Collection Demographic profile of respondents Over 500 Malaysian university students studying at two universities participated in the study. 52% of the participants studied foreign language at UKM while 48% studied at UiTM. Female students made up 77 percent of the total students while 23 percent were male students. More than 48 percent of the students had a CGPA of 3.01 to Overall, about 71.7 percent were 2 nd year students.

5 GEMA Online Journal of Language Studies 77 At the point of data collection in 2007, UKM offered 8 foreign languages while UiTM offered 9 foreign languages (Table 1). Both UKM and UiTM offered Arabic, Japanese, French, Mandarin, German, Korean, Thai, and Spanish as foreign languages. UiTM, however, offered Italian as an additional foreign language. Table 1: Foreign language courses offered at UKM and UiTM Language University University Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM) Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM) Arabic Japanese French Mandarin German Korean Thai Spanish Italian Nil Total 8 9 Rasch Model Analysis A set of 16 items were formulated to identify student's motivation for learning a foreign language. A six-point ordered category scale comprising Strongly Agree, Agree, Mildly Agree, Mildly Disagree, Disagree and Strongly Disagree was used. A total of 531 responses were subjected to the Rasch analysis. In the Rasch Model analysis, reliability is estimated for both persons and items. Based on the Rasch analysis, item reliability of the 16 item instrument was found to be at 0.98, while the person reliability was at 0.82, with the standard of error of 0.06 and 0.39 respectively. The item separation was found to be at 8.53 while the person separation was at The Rasch analysis indicated that the ordering of the items is expected to be reasonably similar if the same questionnaire were conducted to another sample for which it is suitable (Bond & Fox, 2001).

6 GEMA Online Journal of Language Studies 78 Table 2: Items statistics: Misfit order ENTRY RAW INFIT OUTFIT PTMEA NUMBER SCORE COUNT MEASURE ERRORMNSQ ZSTDMNSQ ZSTDCORR. ITEMS A B C D E F G H h g f e d c b a MEAN S.D Using the guidelines on interpretation of item mean square fit statistics (Bond & Fox, 2001), no item was found to be misfitting (below 0.4 or more than 1.6); therefore, suggesting the unidimensionality of the instrument to capture the construct of reasons for learning a foreign language. Thus, all items were included in the subsequent analysis of the paper. The distribution of the item difficulty indicates that the easiest item to endorse was item 5 (I think it will someday be useful in getting a job) while the most difficult was item 13 (I would really like to learn many foreign languages). Analysis of Data Two research questions were formulated to examine the motivation for learning a foreign language in two foreign language programmes. The first research question is as follows: RQ1: What is the motivation of Malaysian students at UKM and UiTM to learn a foreign language?

7 GEMA Online Journal of Language Studies 79 Table 3: Malaysian students motivation to learn a foreign language* Item no. I learn a foreign language because: (Extrinsic reasons) UKM (%) UiTM (%) 1. I will need it for my future career I think it will make me a more knowledgeable person I think it will someday be useful in getting a job Other people will respect me more if I have knowledge of a foreign language 5. My lecturer(s) encouraged me to learn a foreign language I need to complete a foreign language requirement to graduate 7. My friend(s) encouraged me to learn a foreign language People will think highly of me Mean I learn a foreign language because: (Intrinsic reasons) 9. It will allow me to meet and converse with a variety of people 10. I will be able to participate in the activities of other cultural groups 11. I enjoy meeting and listening to people who speak other languages 12. Learning a foreign language is an enjoyable experience If I were visiting a foreign country, I would like to be able to speak the language of the people 14. It is important for everyone to learn a foreign language I want to read the literature of another culture in the original language 16. I would really like to learn many foreign languages Mean *Percentage of agreement The data tabulated in Table 3 indicate the motivation of Malaysian students at UKM and UiTM to learn a foreign language. Items 1 to 8 indicate the motivation to learn a foreign language for extrinsic reasons, while the motivation to learn a foreign language for intrinsic reasons are indicated by items 9 to 16. In general, both UKM and UiTM students reported a high mean percentage of agreement with the motivation to learn a foreign language for extrinsic reasons. The mean was 96.7% with a range of 78.8% to 100% for UKM students, while the mean for UiTM

8 GEMA Online Journal of Language Studies 80 students was 92.6% with a range of 82.7% to 96.8% respectively. In terms of intrinsic reasons to learn a foreign language, UKM students reported a lower mean percentage of agreement. The mean percentage was 84.2% with a range of 53.6% to 100%. UiTM students, on the other hand reported a higher mean percentage of agreement of 94.7% with a range of 86.9% to 97.6 %. It is interesting to note that only 53.6% of UKM students who participated in the study reported that they like to learn many foreign languages in contrast to 97.2% of UiTM students who reported their agreement. The second research question asked, RQ2: Is there a difference between the motivation of Malaysian students at UKM and UiTM to learn a foreign language? A number of independent sample t-tests were conducted. The mean and standard deviation for UKM and UiTM of the overall responses to the 16 statements are shown in Table 4. The t-test indicates that there was a significant difference (t = -3.71; df = 514 p < 0.000) between the overall mean items of UKM and UiTM students in terms of the motivation to learn a foreign language. The mean for UiTM students (mean= 5.03, SD=0.69) was found to be higher than the mean for UKM students (mean=4.84, SD=0.40).. Table 4: The difference in the motivation of Malaysian students at UKM and UiTM to learn a foreign language University N Mean SD df t test Level of significance UKM UiTM *p<.05, two-tailed A further analysis indicates that of the 16 items in the questionnaire, 12 items were found to be significantly different (Table 5). The 12 items comprised 6 items indicating extrinsic reasons and 6 items indicating intrinsic reasons. Of the 6 items which indicate the motivation to learn a foreign language for extrinsic reasons, 4 were found to indicate items with the mean difference that was positively higher for UKM students as follows: Other people will respect me more if I have knowledge of a foreign language My friend(s) encouraged me to learn a foreign language My lecturer(s) encouraged me to learn a foreign language I need to complete a foreign language requirement to graduate

9 GEMA Online Journal of Language Studies 81 Two items, on the other hand, were found to show mean difference that was positively higher for UiTM students as follows: I think it will make me a more knowledgeable person People will think highly of me In contrast, 5 of the 6 items indicating intrinsic reasons were found to have the mean difference that was positively higher for UiTM students. The following intrinsic reasons explain the motivation of UiTM students to learn a foreign language: I would really like to learn many foreign languages Learning a foreign language is an enjoyable experience I want to read the literature of another culture in the original language It is important for everyone to learn a foreign language If I were visiting a foreign country, I would like to be able to speak the language of the people Only one item, I enjoy meeting and listening to people who speak other languages, was found to have the mean difference that was positively higher for UKM students. The results suggest that UKM students were motivated to learn a foreign language significantly higher than UiTM students for extrinsic reasons, while UiTM students were motivated to learn a foreign language significantly higher than UKM students for intrinsic reasons. Item Table 5: The items which had significantly different means Mean ± SD UKM Learning a foreign language for Extrinsic reasons Mean ± SD 1. Other people will respect me more if I have knowledge of a foreign language 2. My friend(s) encouraged me to learn a foreign language 3. My lecturer(s) encouraged me to learn a foreign language 4. I need to complete a foreign language requirement to graduate 5. I think it will make me a more knowledgeable person 6. People will think highly of me 4.33 ± 1.15 UiTM Mean ± SD T df p- value 5.43 ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ±

10 GEMA Online Journal of Language Studies 82 Learning a foreign language for intrinsic reasons 7. If I were visiting a foreign country, I would like to be able to speak the language of the people 8 It is important for everyone to learn a foreign language 9 I want to read the literature of another culture in the original language 10 I would really like to learn many foreign languages 11 Learning a foreign language is an enjoyable experience 12 I enjoy meeting and listening to people who speak other languages 4.64 ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± Discussion of Findings This study examined the motivation of Malaysian students to learn a foreign language. Two interesting findings emerged from the study. Firstly, it is encouraging to know that Malaysian students were highly motivated to learn a foreign language for extrinsic and intrinsic reasons. The students, for example, reported that they learned a foreign language for extrinsic reasons such as for their future career, to make them a more knowledgeable person or to fulfill the graduation requirement. This finding is supported by information gathered from a series of focus group discussions with foreign language instructors at the two participating universities. In the focus group discussions, several reasons were given for the popularity of foreign languages among university students. Mandarin, for example is very popular among Malay students because proficiency in Mandarin is an added value when dealing with Mandarin-speaking businessmen in Malaysia. Japanese, on the other hand, is very popular among Chinese students due to their preference to work for multinational Japanese companies. It was also discovered from the focus group discussions that Arabic is very popular among Malay students for two reasons. First, Arabic is the language of the holy Quran. Hence, to learn Arabic is to understand the holy Quran. Second, there is a significant surge in direct investments from countries in the Middle East which has opened up vast opportunities for employment. Additionally, the influx of thousands of tourists from the Middle East in the wake of 9/11 has created necessities for graduates to equip themselves with knowledge of Arabic in all sectors related to tourism. European languages are also popular among the students. According to the focus group discussions, the popularity of European languages such as French and German is due to the need of students in technical and scientific based disciplines such as science and engineering to make use of technical and scientific terminology or concepts in French and German.

11 GEMA Online Journal of Language Studies 83 It is also encouraging to know that Malaysian students were equally motivated to learn a foreign language for intrinsic reasons. The results from the survey reveal that students from both universities learn a foreign language because they wanted to meet people of different cultures and languages, participated in their activities and enjoyed the foreign language learning experience. The findings from the focus group discussions with language instructors support this finding. The focus group discussions found that Korean and Spanish have been increasingly popular among university students due to the popularity of many television mini-series or dramas in Korean and Spanish. The students were captivated not only by the characters and the plots but also by the language. Students preference for the mini-series to use Korean and Spanish with English or Bahasa Melayu subtitle instead of dubbed into another language was evident in the focus group discussion. Lecturers reported that students expressed their disappointment that some Korean and Spanish mini-series were dubbed into Mandarin and Bahasa Melayu respectively. The popularity of Korean and Spanish is consistent with the findings that the students desired to understand and appreciate Korean and Spanish languages, cultures, and peoples. The second interesting finding of this study relates to the differences in the motivation of Malaysian students. Even though the analyses showed that UKM and UiTM students were motivated to learn a foreign language for extrinsic and intrinsic reasons, the results of the t-test indicate a significant mean difference between the motivation of UKM and UiTM students (t = -3.18; df = 515 p < 0.01). UKM students were motivated to learn a foreign language significantly higher than UiTM students for extrinsic reasons, while UiTM students were more motivated to learn a foreign language for intrinsic reasons significantly higher than UKM students. The following extrinsic reasons explain the motivation of UKM students to learn a foreign language: Other people will respect me more if I have knowledge of a foreign language My friend(s) encouraged me to learn a foreign language My lecturer(s) encouraged me to learn a foreign language I need to complete a foreign language requirement to graduate This finding is supported by data obtained from document analyses and focus group discussions. Some academic programs such as science politics and international business require their students to complete foreign language requirements in order to graduate. For these students, the motivation was generally to fulfill the graduation requirement. For the majority of UKM students, however, the university policy states that foreign language is not a requirement to graduate. When these students decided to study a foreign language, they were usually encouraged by their friends and lecturers. According to the focus group discussion, lecturers and senior students would encourage new students to take up foreign language courses. It was also reported that some foreign language courses were in high demand because students considered them as easy courses. Students claimed that they could get a higher course grade (at least a B+) in these courses which would boost their cumulative grade point average (CGPA). It was also reported that, it was common for

12 GEMA Online Journal of Language Studies 84 UKM students to register for the level one course of different foreign languages with the intention of securing better course grades and, therefore, a higher CGPA. UiTM students, in contrasts, were motivated to learn a foreign language for intrinsic reasons significantly higher than UKM students. The intrinsic reasons given are as follows: I would really like to learn many foreign languages Learning a foreign language is an enjoyable experience I want to read the literature of another culture in the original language It is important for everyone to learn a foreign language If I were visiting a foreign country, I would like to be able to speak the language of the people Data obtained from document analyses and focus group discussions seem to support this finding. As far as the university policy is concerned, foreign language is a graduation requirement for all undergraduate students at UiTM. They are required to register for 1 foreign language for 3 levels. Each foreign language course is offered 2 hours a week for 14 weeks and assigned 2 credit hours per level. For example, once a student decides to take up Japanese as a foreign language, he or she is required to complete levels 1, 2, and 3 of Japanese. Upon graduation the student would have completed 84 hours of Japanese. Learning a foreign language for 3 semesters is an important factor in deciding which language to choose. As reflected in the findings, they learnt the foreign language because they wanted to speak and read the foreign language in order to learn about the people and culture. In addition, they liked and enjoyed the learning experience. Data gathered from the focus group discussion pointed out that most students would choose a foreign language that they thought was enjoyable and fun to learn not only to perform academically but also to maintain their interest. This is for the reason that the students would have to spend 3 semesters or 84 class hours learning the foreign language. It was also reported that since their CGPA would be affected by their performance in Levels 2 and 3, which are considered more difficult than Level 1, students must have a good interest in the chosen language. The findings of the study seem to suggest that the difference in terms of the motivation of UKM and UiTM students to learn a foreign language is related indirectly to the university foreign language policies. Conclusion The findings of the study reveal that Malaysian students learn a foreign language both for extrinsic and intrinsic reasons. In view of the understanding that intrinsic motivation is very important in promoting success, it is essential that students, whose initial reason for taking up a foreign language course is extrinsic in nature, be constantly encouraged with the hope that they would come to love the learning process. The evidence in the study also suggests that compulsory foreign language requirement may have enhanced intrinsic motivation. Therefore, foreign language program providers in Malaysia need to take into

13 GEMA Online Journal of Language Studies 85 consideration different impulses due to different policies which lead students to learn these foreign languages. The content of the courses and the methods of classroom teaching can then be planned based on the different needs and motivation of the learners. Realizing the importance of producing graduates who are competent in foreign languages in order to compete globally, it is necessary for institutions of higher learning to encourage their students to be interested to learn foreign languages as motivation has been found to influence success, rate of attrition, interest and enrollment rate (Dornyei, 1994; Williams, 1994; and Skehan, 1991). Hence, efforts in enhancing the motivation should continue so that foreign language ability is realized as an asset to graduates of Malaysian institutions of higher learning for their future career. Acknowledgement We would like to express our gratitude to the foreign language instructors and students at UKM and UiTM who participated in this research and the IIUM Research Management Centre for funding this research. References Ainol Madziah Zubairi, Isarji Hj Sarudin & Mohamad Sahari Nordin. (2007). A Study of the effectiveness o Foreign Language Programs in Malaysia. Proceedings in the 32 nd Annual Congress of the Applied Linguistics Association of Australia, Making a Difference: Challenges for Applied Linguistics, University of Wollongong, 1-3 July, A rationale for foreign language education: A position paper of the National Council of State Supervisors of Foreign Languages (NCSSFL). (2009). (Online) Retrieved 24 February, 2009 from Bond, T., & Fox, C. (2001). Applying the Rasch Model: Fundamental measurement in the human sciences. Mahwah NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Carreira, M. J. (2004). Motivation for learning English as a Foreign Language in Japanese Elementary Schools. Unpublished Master s thesis. Tsuda College, Tokyo, Japan. Christian, P., & Rhodes, N. (2005). Fostering foreign language proficiency: What the US can learn from other nations, Phi Delta Kappan, 87(3), Daud, R. (1994). Seminar to hear views about foreign tongues. (Online) Retrieved 23 March, 2007 from

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15 GEMA Online Journal of Language Studies 87 The Ministry of Higher Education. (2007). The National Higher Education Strategic Plan beyond The Ministry of Higher Education Malaysia Press. Welles, E. B. (2004). Foreign language enrollments in United States institutions of higher education, Fall ADFL Bulletin, 35, Williams, M. (1994). Motivation in foreign and second language learning: An interactive perspective. Educational and Child Psychology, 11 (2), Zeszotarski, P. (2001). ERIC review: Issues in global education initiatives in the community college. Community College Review, 29, About the authors Isarji Hj. Sarudin (Ph.D) is Associate Professor of Language Education at the Centre for Languages, International Islamic University Malaysia. His research includes curriculum design, program evaluation and TESL methodology. Ainol Madziah Zubairi (Ph.D) is Associate Professor of English at the Centre for Languages, International Islamic University Malaysia. Her research includes language testing, test validation and assessment in higher education.