Building and breaking a Python sandbox

Transcription

1 Building and breaking a Python sandbox

2 Director

3 Why? Learning a language Providing a hosted scratch pad Distributed computation Inspecting running processes safely

4 Examples in the wild Seattle s peer-to-peer computing network Google App Engine s Python shell Codecademy s empythoned CheckIO.org s online coding game

5

6 Building a sandbox Language-level sandboxing (pysandbox) OS-level sandboxing (PyPy s sandbox)

7 Question: How do we execute arbitrary code?

8 How do we execute arbitrary code? eval: compiles and evaluates expressions >>> eval("1 + 2") 3 exec: compiles and evaluates statements >>> exec "print 'Hello world'" Hello world

9 sandbox.py class Sandbox(object): def execute(self, code_string): exec code_string

10 test_sandbox.py from sandbox import Sandbox s = Sandbox() code = """ print "Hello world!" """ s.execute(code)

11 from sandbox import Sandbox s = Sandbox() code = """ print "Hello world!" """ s.execute(code) $ python test_sandbox.py Hello world!

12 What should we disallow?

13 What should we disallow? Resource exhaustion Information disclosure Running unexpected services Disabling/quitting/erroring out of the sandbox

14 from sandbox import Sandbox s = Sandbox() code = """ file("test.txt", "w").write("kaboom!\\n") """ s.execute(code)

15 >>> builtins. dict.keys() ['bytearray', 'IndexError', 'all', 'help', 'vars', 'SyntaxError', 'unicode', 'UnicodeDecodeError', 'memoryview', 'isinstance', 'copyright', 'NameError', 'BytesWarning', 'dict', 'input', 'oct', 'bin', 'SystemExit', 'StandardError', 'format', 'repr', 'sorted', 'False', 'RuntimeWarning', 'list', 'iter', 'reload', 'Warning', ' package ', 'round', 'dir', 'cmp', 'set', 'bytes', 'reduce', 'intern', 'issubclass', 'Ellipsis', 'EOFError', 'locals', 'BufferError', 'slice', 'FloatingPointError', 'sum', 'getattr', 'abs', 'exit', 'print', 'True', 'FutureWarning', 'ImportWarning', 'None', 'hash', 'ReferenceError', 'len', 'credits', 'frozenset', ' name ', 'ord', 'super', '_', 'TypeError', 'license', 'KeyboardInterrupt', 'UserWarning', 'filter', 'range', 'staticmethod', 'SystemError', 'BaseException', 'pow', 'RuntimeError', 'float', 'MemoryError', 'StopIteration', 'globals', 'divmod', 'enumerate', 'apply', 'LookupError', 'open', 'quit', 'basestring', 'UnicodeError', 'zip', 'hex', 'long', 'next', 'ImportError', 'chr', 'xrange', 'type', ' doc ', 'Exception', 'tuple', 'UnicodeTranslateError', 'reversed', 'UnicodeEncodeError', 'IOError', 'hasattr', 'delattr', 'setattr', 'raw_input', 'SyntaxWarning', 'compile', 'ArithmeticError', 'str', 'property', 'GeneratorExit', 'int', ' import ', 'KeyError', 'coerce', 'PendingDeprecationWarning', 'file', 'EnvironmentError', 'unichr', 'id', 'OSError', 'DeprecationWarning', 'min', 'UnicodeWarning', 'execfile', 'any', 'complex', 'bool', 'ValueError', 'NotImplemented', 'map', 'buffer', 'max', 'object', 'TabError', 'callable', 'ZeroDivisionError', 'eval', ' debug ', 'IndentationError', 'AssertionError', 'classmethod', 'UnboundLocalError', 'NotImplementedError', 'AttributeError', 'OverflowError']

16 >>> builtins. dict.keys() ['bytearray', 'IndexError', 'all', 'help', 'vars', 'SyntaxError', 'unicode', 'UnicodeDecodeError', 'memoryview', 'isinstance', 'copyright', 'NameError', 'BytesWarning', 'dict', 'input', 'oct', 'bin', 'SystemExit', 'StandardError', 'format', 'repr', 'sorted', 'False', 'RuntimeWarning', 'list', 'iter', 'reload', 'Warning', ' package ', 'round', 'dir', 'cmp', 'set', 'bytes', 'reduce', 'intern', 'issubclass', 'Ellipsis', 'EOFError', 'locals', 'BufferError', 'slice', 'FloatingPointError', 'sum', 'getattr', 'abs', 'exit', 'print', 'True', 'FutureWarning', 'ImportWarning', 'None', 'hash', 'ReferenceError', 'len', 'credits', 'frozenset', ' name ', 'ord', 'super', '_', 'TypeError', 'license', 'KeyboardInterrupt', 'UserWarning', 'filter', 'range', 'staticmethod', 'SystemError', 'BaseException', 'pow', 'RuntimeError', 'float', 'MemoryError', 'StopIteration', 'globals', 'divmod', 'enumerate', 'apply', 'LookupError', 'open', 'quit', 'basestring', 'UnicodeError', 'zip', 'hex', 'long', 'next', 'ImportError', 'chr', 'xrange', 'type', ' doc ', 'Exception', 'tuple', 'UnicodeTranslateError', 'reversed', 'UnicodeEncodeError', 'IOError', 'hasattr', 'delattr', 'setattr', 'raw_input', 'SyntaxWarning', 'compile', 'ArithmeticError', 'str', 'property', 'GeneratorExit', 'int', ' import ', 'KeyError', 'coerce', 'PendingDeprecationWarning', 'file', 'EnvironmentError', 'unichr', 'id', 'OSError', 'DeprecationWarning', 'min', 'UnicodeWarning', 'execfile', 'any', 'complex', 'bool', 'ValueError', 'NotImplemented', 'map', 'buffer', 'max', 'object', 'TabError', 'callable', 'ZeroDivisionError', 'eval', ' debug ', 'IndentationError', 'AssertionError', 'classmethod', 'UnboundLocalError', 'NotImplementedError', 'AttributeError', 'OverflowError']

17 How do we disallow execution of problematic builtins?

18 Idea: keyword blacklist

19 Idea: keyword blacklist class Sandbox(object): def execute(self, code_string): keyword_blacklist = ["file", "open", "eval", "exec"] for keyword in keyword_blacklist: if keyword in code_string: raise ValueError("Blacklisted") exec code_string

20 Testing: keyword blacklist from sandbox import Sandbox s = Sandbox() code = """ file("test.txt", "w").write("kaboom!\\n") """ s.execute(code)

21 Testing: keyword blacklist from sandbox import Sandbox s = Sandbox() code = """ file("test.txt", "w").write("kaboom!\\n") """ s.execute(code) $ python test_sandbox.py Traceback (most recent call last): File "test_sandbox.py", line 11, in <module> s.execute(code) File "/Users/jesstess/Desktop/sandbox/ sandbox.py", line 86, in execute raise ValueError("Blacklisted") ValueError: Blacklisted

22 How can we get around a keyword blacklist?

23 Circumvention idea: encryption func = builtins ["file"] func("test.txt", "w").write("kaboom!\n")

24 Circumvention idea: encryption func = builtins ["file"] func("test.txt", "w").write("kaboom!\n") func = builtins ["svyr".decode("rot13")] func("test.txt", "w").write("kaboom!\n")

25 Testing: keyword blacklist from sandbox import Sandbox s = Sandbox() code = """ func = builtins ["svyr".decode("rot13")] func("test.txt", "w").write("kaboom!\\n") """ s.execute(code) Kaboom

26 Observation: if I can get a reference to something bad, I can invoke it.

27 How can we remove all references to problematic builtins?

28 Idea: builtins whitelist

29 builtins_whitelist = set(( # exceptions 'ArithmeticError', 'AssertionError', 'AttributeError',... # constants 'False', 'None', 'True',... # types 'basestring', 'bytearray', 'bytes', 'complex', 'dict',... # functions ' import ', 'abs', 'all', 'any', 'apply', 'bin', 'bool',... # block: eval, execfile, file, quit, exit, reload, etc. ))

30 import sys main = sys.modules[" main "]. dict orig_builtins = main[" builtins "]. dict builtins_whitelist = set((... )) for builtin in orig_builtins.keys(): if builtin not in builtins_whitelist: del orig_builtins[builtin]

31 Testing: builtins whitelist from sandbox import Sandbox s = Sandbox() code = """ file("test.txt", "w").write("kaboom!\\n") """ s.execute(code)

32 Testing: builtins whitelist from sandbox import Sandbox s = Sandbox() code = """ file("test.txt", "w").write("kaboom!\\n") """ s.execute(code) $ python test_sandbox.py Traceback (most recent call last): File "test_sandbox.py", line 9, in <module> s.execute(code)... File "<string>", line 2, in <module> NameError: name 'file' is not defined

33 Circumvention idea: import something dangerous

34 Testing: builtins whitelist from sandbox import Sandbox s = Sandbox() code = """ import os fd = os.open("test.txt", os.o_creat os.o_wronly) os.write(fd, "Kaboom!\\n") """ s.execute(code) Kaboom

35 How do we disallow problematic imports?

36 Idea: import whitelist

37 Idea: import whitelist How does importing a module work in Python? >>> importer = builtins. dict.get(" import ") >>> os = importer("os") >>> os <module 'os' from '/Library/Frameworks/ Python.framework/Versions/2.7/lib/python2.7/os.pyc'> >>> os.getcwd() '/Users/jesstess/Desktop/sandbox'

38 Idea: import whitelist What is the expected function signature for the importer? >>> help( builtins. dict [" import "]) import (...) import (name, globals={}, locals={}, fromlist=[], level=-1) -> module

39 Idea: import whitelist Cool, let s write our own importer >>> def my_importer(module_name, globals={},... locals={}, fromlist=[],... level=-1):... print "Using my importer!"... return import (module_name, globals,... locals, fromlist, level)... >>> os = my_importer("os") Using my importer! >>> os.getcwd() '/Users/jesstess/Desktop/sandbox'

40 def _safe_import( import, module_whitelist): def safe_import(module_name, globals={}, locals={}, fromlist=[], level=-1):! if module_name in module_whitelist: return import (module_name,!!!!!!!!!!!! globals, locals, fromlist, level) else: raise ImportError( "Blocked import of %s" ( module_name,)) return safe_import

41 import sys main = sys.modules[" main "]. dict orig_builtins = main[" builtins "]. dict for builtin in orig_builtins.keys(): if builtin not in builtins_whitelist: del original_builtins[builtin] safe_modules = ["string", "re"] orig_builtins[" import "] = _safe_import( import, safe_modules)

42 Testing: import whitelist from sandbox import Sandbox s = Sandbox() code = """ import os fd = os.open("test.txt", os.o_creat os.o_wronly) os.write(fd, "Kaboom!\\n") """ s.execute(code)

43 Testing: import whitelist from sandbox import Sandbox s = Sandbox() code = """ import os fd = os.open("test.txt", os.o_creat os.o_wronly) os.write(fd, "Kaboom!\\n") """ s.execute(code) $ python test_sandbox.py Traceback (most recent call last): File "test_sandbox.py", line 11, in <module>... raise ImportError("Blocked import of %s" % (module_name,)) ImportError: Blocked import of os

44 Circumvention idea: modifying builtins

45 Idea: make builtins read-only

46 How can we make an object read-only in Python?

47 class ReadOnlyBuiltins(dict): def delitem (self, key): ValueError("Read-only!") def pop(self, key, default=none): ValueError("Read-only!") def popitem(self): ValueError("Read-only!")... def setdefault(self, key, value): ValueError("Read-only!") def setitem (self, key, value): ValueError("Read-only!") def update(self, dict, **kw): ValueError("Read-only!")

48 main = sys.modules[" main "]. dict orig_builtins = main[" builtins "]. dict for builtin in orig_builtins.keys(): if builtin not in builtins_whitelist: del original_builtins[builtin] safe_modules = ["string", "re"] orig_builtins[" import "] = _safe_import( import, safe_modules) safe_builtins = ReadOnlyBuiltins( original_builtins) main[" builtins "] = safe_builtins

49 Observation redux: if I can get a reference to something bad, I can invoke it.

50 Circumvention idea: exploiting the inheritance hierarchy

51 What can we find out about an object s base classes? >>> dir([]) [' add ', ' class ', ' contains ', ' delattr ', ' delitem ', ' delslice ', ' doc ', ' eq ', ' format ', ' ge ',...] >>> []. class <type 'list'>

52 What can we find out about an object s base classes? list subclasses object >>> []. class <type 'list'> >>> []. class. bases (<type 'object'>,) >>> []. class. bases [0] <type 'object'>

53 What can we find out about an object s subclasses? >>> []. class. subclasses () [] >>> int. subclasses () [<type 'bool'>] >>> basestring. subclasses () [<type 'str'>, <type 'unicode'>] subclasses of basestring

54 >>> []. class. bases [0]. subclasses () [<type 'type'>, <type 'weakref'>, <type 'weakcallableproxy'>, <type 'weakproxy'>, <type 'int'>, <type 'basestring'>, <type 'bytearray'>, <type 'list'>, <type 'NoneType'>, <type 'NotImplementedType'>, <type 'traceback'>, <type 'super'>, <type 'xrange'>, <type 'dict'>, <type 'set'>, <type 'slice'>, <type 'staticmethod'>, <type 'complex'>, <type 'float'>, <type 'buffer'>, <type 'long'>, <type 'frozenset'>, <type 'property'>, <type 'memoryview'>, <type 'tuple'>, <type 'enumerate'>, <type 'reversed'>, <type 'code'>, <type 'frame'>, <type 'builtin_function_or_method'>, <type 'instancemethod'>, <type 'function'>, <type 'classobj'>, <type 'dictproxy'>, <type 'generator'>, <type 'getset_descriptor'>, <type 'wrapper_descriptor'>, <type 'instance'>, <type 'ellipsis'>, <type 'member_descriptor'>, <type 'file'>, <type 'PyCapsule'>, <type 'cell'>, <type 'callable-iterator'>, <type 'iterator'>, <type 'sys.long_info'>, <type 'sys.float_info'>, <type 'EncodingMap'>, <type 'fieldnameiterator'>, <type 'formatteriterator'>, <type 'sys.version_info'>, <type 'sys.flags'>, <type 'exceptions.baseexception'>, <type 'module'>, <type 'imp.nullimporter'>, <type 'zipimport.zipimporter'>, <type 'posix.stat_result'>, <type 'posix.statvfs_result'>, <class 'warnings.warningmessage'>, <class 'warnings.catch_warnings'>, <class '_weakrefset._iterationguard'>, <class '_weakrefset.weakset'>, <class '_abcoll.hashable'>, <type 'classmethod'>, <class '_abcoll.iterable'>, <class '_abcoll.sized'>, <class '_abcoll.container'>, <class '_abcoll.callable'>, <class 'site._printer'>, <class 'site._helper'>, <type '_sre.sre_pattern'>, <type '_sre.sre_match'>, <type '_sre.sre_scanner'>, <class 'site.quitter'>, <class 'codecs.incrementalencoder'>, <class 'codecs.incrementaldecoder'>, <class 'string.template'>, <class 'string.formatter'>, <type 'operator.itemgetter'>, <type 'operator.attrgetter'>, <type 'operator.methodcaller'>, <type 'collections.deque'>, <type 'deque_iterator'>, <type 'deque_reverse_iterator'>, <type 'itertools.combinations'>, <type 'itertools.combinations_with_replacement'>, <type 'itertools.cycle'>, <type 'itertools.dropwhile'>, <type 'itertools.takewhile'>, <type 'itertools.islice'>, <type 'itertools.starmap'>, <type 'itertools.imap'>, <type 'itertools.chain'>, <type 'itertools.compress'>, <type 'itertools.ifilter'>, <type 'itertools.ifilterfalse'>, <type 'itertools.count'>, <type 'itertools.izip'>, <type 'itertools.izip_longest'>, <type 'itertools.permutations'>, <type 'itertools.product'>, <type 'itertools.repeat'>, <type 'itertools.groupby'>, <type 'itertools.tee_dataobject'>, <type 'itertools.tee'>, <type 'itertools._grouper'>, <type '_thread._localdummy'>, <type 'thread._local'>, <type 'thread.lock'>, <class 'sandbox.protection'>, <type 'resource.struct_rusage'>, <class 'sandbox.config.sandboxconfig'>, <class 'sandbox.proxy.readonlysequence'>, <class 'sandbox.sandbox_class.sandbox'>, <class 'sandbox.restorable_dict.restorabledict'>] >>> []. class. bases (<type 'object'>,) >>> []. class. bases [0] <type 'object'> All of the subclasses of object!

55 >>> []. class. bases (<type 'object'>,) >>> []. class. bases [0] <type 'object'> >>> obj_class = []. class. bases [0] >>> for c in obj_class. subclasses ():... print c. name... wrapper_descriptor instance ellipsis member_descriptor file PyCapsule cell callable-iterator iterator...

56 >>> []. class. bases (<type 'object'>,) >>> []. class. bases [0] <type 'object'> >>> obj_class = []. class. bases [0] >>> for c in obj_class. subclasses ():... print c. name... wrapper_descriptor instance ellipsis member_descriptor file PyCapsule cell!!! callable-iterator iterator...

57 from sandbox import Sandbox s = Sandbox() Testing: read-only builtins code = """ obj_class = []. class. bases [0] obj_subclasses = dict((elt. name, elt) for \ elt in obj_class. subclasses ()) func = obj_subclasses["file"] func("text.txt", "w").write("kaboom!\\n") """ s.execute(code) Kaboom

58 Idea: don t expose dangerous implementation details

59 Let s delete bases and subclasses >>> type. bases (<type 'object'>,) >>> del type. bases

60 Let s delete bases and subclasses >>> type. bases (<type 'object'>,) >>> del type. bases Traceback (most recent call last): File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module> TypeError: can't set attributes of builtin/extension type 'type' Imposed by the underlying C implementation!

61 Let s delete bases and subclasses cpython.py from ctypes import pythonapi, POINTER, py_object _get_dict = pythonapi._pyobject_getdictptr _get_dict.restype = POINTER(py_object) _get_dict.argtypes = [py_object] del pythonapi, POINTER, py_object def dictionary_of(ob): dptr = _get_dict(ob) return dptr.contents.value

62 from cpython import dictionary_of main = sys.modules[" main "]. dict... safe_builtins = ReadOnlyBuiltins( original_builtins) main[" builtins "] = safe_builtins type_dict = dictionary_of(type) del type_dict[" bases "] del type_dict[" subclasses "]

63 Circumvention idea: would a function by any other name smell as sweet?

64 >>> def foo():... print "Meow"... >>> dir(foo) [' call ', ' class ', ' closure ', ' code ', ' defaults ', ' delattr ', ' dict ', ' doc ', ' format ', ' get ', ' getattribute ', ' globals ', ' hash ', ' init ', ' module ', ' name ', ' new ', ' reduce ', ' reduce_ex ', ' repr ', ' setattr ', ' sizeof ', ' str ', ' subclasshook ', 'func_closure', 'func_code', 'func_defaults', 'func_dict', 'func_doc', 'func_globals', 'func_name']

65 >>> def foo():... print "Meow"... >>> dir(foo) [' call ', ' class ', ' closure ', ' code ', ' defaults ', ' delattr ', ' dict ', ' doc ', ' format ', ' get ', ' getattribute ', ' globals ', ' hash ', ' init ', ' module ', ' name ', ' new ', ' reduce ', ' reduce_ex ', ' repr ', ' setattr ', ' sizeof ', ' str ', ' subclasshook ', 'func_closure', 'func_code', 'func_defaults', 'func_dict', 'func_doc', 'func_globals', 'func_name']???

66 >>> foo.func_code <code object foo at 0x100509d30, file "<stdin>", line 1> >>> dir(foo.func_code) [' class ', ' cmp ', ' delattr ', ' doc ', ' eq ', ' format ', ' ge ', ' getattribute ', ' gt ', ' hash ', ' init ', ' le ', ' lt ', ' ne ', ' new ', ' reduce ', ' reduce_ex ', ' repr ', ' setattr ', ' sizeof ', ' str ', ' subclasshook ', 'co_argcount', 'co_cellvars', 'co_code', 'co_consts', 'co_filename', 'co_firstlineno', 'co_flags', 'co_freevars', 'co_lnotab', 'co_name', 'co_names', 'co_nlocals', 'co_stacksize', 'co_varnames'] >>> foo.func_code.co_code 'd\x01\x00ghd\x00\x00s'

67 >>> def foo():... print "Meow"... >>> def evil_function():... print "Kaboom!"... >>> foo() Meow >>> foo. setattr ("func_code", evil_function.func_code) >>> foo() Kaboom! Kaboom

68 Idea redux: don t expose dangerous implementation details

69 Delete func_code from cpython import dictionary_of from types import FunctionType... type_dict = dictionary_of(type) del type_dict[" bases "] del type_dict[" subclasses "] function_dict = dictionary_of(functiontype) del function_dict["func_code"]

70 Whew. Let s recap tactics: Keyword blacklist Builtins whitelist Import whitelist Making important objects read-only (builtins) Deleting problematic implementation details ( bases, subclasses, func_code) Deleting the ability to construct arbitrary code objects

71 We have run out of tricks! We ve implemented 80% of a full-fledged Python sandbox

72 builtins_whitelist = set(( # exceptions 'ArithmeticError', 'AssertionError', 'AttributeError', 'BufferError', 'BytesWarning', 'DeprecationWarning', 'EOFError', 'EnvironmentError', 'Exception', 'FloatingPointError','FutureWarning', 'GeneratorExit', 'IOError', 'ImportError', 'ImportWarning', 'IndentationError', 'IndexError', 'KeyError','LookupError', 'MemoryError', 'NameError', 'NotImplemented', 'NotImplementedError', 'OSError', 'OverflowError','PendingDeprecationWarning', 'ReferenceError', 'RuntimeError', 'RuntimeWarning', 'StandardError', 'StopIteration', 'SyntaxError', 'SyntaxWarning', 'SystemError', 'TabError', 'TypeError', 'UnboundLocalError', 'UnicodeDecodeError', 'UnicodeEncodeError','UnicodeError', 'UnicodeTranslateError', 'UnicodeWarning', # constants 'False', 'None', 'True', ' doc ', ' name ', ' package ', 'copyright', 'license', 'credits', # types 'basestring', 'bytearray', 'bytes', 'complex', 'dict', 'float', 'frozenset', 'int', 'list', 'long', 'object', 'set', 'str', 'tuple', 'unicode', # functions ' import ', 'abs', 'all', 'any', 'apply', 'bin', 'bool', 'buffer', 'callable', 'chr', 'classmethod', 'cmp', 'coerce', 'compile', 'delattr', 'dir', 'divmod', 'enumerate', 'filter', 'format', 'getattr', 'globals', 'hasattr', 'hash', 'hex', 'id', 'isinstance', 'issubclass', 'iter', 'len', 'locals', 'map', 'max', 'min', 'next', 'oct', 'ord', 'pow', 'print', 'property', 'range', 'reduce', 'repr', 'reversed', 'round', 'setattr', 'slice', 'sorted', 'staticmethod', 'sum', 'super', 'type', 'unichr', 'vars', 'xrange', 'zip', )) def _safe_import( import, module_whitelist): def safe_import(module_name, globals={}, locals={}, fromlist=[], level=-1): if module_name in module_whitelist: return import (module_name, globals, locals, fromlist, level) else: raise ImportError("Blocked import of %s" % (module_name,)) return safe_import builtins whitelist import whitelist class ReadOnlyBuiltins(dict): def clear(self): ValueError("Read-only!") def delitem (self, key): ValueError("Read-only!") def pop(self, key, default=none): ValueError("Read-only!") def popitem(self): ValueError("Read-only!") read-only builtins def setdefault(self, key, value):! ValueError("Read-only!") def setitem (self, key, value): ValueError("Read-only!") def update(self, dict, **kw): ValueError("Read-only!") class Sandbox(object): def init (self):! import sys! from types import FunctionType! from cpython import dictionary_of! original_builtins = sys.modules[" main "]. dict [" builtins "]. dict! for builtin in original_builtins.keys(): if builtin not in builtins_whitelist:!! del sys.modules[" main "]. dict [" builtins "]. dict [builtin] original_builtins[" import "] = _safe_import( import, ["string", "re"]) safe_builtins = ReadOnlyBuiltins(original_builtins) sys.modules[" main "]. dict [" builtins "] = safe_builtins! type_dict = dictionary_of(type)! del type_dict[" bases "]! del type_dict[" subclasses "] deleting bases, subclasses_, and func_code! function_dict = dictionary_of(functiontype)! del function_dict["func_code"] def execute(self, code_string):! exec code_string

73 Building a sandbox Language-level sandboxing (pysandbox) OS-level sandboxing (PyPy s sandbox)

74 What should we disallow? Resource exhaustion Information disclosure Running unexpected services Disabling/quitting/erroring out of the sandbox

75 Food for thought

76 Is this level of reflectiveness good or bad?

77 Do other languages have these sandboxing concerns?

78 If you were designing a new language, how would you do this?

79 Experiments How does an alternative Python implementation like PyPy handle these issues? How does the CPython interpreter compile and run bytecode? What does the Python stack look like? How do ctypes work? How can the operating system help provide a secure environment?

80 Bedtime reading The full pysandbox implementation: A retrospective on pysandbox s challenges: PyPy s sandbox implementation: How PythonAnywhere s sandbox works:

81 Thank you!

82 Thank you! Let s talk! O Reilly booth, 3pm