Articulation Agreements Between Public High Schools and Post- Secondary Institutions: Development, Implementation, and Results (1998)

Transcription

1 1 Articulation Agreements Between Public High Schools and Post- Secondary Institutions: Development, Implementation, and Results (1998) by William Clark St. Marys Area School District Assistant Superintendent In formatting this document for the web, some of the charts and graphs may not be positioned in the correct part of the document. If you have any questions, please contact the author at or at (814)

2 2 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Purpose and Background The purpose of this study was to examine how public school districts implement articulation agreements with a post-secondary institution and make an academic connection between high school and a university. The articulation agreement and its associated assurances provide mutual guarantees between high schools and the university regarding student academic preparation. For its part, the high school guarantees to provide the basic foundation in academic coursework so that students are properly prepared for higher education. In recognition that the students from these high schools have met mutually agreed upon entrance qualifications, the university guarantees admission to graduates from the articulated high schools. To analyze the concepts and practices of high school/university articulation agreements, the study examines the operation of seven Pennsylvania school systems. Each of the seven schools in the study is a member of the Penn State DuBois Consortium. The Consortium assists the schools by providing funds to establish tech-prep (technicalpreparation) programs within the current school systems. The schools use the funds to train staff and revise the curriculum to meet university admission procedures and academic program requirements. A tech-prep program encompasses academic and technical training in the final years of high school and a two-year post-secondary program. Consequently, it is critical

3 3 that the preparation in high school be closely connected and aligned with the postsecondary program. The necessary level of articulation is not automatic and frequently becomes problematic since two separate organizations the school district and the university are responsible for the different parts. Hence the need for articulation agreements specifying the responsibilities for the school district to produce appropriate student outcomes which match the university expectations for entry level student abilities. Before a tech-prep articulation agreement is signed in the Penn State DuBois Consortium, academic representatives from various departments at the university meet with teachers from both academic and vocational departments in the school to review curriculum in each subject area. Changes may be made with respect to the curriculum offerings at the high school in order to allow a smooth transfer for a student from the high school to the Penn State DuBois Campus programs. Once agreement has been reached in all subject areas between the university and the high school, the university signs the articulation agreement with the school district. In order to maintain the guarantee of admission by Penn State DuBois, all participating high schools are monitored to determine whether the academic and vocational needs of the students are being met prior to their arrival at the campus. Tech-prep programs target the student population that has been defined as the neglected majority (Parnell, 1985), specifically students who otherwise would leave high school unprepared for college or work. To engage students and encourage them to continue their education, tech-prep programs offer a curriculum that integrates academic

4 4 study and workplace applications. The purpose is to prepare tech-prep graduates to work in a world now defined by a global market, high speed communications, and emerging technologies (Green & Weaver, 1994). Articulation agreements provide administrators with the ability to show parents that students who enroll in a tech-prep program are able to take advantage of some of the same programs at post-secondary institutions as students enrolled in the college-prep curriculum. Implementing an articulation agreement provides the school with the opportunity to revise the current curriculum to meet the needs of students enrolled in the tech-prep curriculum so they can make the transition from high school to college. Articulation agreements provide students who would not have normally pursued a postsecondary degree the opportunity to complete that task. Need for the Study In 1994, Congress passed the School to Work Opportunities Act. The purpose of the Act was to establish a national framework within which all states can create statewide School-to-Work Opportunities systems that allow all students to participate in a performance-based education and training program that will: 1) enable students to earn portable credentials; 2) prepare the students for first jobs in high-skill, high-wage careers; and 3) increase their opportunities for further education, including education in a 4-year college or university (Public Law , 1994). Once the act was passed, millions of dollars became available to the states to implement School-to-Work (STW). Each state had to decide the best way to distribute the money to the local school systems. Within

5 5 Pennsylvania, each school system was asked to write a grant proposal requesting funds and how the school would use the funds to implement STW. In item number three of PL the guidelines require that if a school is pursuing a STW grant, as part of the grant application, they must be in the process of developing an articulation agreement with a post-secondary institution. At the same time universities pursuing STW funds are required to articulate with high schools within their serving area. Consequently, in order to receive funding through the federal legislation, both post-secondary institutions and high schools are required to work together to help students make the transition between high school and college. For this process to function effectively, faculty from both the high school and the university need to examine the curriculum utilized in the tech-prep program in each institution jointly and thoroughly. The analysis includes a critical review by subject area of the content and sequence of courses in the tech-prep curriculum in both the high school and university. Suggestions from university faculty to articulate the high school curriculum with future university courses will help the students when they transfer from high school to college. Establishment of an appropriate curriculum sequence leading from high school to the university will smooth the transition for students between the institutions. As universities work toward the development of articulation agreements with various high schools, a monitoring process is necessary to ensure that appropriate curriculum modifications are being implemented by both parties. This involves following up the suggested curriculum revisions with curriculum development activities

6 6 leading to changes within the curriculum. In the Penn State DuBois Consortium, periodic site-visits by the university monitors current curriculum revision suggestions made mutually by the professors and the teachers and provide suggestions for improvement. The visits are conducted with every high school which has an articulation with the university and focus on the positive aspects within the school system and provide suggestions for improvement of weak areas. Statement of the Problem Many high schools, over the past several years, have pursued articulation agreements with post-secondary institutions. Some schools have entered into the process with limited experiences in the procedures undertaken to work toward a successful agreement. Guidance for their involvement can be obtained from experiences of other schools that have become involved in development and implementation of articulation agreements. Unfortunately, opportunities to gain insights into other schools tech-prep programs are limited. Research on the topic of articulation has primarily centered on the articulation process between community colleges and post-secondary institutions. In order to assist school districts that are developing tech-prep articulation agreements with universities, a better understanding of the process may be helpful in order to overcome problems encountered by other schools that have previously developed such agreements. Research Questions The following questions guided the study of seven schools involved in the Penn

7 7 State DuBois Consortium and showed how the staff members of the seven schools are making the connection with the tech-prep articulation agreement between the university and their high school. I. Development 1) What process of establishing and negotiating an articulation agreement did each school system follow? 2) What areas were identified as needing the greatest change/modification and what changes actually occurred within the high school: school philosophy and goals, staff development, curriculum, assessment of student performance, student support, recruitment and promotional efforts, and education/industry partnerships? II. Implementation 3) Are the schools also involved in national initiatives which assist in the development and promotion of tech-prep, such as High Schools That Work or National Tech-Prep Network? If so, how has this involvement influenced the development and implementation of the articulation agreement? 4) What problems have been encountered when implementing changes to meet the needs of the articulation agreement? What solutions have been suggested to overcome the problems? III. Results 5) What are the post-secondary choices of graduates of the high school? 6) Are students taking advantage of the articulation agreement? 7) What are the characteristics of success of a school implementing an articulation agreement? Limitations of the Study

8 8 The study includes only seven of the thirteen schools that are active members of the Penn State DuBois Consortium. Therefore, the study represents only a sample of the schools involved in the consortium. Each school was classified according to the curriculum that is in place, such as comprehensive, academic, or vocational. Of the seven schools in the study, one is a vocational school, two are comprehensive, and four are academic; this sampling does not necessarily provide a good cross section of the various school systems with respect to articulation agreements. The study will examine the articulation agreements between one post-secondary system with several high schools. Articulation agreements at other post-secondary institutions may produce different results than what is shown in this study. Significance of the Study Reports were developed that were provided as feedback to each of the seven schools in the study and the Penn State DuBois Campus. The reports contain the results of the examination of the following areas: 1) school philosophy and goals, 2) staff development, 3) curriculum, 4) assessment of student performance, 5) student support, 6) recruitment and promotional efforts, and 7) education/industry partnerships. Factors from each of the seven areas, which appear to promote success, serve as recommendations for improvement not only to each school, but also to guide new schools pursuing articulation agreements with Penn State DuBois or other universities. Looking at the characteristics of schools that are effective in their implementation of the articulation agreement and tech-prep practices will be helpful to schools that are in the process of developing these areas within their own curriculum.

9 9 CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE This review of literature is divided into six major areas which review the primary conceptual and practical aspects related to articulation agreements between high schools and universities. The first three sections review the concepts, purposes, and features of the principal types of high schools: comprehensive schools, vocational schools, and academic schools. The fourth section examines the new concept of tech-prep, which cuts across and extends into all three types of high schools. In the fifth and sixth sections, the issues involving transition from high school to work and transition from high school to college are examined. Finally, the seventh section reviews articulation concepts and practices. In order to organize the discussion on the type of schools, Figure 2.1 shows the three types of schools comprehensive, vocational, and academic and the type of training provided at each institution. The comprehensive school provides both academic and vocational training. There is limited academic training and concentrated vocational training at the vocational school. Finally, academic schools focus programs on academic courses.

10 10 Figure 2.1 Type of School Comprehensive Vocational Academic Type of Academic X Limited X Training Vocational X X Comprehensive High Schools Concept. Comprehensive high schools are a concept that has been around for a long time. The term comprehensive high schools is used because the school offers, one administration under one roof... which is responsible for educating the bright and notso-bright children with different vocational and professional ambitions... it is responsible, in sum, for providing good and appropriate education, both academic and vocational, for all young people (Conant, 1967, p.93). Purpose. The ability of the comprehensive high school to integrate the academic and vocational curricula can provide a host of possibilities to a student who is unsure of his/her future. In 1972, the U.S. Commissioner of Education called for radical changes in secondary education. He argued that the abomination known as general education be abolished and replaced with contemporary career education in a comprehensive school. He further proposed a universal goal that every high school student graduate with a salable skill (Brown, p. 133, 1972). In the general track, students take the basic courses throughout high school. General students, after graduation, typically plan on entering the workforce or the military. General education is strictly subordinated to

11 11 vocational preparation. The stress falls upon developing verbal and mathematical skills that can be used in any occupation (English, 1979). Comprehensive schools have both academic and vocational programs housed in the one building which can eliminate potential difficulties in course selection. A benefit is the ability of the teachers, both academic and vocational, to communicate with one another, and by doing so, making the curriculum and coursework relevant to the student. When academic and vocational teachers form partnerships to make learning real for students, academic teachers contribute high-level mathematics, science, and communication concepts, while vocational teachers put knowledge in the context of a job career. The benefit to students is multiplied (Bottoms, Presson, & Johnson, 1992). Clustering vocational courses into a common area of focus helps to eliminate duplication of vocational services. In the clustering concept for example, courses are grouped with similar subjects under such headings as transportation, technology, construction, and consumer education (Bottoms et. al, 1992). Students enrolled in a particular cluster area will have the opportunity to benefit from both the vocational training and the related academic coursework. Because of the individual attention allowed within the cluster areas, students in a cluster have a sense of belonging to something special. Students begin to develop allegiances to teachers and fellow students and have opportunities to experience success individually as well as part of a group (Bottoms et. al, 1992). In comprehensive high schools, students have the ability to select courses that will challenge them academically as well as vocationally. Integrating high-level academic studies with vocational studies through applied learning methods is a way for students to move from memorizing information to performing complex tasks (Bottoms et al., 1992).

12 12 Being able to select from a wide range of mathematics, English, social studies, science, and other courses that are available to both academic and vocational students will prepare the student for a post-secondary school. The academic rigor of the college preparatory curriculum will challenge the vocational student to develop high order thinking skills and problem solving abilities. These two concepts are regarded highly by the potential industrial employers as well as the universities (Hull and Parnell, 1991). Features. Comprehensive high schools break down the stereotypes that are typically applied to traditional vocational students. The ability to have the vocational student in classes with college preparatory students eliminates negative stereotyping. In most cases, in the comprehensive schools the students may not even be grouped according to cluster areas in academic courses. In some cases, the higher level math and science courses are required for completion of a particular cluster area. For example, Figure 2.2 shows the School G scope and sequence plan for the Electromechanical Engineering Technology (EET) cluster. The courses required for completion are similar to courses required for completion in the college prep curriculum; the difference between the two is the number of skill electives a student must take as part of the EET cluster. Math courses for the EET students follow two tracks. One starts with Modified Algebra A and leads to completion of Algebra II. The higher math sequence starts out with Algebra 1 and leads up to Algebra 2 or any approved math. The math sequence, in most cases, was determined by one of the several post-secondary institutions with whom School G has a signed articulation agreement. In clustered courses, the instructor needs to tailor his/her teaching to include more

13 13 problems that relate to realistic problem solving as opposed to theory problem solving. Students need to see how academic content relates to designing, building, operating, and repairing things on the job, or to doing the research, synthesis, writing, and editing required to prepare a business, scientific, or technical report (Bottoms et al., 1992). Within an integrated curriculum in a comprehensive high school, students have an opportunity to take college prep courses and at the same time to learn a trade. However, the amount of time in the trade areas within the comprehensive high school does not allow for an in-depth exposure for the student to a particular trade. Instead, the student is exposed to more breadth than depth through an overview of a wide variety of areas within the cluster. The broad exposure allows the students the opportunity to probe into more areas than would be accomplished in a vocational school. The goal of the broad exposure is to allow students the opportunity to experiment with as many career possibilities within a trade area as time will allow. Through this process, students may encounter an area of interest to them. From that point, the student can pursue further information through on-the-job training such as school-to-work or cooperative education, or through post-secondary training.

14 14 Vocational School Concept. Vocational schools or technical schools are organized as a separate school focusing on vocational training. Students who enroll in these schools are frequently are interested in attending a two-year institution, military, or entering directly into the workforce after completion of high school. Technical education instruction is delivered through classroom presentations that provide students with the basic concepts and principles of an occupational area followed by laboratory assignments that require students to apply what they have learned in real or simulated work tasks, projects, or situations (Scott & Sarkees-Wircenski, 1996). Students in vocational schools have the opportunity to focus on one specific trade area in which they may be interested in receiving training. Within the vocational school, the instructor has the opportunity to spend more time covering a specific trade area. The trade skills are taught typically during the sophomore and junior year. The senior year is spent in a work-related experience. The effectiveness of the vocational programs can be measured on the placement results following graduation; if students do not find employment in the area they have been trained, then their instructional program is inappropriate or ineffective (Law, 1994). A student enrolled in a vocational school will also have a home school. Home school is the academic high school that sends students to the vocational school for technical training. The home school will provide the academic training for the vocational student. A typical vocational school will be serving the students from several home schools. Each home school will have a certain percentage of its school population

15 15 enrolled at the vocational school. In some cases, students may have to apply for admission into the vocational school. On the negative side, traditionally some vocational schools have been used as a dumping ground for students who are causing problems at the home school. In this line, some secondary school administrators have developed what might be called the dumping ground image of vocational education, which is related closely to the dumb/smart image (Hull & Parnell, 1991, p. 5). Further, the home school may use the vocational school as a safety net for students with special needs. Purpose. Vocational schools are set up to meet the needs of the local community workplace and the local community will serve as a potential trainer/employer of students from the various programs. Consequently the various trade areas offered at the vocational school will vary from school to school. Miller described the tie between vocational education and the community: Vocational education should be oriented to the manpower needs of the community, the needs of the community are reflected by the program vocational education (as cited in Law, 1994, p. 139). Parents may see the vocational setting as a benefit to their son or daughter because he or she may be a hands-on learner as opposed to a textbook learner. They may feel that having their child leave the high school system with a trade emphasis may be the best chance the child may have to move ahead or obtain a job. Further, some of the students may be hired after graduation by the same employer that employed them for their cooperative education or school-to-work experience. The vocational education does provide the opportunity for the student to put what has been taught at the vocational

16 16 school for three years into practice. Transferable skills are the most salable skills that vocational educators can help their students develop (Law, 1994). Features. The organization of academic instruction will vary based upon the delivery system that is available for the vocational school. Several delivery systems are seen throughout the state of Pennsylvania. Some schools offer a semester about which translates into one semester with pure vocational training at the vocational school and the other semester at the high school for academic training. There are a variety of variations such as half day about, three week about, and quarter about. Some vocational schools operate on a variation of one or two delivery systems. For example, one home school may have scheduled the half-day about and a different home school will be on a semester about. Academic course selection for vocational students is limited based upon the delivery system or the courses offered at the vocational school. Some vocational schools provide a portion of the academic coursework at the vocational school (e.g. math or English). If the vocational school offers an academic class, the students may have room within their schedule to enroll in an elective course at the home school. Without some academic coursework at the vocational school, students may have to enroll in double periods in the home school in order to meet the seat time requirement for credits in academic courses. Double periods will eliminate the possibility for students to take elective courses such as band, language, or art. The ability to communicate with the academic teacher in the home school becomes an obstacle for the vocational instructor. It becomes difficult for the instructor

17 17 to link what is taught in the vocational classroom with the academic classroom. But if the vocational school offers academic classes, integration of academics and vocational programming may occur. For example, in math class the auto mechanics, auto body, and auto specialist students could be grouped together. The math instruction would focus on common problems that would relate to all three areas. Through the efforts of communication between the math instructor and the vocational instructor, students would begin to see the importance of the material being taught. Hands-on labs would reinforce the material taught. Academic Schools Concept. Academic schools focus on programs that have a scope and sequence established to prepare students for post-secondary education. These programs try to provide the highest level of academic preparation for the students who have a desire to continue their education for a four-year bachelor s degree. The academic curriculum is an agenda for academic high schools to pursue. Each school will pursue the curriculum in the context of its own resources and mission, in collaboration with the community it serves, and the colleges its students seek to enter. Just as the learning outcomes develop along a continuum, so the more precise definition of the knowledge and skills needed for college students will evolve over time and be translated into terms suitable to each case by those most directly engaged (College Entrance Examination Board, 1983). Academic high schools provide coursework in the major academic areas such as math, science, social studies, and English. Arts and humanities are covered in related

18 18 courses such as art, foreign language, music, and gym. A combination of both academic areas and arts and humanities provided the coursework needed for students to continue their education at the post-secondary level. Purpose. The students attending an academic high school could be enrolled in either the general, college prep, or scientific curriculum. Each one of these levels provides the training in the academic areas and arts and humanities. The content material within these levels will vary because of the differing abilities of the students within the levels. In order to proceed from one grade level to the next students need to pass the assigned courses with a level of proficiency that is determined by the school district. Upon completion of all of the prescribed courses the students will receive a diploma that certifies they have completed all the requirements as determined by the school district and approved by the State. Features. Academic high schools try to provide for the various needs of the students enrolled within the system. If a student is enrolled in college prep or scientific curriculum, the academic courses at the high school are set up to provide the knowledge and skills that the student will need in order to continue on at the post-secondary level. Students enrolled in the general curriculum may end up with basic academic skills and some vocational skills. In order to provide the vocational training, the academic high school can join with a vocational school within the county or region. Frequently, several academic high schools send their students to one vocational school that provides training for all of the academic schools in the area. The academic high school is referred to as the home school for the student who is receiving vocational training. In this arrangement,

19 19 the academic school provides the academic coursework and the vocational school provides the occupational training. Tech-Prep Concept. Tech-prep is a concept that will be seen in vocational, comprehensive, and academic school curricula. In 1990 Congress amended the Perkins Vocational Applied Technology Education Act to include the Tech-Prep Act. Suddenly tech-prep became a national movement. The Tech-Prep Act includes several features that serve as a working definition (Hoerner, 1991): 1) Tech-prep combines a secondary education program with a post-secondary education program. 2) Tech-prep is implemented by an articulation agreement between the high secondary school and the university that covers two years of secondary education followed by two years of higher education or two years of an apprenticeship program. 3) The secondary education phase in tech-prep consists of a common core of required competencies in mathematics, science, communications, and technologies. 4) A tech-prep program is designed to lead to an associate degree or a certificate in a specific career field and effective employment or transfer to a four-year baccalaureate degree program (p. 3). Tech-prep represents a reform of technical education in the public school system.

20 20 It is based on the premise that technical education can be best provided and attained if students have a solid academic foundation a thorough understanding of basic math, science, and communications skills. In order to make that kind of foundation available to more students, tech-prep calls for significant, systemic reform in public education. This reform, in essence, focuses more on the how we teach more than on what we teach (Hull, 1993). Most students in high school vocational programs could learn academically rigorous science and math if these subjects were taught in a hands-on setting and if subject matter was presented in the context of how it is used in personal, societal, and work-based situations (Hull and Parnell, 1991, p. 35). For students, learning needs to relate to the individual student s abilities. When teaching is matched with students abilities, the process becomes easier for students. In tech-prep, real-life applications are the basis for learning academic subject matter and students are likely to understand the importance of what they are learning (Green and Weaver, 1994). Contextual learning offers more than a tool for defragmenting the American educational system. It also provides a more effective approach to teaching the majority of students because it is specifically geared to the way these students learn (Hull, 1993). Purpose. Tech-prep does not mean that we need more college-educated workers. But we need smarter workers workers educated in broader vocational terms and in higher cognitive levels than traditional vocational and technical education programs provided. Tech-prep is much more than vocational education; incorporating the best of the latter is essential to success of the former (Law, 1994). Tech-prep is much more than

21 21 teaching job-specific skills. Tech-prep programs of study should provide flexible exit and re-entry points for students and should integrate the concepts and skills of academic and vocational education into a more holistic instructional format (Law, 1994). The scope and sequence of a cluster area become critical in the concept development of the tech-prep program. The scope represents a particular subject area in which the student is enrolled, such as the Engineering Technology Cluster. The sequence represents the subjects that the student must take in order to complete the training in the cluster area. Figure 2.3 shows a scope and sequence from Penn State DuBois for an Engineering Technology Cluster for a student who would be working towards an associate degree. The scope and sequence illustrated represents courses that a student will need to complete in high school and the courses that will be taken if the student continues training into the post-secondary level. At the end of the sophomore year in college, if all courses are successfully completed (along with other college requirements), the student is eligible for an associate degree or the student could continue on for a bachelors degree. Across the top of Figure 2.3 are the grades for high school and for the freshman and sophomore year of college. Down the left hand side are the various subject areas that students will take in high school and in college. The low track math sequence encompasses Transitional Math, Pre-Algebra, Applied Math I, Applied Math II, and finishes with Algebra II. There are two other levels of math sequence that could be taken within the ERT cluster. The middle track begins with a more advanced course and finishes with Geometry, while the higher track starts with Pre-Algebra and finishes with

22 22 Trigonometry or Solid Geometry. Once in college during the freshman year first semester, the student could take College Algebra (Math 21), College Algebra (Math 22) or Technical Math (Math 87), depending on the sequence followed in high school. The second semester of the freshman year would be Technical Math (Math 26). Some variation in courses is also present in the science sequence in grades 10 and 11. The technical component, computer skills, and the career specific skills, represent courses that the student would take depending upon the grade level.

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24 24 Features. An important component of tech-prep is the supporting academic courses. In most cases, the supporting courses would include the traditional math, English, science, and social studies present in the college-prep curriculum. The difference is that the tech-prep academic courses focus on applications of theory by allowing more hands-on applications of various concepts. For example, the Center for Occupational Research and Development (CORD) has developed a mathematics program that covers a variety of math concepts from using a calculator to statistical analysis. CORD s approach differs with the traditional approach seen in the college-prep math classes (Center for Occupational Research and Development, 1992). Each unit has a hands-on lab that reinforces the objectives being taught as part of the unit. Problems at the end of each unit are word problems that apply the objectives covered in the book. Similar hands-on curricula have been developed by CORD and Agency for Instructional Technology (AIT) for Applied Biology (Center for Occupational Research and Development, 1988), Principles of Technology (physics) (Center for Occupational Research and Development, 1993) and Applied Communications (English) (Agency for Instructional Technology, 1988). The primary goal of integrating academic and vocational education is to make the experience of applied vocational education more accessible to academic students at the same time that advanced academic courses are more accessible to students concentrating in vocational education (Gray, 1991). Tech-prep tries to replace the general track and have students take applied courses that help general students see the relevance of courses such as English, science, and mathematics with contextual learning as a focus of the lessons. Students also take trade-

25 25 related courses, such as drafting or data processing, which support areas taught within the cluster. The integration of the chapter area into the academic classroom is critical for the students to see the connection between the importance of the academics supporting the trade area. In most cases schools that implement a tech-prep program will eliminate their general track curriculum. By eliminating the general track, students must choose either the college prep curriculum or the tech-prep curriculum. As an alternative, some schools add the tech-prep track along with the general track and the college prep track. Hull and Parnell (1991) agree that high schools would do well to eliminate the unfocused general education program and replace it with a tech-prep, applied academics program to work alongside the college prep/baccalaureate degree program and the high school diploma/vocational education program; they view it as adding a third leg to the educational stool. At times, the applied curriculum is seen as a watered down version of the college-prep curriculum. However, the CORD Applied Math units have been reviewed by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM). The NCTM consensus, based on input from many math educators, is that successful completion of two years of Applied Mathematics will fulfill requirements for Algebra I and at least a half-year of informal geometry. In addition, it is their opinion that a student who successfully completes Applied Mathematics I and II can enroll in Algebra II and/or formal geometry with a reasonable expectation of success (Hull, 1993). Transition from High School to Work Features. In order to ease the transition from high school to work, schools have developed

26 26 a career guidance program that works to expose students to a wide variety of careers as well as the competencies that are adaptable with any career. Career guidance or Career Pathway that takes place in middle schools and high schools shows the parent and the child the various pathways within the curriculum of comprehensive, vocational, or academic schools that a student can follow. In general terms career guidance and counseling means:... programs that pertain to the body of subject matter and related techniques and methods organized for the development in individuals of career awareness, career planning, career decision making, placement skills, and knowledge and understanding of local, State, and national occupational, educational, and labor market needs, trends, and opportunities; that assist individuals in making and implementing informed educational and occupational choices; and that aid students to develop career options with attention to surmounting gender, race, ethnic, disability, language, or socioeconomic impediments to career options and encouraging careers in nontraditional employment (School-to-Work Opportunities Act of 1994, p. 8). Career guidance or pathway program activities in the senior high school must take each student from where he or she is in coping with developmental tasks integral to career development and lead that person to create a specific set of preferences and plans for achieving that goal (Gray & Herr, 1995). If the student s plans are to enter the workforce, then the student needs to identify courses in high school that will allow them the opportunity to gain an entry level working position. In 1988, findings from a two year study of 16-to-24-year-olds focused national attention on the 20 million non-college bound young people described by the William T. Grant Foundation as the Forgotten Half (1988). The study alerted many more people to the problem of the students enrolled in the general and vocational programs. The study stated: The pathways that we endorse are not guarantees only much needed efforts to achieve a more equitable balance in the Forgotten Half s odds for success (p. 13). The concept of career guidance has resulted in some districts implementing a course taught by guidance counselors to assist students in career planning. For example, Personal Development, a course taught by St. Marys Area High School guidance counselors, helps students analyze data from different tests and interest inventories they have taken. To determine an appropriate career focus, students examine such issues as self-esteem, nontraditional careers for men and women, and family living (Clark, 1994, p. 23). North Clarion High School (NCHS) has a similar program that is taught by the guidance counselor. NCHS teaches workplace know-how competencies to the students based upon the grade level of the student. The Personal Development courses assist students in not only being exposed to different careers but also the skill necessary to excel in the workplace know-how. Issues. The Secretary s Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills (SCANS) has identified the workplace competencies that are required for effective job performance. The know-how identified by SCANS is made up of five competencies and a three-part foundation of skills and personal qualities that are needed for solid job performance. High performance workplaces require competencies: the ability to mange resources, to work amicably and productively with others, to acquire and use information, to master complex systems, and to work with a variety of technologies (U. S. Department of Labor, 1992). The SCANS report talks about foundation skills and workplace competencies as workplace know-how. Foundation skills come from both the trade area the student may be enrolled in as well as the academic courses that are take within the high school curriculum. The competencies are: WORKPLACE COMPETENCIES Effective workers can productively use: Resources They know how to allocate time, money, materials, space, and staff. Interpersonal skills They can work on teams, teach others, serve customers, lead, negotiate, and work well with people from culturally diverse backgrounds. Information They can acquire and evaluate data, organize and maintain files, interpret and communicate, and use computers to process information. Systems They understand social, organizational, and technological systems; they can

27 27 monitor and correct performance; and they can design and improve systems. Technology They can select equipment and tools, apply technology to specific tasks, and maintain and trouble shoot equipment. FOUNDATION SKILLS Competent workers in high-performance workplaces need: Basic skills reading, writing, arithmetic, and mathematics, speaking, and listening. Thinking skills the ability to learn, to reason, to think creatively, to make decisions, and how to solve problems. Personal qualities individual responsibility, self-esteem and self-management, sociability, and integrity (U.S. Department of Labor, 1992, p. 6). Other reports have shown specific skills that student need to have prior to entry into the workforce. A 1992 study by the Southport Institute for Policy Analysis concludes that 40 percent of the nation s small-business workers have trouble with basic reading, writing, and math skills. The labor Secretary s Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills reports 60 percent of Americans ages lack the basic reading and writing skills needed to function in the workplace (Feris, 1993). Students exiting an academic, comprehensive, or vocational school should have these skills in order to succeed in workplace. The high school diploma no longer provides a guarantee that a student will be employed unless they have the workplace know-how along with the degree. Approaches. In order to assist students in their career planning and gaining their SCANS skills, some schools offer two major approaches: school-to-work or cooperative education program. School-to-Work (STW) or cooperative education experiences are provided in both the comprehensive high schools and the vocational schools. A major emphasis is teaching skills in context. This means placing learning objectives within real environments rather than insisting that students first learn in the abstract what they are later expected to apply. Teaching in context implies that schools will provide students with opportunities to apply knowledge in real-life situations or simulations, e.g., problems or projects related to workplace situations, as well as internships, mentorships,

28 28 and shadowing workers on the job (U.S. Department of Labor, 1993, p. 15). Cooperative work experience involves both the educational and business/industrial worlds. It places students in learning situations in the workplace, but always under the supervision of trained educators. The student s work activities are governed by a training plan and an agreement signed by the student, the employer and the co-op coordinator (Law, 1994). For example, cooperative education in comprehensive and vocational schools allow the students to leave for part of the regular school day every day. Students will work usually a two-hour day and a ten-hour week. In the vocational schools, the student during the senior year may be enrolled in a cooperative education experience. Depending upon the delivery system at the vocational school, the student may be out of school for a semester, quarter, or nine week period. A School-to-Work Opportunities program under the School-to-Work Opportunities Act is required to integrate school-based learning and work-based learning, integrate academic and occupational learning, and establish effective linkages between secondary and post-secondary education (School-to-Work Opportunities Act 1994). STW is a new approach to learning in America s schools and workplaces. Locally-driven and community-based, it is an effort to reform education that combines high-level academic achievement with a graduated understanding of the world of work (School-to- Work Opportunities, 1997). Some schools start the STW program in the sophomore or junior year of school. Other schools establish the program as part of the senior year work requirement. In most cases, STW serves as a more intense program, allowing the student more

29 29 time on the job than cooperative education program. Sometimes this may turn out as two full days during the regular scheduled school week at the worksite. The other three days are spent at the school working on academic coursework. A benefit of the STW program is that it enables the student to see the start up and shut down of the regular business day. With cooperative education the student will only see the last few hours of the working day and not be exposed to the complete workday cycle. The worksite will assign a mentor to the students to serve as a direct supervisor and trainer for the students during the course of their experience. An emphasis is placed on using workplaces as active learning environments in the educational process by making employers joint partners with educators in providing opportunities for all students to participate in high-quality work-based learning experiences (Gray and Herr, 1995, p. 139). In a recent survey, vocational educators reported the following beliefs about of School-to-Work and cooperative education: 1) Using the workplace as a training site can be an important component of a skill development program. 2) The more specific the skill to be learned, the more appropriate the use of the actual job experience for training. 3) As skills become more enterprise-specific, society s responsibility for providing skills decreases. 4) The use of the workplace as a training site should be coordinated by the teacher and take into account the needs of the student and the employer (Law, 1994, p. 127).

30 30 In either the school-to-work program or the cooperative education program, the students have hands-on experience in the trade that they were exposed to at either the vocational school or the comprehensive high school. This is important for students entering the vocational education to remember that experience has always been king of the hill in vocational education (Miller, 1985, p. 3). Even if the experience sours the student to the particular trade, the student will have learned a valuable skill that he/she could fall back on later in life. It is far better to have students discover during the senior year that a trade or occupational area is not for them than to have spent money and time on furthering their education in the area only to decide later that the occupation was not to their liking. In order to overcome the problem of further training for students who cannot afford the additional expense beyond high school, comprehensive and vocational schools have issued students certificates of completion for their cluster or shop area. A vocational certificate or skill certificate can be best defined as a portable, industryrecognized credential, and is issued by a School-to-Work Opportunities program under an approved State plan. This credential certifies that a student has mastered skills that are at least as challenging as skill standards endorsed by the National Skill Standards Board (School-to-Work Opportunities Act 1994). Transition from High School to College. Concept. The transition from high school to college remains an obstacle for many students in U.S. and is attributed to a mutual lack of respect between school and college

31 31 and a pursuit of self-interest on the part of both (Trivett, 1976). Whether a student decides to go on for a two year associate s degree or a four year bachelor s degree, parents need to remember a basic thought by John Gardner: We must show respect for both our philosophers and our plumbers or neither our pipes nor our philosophy will hold water (Brown, 1972, p. 9). A dream of most parents is a better life for their child. In most instances, a postsecondary education beyond high school comes to mind very quickly for many in order for their child to achieve a better life than their own. Students who indicated they would go directly on to higher education reported that 85% of their fathers wanted them to go, while 92% indicated their mother wanted them to go on. Meanwhile, 61% of the students who indicated they planned to enter the labor force indicated their father wanted them to go to college while, 69% indicated their mother wanted them to go on (Chu and Gray, 1995). The responsibility of preparing students academically for the transition from high school courses to college courses rests with the local high school. High school curriculums focus in three main areas: college-prep, vocational, and general. All three curriculums contain students who desire to go to college. With the various curriculums, students are not receiving the same preparation for college level work. Conant (1967) encouraged comprehensive high schools to challenge students to enroll in the higher math such as calculus, foreign languages, and Advance Placement courses. Conant was seeing in 1967 that students enrolled in the general curriculum were taking courses that met graduation requirements but had no real value upon graduation. The A Nation at Risk