DEGREE LEVEL EDUCATION IN BIOLOGY IN THE UNITED KINGDOM AN UPDATE

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1 DEGREE LEVEL EDUCATION IN BIOLOGY IN THE UNITED KINGDOM AN UPDATE Professor P.B. Gahan, King's College London and Dr. M. Cherrent, university of Wales, Bangor 1. Introduction The tertiary education system in the UK. is still in a considerable state of flux, with many new courses and degree schemes being tried out, and many new institutions beginning to run their own degree programmes in Biology. Couple this with the traditionally different patterns of tertiary education in Scotland and England, and the result is a plethora of systems still under evaluation, which it is difficult to summarise. In consequence, the following comments attempt to provide some guide to common practice. There are now 129 universities in the UK, with other institutions also giving first degrees. Approximately 140 institutions are teaching degree courses in biology or related fields, either as a single subject or as a subject jointly with another. A full list of degree courses available is to be found in University and College Entrance 1999, an Official Guide. UCAS publication. About 200 courses are offered in the general area of agricultural and biological sciences, of which 40% are single subject courses (e.g. biology or genetics), whilst the remaining 60% are combinations of two or more subjects (e.g. biology and geography, or genetics and biochemistry). The combined subject degrees are difficult to analyse, but where there are more than ten, the specialist single subject courses are listed in Table 1. TABLE 1 Single subject biological degrees with > 10 courses (Priestley, R.H.(1994) The shape of things to come. Biologist 41, (1) 21-22) Course title Number of Courses Biology 103 Biochemistry 52 Microbiology 28 Zoology 25 Genetics 21 Environmental Biology 19 Botany/Plant Science 17 Cell Biology 15 Biotechnology 14 Molecular Biology 13

2 2 A. Sarbu - A. Vadineanu Ecology System of Organisation Traditionally, universities had many small, specialised biology departments e.g. zoology, botany, physiology, genetics, applied zoology, applied botany. More recently these have been discouraged by the funding authorities, and in many places, smaller departments have been merged into schools of biology. Biology would normally be taught within the faculty of science, but some aspects will be taught also within the faculties of medicine, pharmacy, agriculture, horticulture and sometimes arts. Degree giving institutions either award their own degrees, a power given to them by official decree, or they award the degrees of another institution possessing the necessary authority, under that institution's supervision. Sometimes the first year teaching may be franchised by the parent institution to a different College of Further Education. At present, the syllabus for each degree, and its quality control are the responsibility of the degree awarding institution, and are not imposed from outside, although some professional bodies will require to see the courses and their standard if they are to recognise them for their professional purposes. However, institutions are opening their degree courses and assessment standards to outside quality control. To this end an independent quality assessment body, the Quality Assessment Agency for Higher Education (QAA) was set up in 1997 with a remit to secure value from public investment, to encourage improvements in the quality of education and to provide effective and accessible public information on the quality of higher education. This is achieved, in part, through subject review visits to university departments. Universities are funded through Higher Education Funding Councils, which are separate for England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland. The registration fee for students is generally the same for different universities, although they are allowed to fix their own fee levels. Nevertheless, there are two levels of fees, one for home and EU students which is about one quarter of that required from other non-eu students (currently 10,015). In addition, since 1998, students have been required to pay the sum of 1,000 per annum which will increase annually by the cost of living index. There is much discussion at the present time about institutions having different fee levels. 3. Studies in Biology 3.1. University Teaching Basic Studies The first degree, the B.Sc., is normally studied over three years, but some courses involving a year abroad or in industry require four years, as do courses in Scotland. Experiments are being conducted on two year degrees with extended teaching periods within each year, whilst some part-time degrees may take many years to complete, as in the Open University Content As stated above, the course content is the responsibility of the degree awarding institution, and so differs from place to place. UK first degrees are generally regarded as being specialist in content, and in recent years there has been a plethora of new courses such as cell biology, ecology, environmental biology, and molecular biology, each with their own specialist syllabi. In addition, there has been an increasing tendency for students, rather than employers or society, to be regarded as the customers whom the university has to serve, and as a result many modular course structures have been set up in

3 which the degree content is, to a greater or lesser extent, determined by the options which the student chooses. Some subject combinations, such as biology and languages or biology and business studies are especially aimed at a less specialised, broader career training. In consequence, the content of biology degrees in the UK is highly variable which makes for difficulties in post-graduate studies where a common knowledge among biology graduates is difficult to assume Organisation Entry to the university is selective with a numerus clausus operating. Normally, passes are required at either the General Certificate of Education A level or the Scottish leaving certificate, although other non-a level entry routes such as Higher National Certificate, BTEC and the International Baccalaureate qualifications are becoming increasingly common. Mature students may take a special one year Access course giving them a background in the basic subject matter for a degree programme and then enter into the first year of a Biology degree programme. However, most students will take A levels at 18 yrs. old, and the university of their choice will make offers of a place to them on the basis of which subjects they are taking, and the grades they must achieve in them. Requirements are at the discretion of each university though A level passes are preferred, especially in subjects such as physics, chemistry and biology, with grades varying from AAA to about EE depending upon the institution, and even the department. Special arrangements can be made for the many mature students now entering with work experience, and non-standard qualifications. At present about 14% of students are over 21 years old at the start of their course though a number are falling to complete their studies for financial reasons. However, it is the intention of the UK government to double the number of students in higher education with half of under 30 years old having access. A UK Credit Accumulation Transfer Scheme, which will permit students to study for their degree in more than one institution, has been established with a total of 360 credits being required for a degree i.e. twice the number of ECTS credits. Practical work is normal in the first two years, and usually linked with the subjects studied with 24h of lectures and 48h of practical/ tutorial/ seminar/field work per unit being a fairly common ratio. In the final year, there is commonly less formal practical work, but usually, each student has to perform an individual and extensive research project, often involving original experimental work. This will be written up as a substantial dissertation with appropriate numerical analysis, reference citing, and scientific paper-style format. The final degree is normally classified into First class (>69%); Upper second class (>59%); Lower second class (>49%); Third class (>39%); Pass (>34%); Fail (<35%), although the exact mark boundaries may differ from one institution to another. The way in which these marks are obtained varies somewhat, and is based on a mixture of closed, written examinations, dissertation marks, and continuous assessment marks based on the course work throughout the year. Some institutions only take into account work done in the third year, regarding the two previous years as qualifying years; others bring marks from the second year into the final degree assessment, while yet others use the second and third years as a single entity. Degree examinations are moderated by External Examiners appointed from other institutions. These examiners have to ensure that standards are comparable between the institutions with which they have experience, and are also normally required to comment on the teaching, the course content, the examination system, and the levels achieved by the students. These comments are sent to the Vice-Chancellor or his equivalent. Such reports also form a part of the information made available to the visiting team from the QAA Impact of European Community Programmes The UK. has been a substantial contributor to ERASMUS, SOCRATES and TEMPUS programmes, and this is as true in biology as in other disciplines. For obvious linguistic reasons, UK institutions are popular with students from other member states. However, the past demand for exchanges by incoming students was commonly in excess of that from outgoing British students, and a balanced flow was difficult to maintain. This has been controlled to an extent by the introduction of the Institutional Contracts though it has resulted in less UK participation, in part, due to the institutional administrative costs involved.

4 4 A. Sarbu - A. Vadineanu However, there are problems for UK three year degree students participating. They cannot go during their first year,, and final year exchanges are unpopular because of the third year project requirements, and a heavy emphasis on final year marks when awarding and classifying degrees. As a consequence, second year exchanges are perhaps the most common, but students have to decide on these in their first year, within weeks of arriving at the university. Also they can have had no part in the original choice of institution for exchange, since application procedures for mobility grants are normally completed before they come to the university. Lack of linguistic skills in these rather specialised students is another problem. Despite these difficulties, however, substantial numbers of biology undergraduates do exchange, and this has led to the establishment in some universities of degrees in Biology with a European language, where a period abroad is a required part of the 3 or 4 year degree, as are the appropriate linguistic skills. In some universities, students are encouraged to carry out their dissertation work abroad during the long summer vacation. This can be a very valuable experience, but where students are relying on the summer period to earn money to pay for their degree training, a summer period away is not possible, as not only do they not earn money, but they need to pay for accommodation abroad while often having to maintain accommodation in the UK. Financial problems have increased recently, with a greater pressure for those students wanting to go abroad. It has been calculated that UK students studying in the UK are likely to end up with debts of 5-7,000 at the end of the degree programme. For the students who do not travel abroad, the often large numbers of visiting SOCRATES students in their classes, undoubtedly contributes to their international education, and to a realisation that Biology is an international discipline. This is especially fostered by the experience ofbeing taught by academic staff from another member country, and it is difficult to overestimate the impression that this leaves on the minds of home students, many of whom have previously not considered a European context in their studies. To hear of their own teachers also travelling abroad to teach in other universities gives them the feeling of being part of an international organisation. Biologists have been active in teaching exchanges Post-Graduate Studies After first degree graduation, some 30% of students currently go on to study some form of postgraduate course. There are now about 5,000 post-graduate students in Health and Biological Sciences in the UK, down almost by a half on the number for In Biological Sciences, about 15% of post-graduates go on to further academic study after graduating, with some 80% opting to go straight into employment (Table 2). TABLE 2 UK domiciled qualifiers by first destination, level of qualification in Medical, Biological and associated subjects (First Destinations of Students Leaving Higher Education Institutes. Higher Education Statistics Agency Ltd). Employment in UK Employment overseas Undertaking study or training Not available for employment study, training Assumed to be unemployed Others Total POSTGRADUATE Medicine Dentistry & Subjects allied to medicine Biological Sciences

5 Employment in UK Employment overseas Undertaking study or training Not available for employment study, training Assumed to be unemployed Others Total POSTGRADUATE Veterinary Sciences Agriculture & Related subjects UNDERGRADUATE Medicine Dentristry & Subjects allied to medicine Biological Sciences Veterinary Sciences Agriculture & Related subjects Master's courses have been increasing in number, and although it is possible to move straight from a 3 year first degree into full time biological employment, this is becoming less frequent, so that de facto most professional biologists have now had at least 4 years of training. There have been suggestions that students should possess an M.Sc., before registering for a Ph.D., but this is controversial and not at present required. Although admission to M.Sc. courses normally requires an appropriate first degree, maturity and equivalent experience will sometimes be accepted instead Content Many specialised M.Sc. degree courses in biology are now offered, such as degrees in ecology, molecular biology, forensic science, parasitology, fisheries management, and environmental impact assessment. They usually last for a full 12 months, involve a taught course examined either by formal closed examinations, by continuous assessment, or by a mixture of the two, and will usually end with a research dissertation of considerably greater length and depth than the undergraduate one. Again, the syllabus is the responsibility of the degree awarding institution, but where the degree has to be recognised by a professional association, or where scholarships are awarded to students by a research council, then course content and quality will periodically be reviewed by them. Quality is also controlled by the QAA Organisation In addition to these taught M.Sc.'s taken in one year, two year M.Sc. courses (called M.Phil. by some institutions) taken entirely by research and thesis are often available. These have become less common as one additional year could lead to the Ph.D. degree. In all cases, examinations are moderated by an external examiner brought in from another institution to ensure comparability of standards. Masters degrees in biology at Oxford and Cambridge can have a different meaning. There, the first degree is called a B.A., and it may be converted to an M.A. after a period of time, without further examination. Some postgraduate work, commonly of somewhat shorter duration, leads to Diplomas or Certificates.

6 6 A. Sarbu - A. Vadineanu Impact of European Community Programmes Problems of recruitment for the exchange of undergraduate students leaving Britain are acute, as the preparation time is so short. The Masters degree is normally of one year s duration whereas most other European Masters degree programmes last for two years. This makes it virtually impossible for the UK students to participate in European Masters exchange programmes since University regulations often require students to spend the year in the home University. However, provided late choices continue to be allowed, dissertations can often be performed in the vacation at the end of the first year when the students are sufficiently mature to make full use of their opportunities. Ph.D. students can spend periods abroad providing funding can be raised, though there are still problems in getting recognition of such visits through the award of a European Ph.D. which, currently, is not available in the UK. Exchange of teachers is very useful, and intensive courses are especially valuable for post-graduate students, because specialist staff from a variety of member states can be brought together to discuss technical problems which individual institutions might find difficult to teach due to lack of expertise Ph.D. Ph.D.s are usually planned to take three years, and the research councils strongly discourage students from spending more than 4 years, by placing financial penalties on the institution if their students take longer Content Some course work is recommended, and its length is currently a matter of debate. In practice it is usually a small, and not very significant part of most Ph.D. schemes, and often is not examined. Essentially the degree consists of a piece of specialist in-depth research written up as a thesis, and it is normally expected to have made a contribution to the subject and to contain material publishable in International Journals Organisation The vast majority of Ph.D. students in biology are in receipt of a grant for all their three years of study. Part-time study is possible in some institutions, so that the degree can be taken alongside a job, and split Ph.D.s allow study to take place in more than one institution, including industry. Grants come from the research councils, charities, industry, the EU and from the universities themselves. However, in , 39 of the government agency Ph.D. studentships were not taken up and there is an indication that many students are opting to leave study after a first degree or an M.Sc. The thesis is always assessed both internally and externally, and a Viva voce examination by a specialist, external examiner is normally required Impact of European Community Programmes Student exchange does occur on SOCRATES and TEMPUS programmes, but at this level there is considerable pressure on the student to produce large quantities of high level research of publishable quality in a very short time. Therefore, many students are reluctant to travel abroad unless the university they go to can provide facilities which they cannot get at home, as the inevitable disruption of the move is seen as wasting valuable time. However, where these extra facilities and expertise are available, it is a thoroughly worthwhile undertaking.

7 3.2. Professional Education Job Recruitment In 1997 there were some 11,848 first degree graduates produced in the biological sciences, of which first destinations are known for 10,751; of these less than half went straight into permanent employment in either the UK or abroad (Table 2). Currently, biologists and agriculturalists have the highest initial unemployment rates of all undergraduates with many entering short-term or temporary employment. Some examples of the types of employment undertaken by biology graduates are included in Table 3. Table 3. Examples of courses and employment undertaken by graduates in biological sciences in the UK. Further full-time study Ph. D.: Biology; Climate change; Fish Physiology; Immunology; Microbiology; Pharmaceutical Science; Zoology M.Sc.: Biotechnology Ecotoxicology Ergonomics Genetic counselling Hydrobiology Marine Resource Development Nutrition Toxicology Certificates and diplomas: Education Information Technology Employment Agrisearch; Armed forces British Leather Confederation; Diagnostics Environmental officers Finance Fitness instructors Food Industry Forestry Health education officer Horticulture Hospitals Leisure services Museum curators Management Medical laboratories Medical sales representatives Medical Research Council National Health Service Pharmaceuticals Personnel Management Products development officer Police Public health laboratories University lab. technicians Continuing Education As mentioned above, mature biologists in post will sometimes return to university to take higher degrees and diplomas, and increasingly universities are mounting short courses of a few weeks

8 8 A. Sarbu - A. Vadineanu duration for updating professionals in newly developing areas of the subject, and in the use of new techniques. Given adequate demand through the support of employers, it can be anticipated that these commercial ventures will increase in number. The Institute of Biology has a 'short course approval scheme', and advertises these in its magazine, The Biologist. From its outset, the Open University has enabled many biologists in post to keep up to date with recent developments. The whole area of Continuing Professional Development (CPD) in biology is currently the subject of discussion, and could involve the formalisation of personal achievement files, which might eventually have European recognition Preparation of Teachers Teaching in the UK. is an all-graduate profession for new-comers, the majority of students training for primary schools taking a 4 year B.Ed. degree, within which a moderate amount of specialisation is possible e.g. Science. The majority of students training for secondary school teaching take a traditional first degree, perhaps in biology, and then go on to take a professional Postgraduate Certificate of Education in one further year. These teachers, who will have received some specialist professional training in the teaching of biology in their final postgraduate certificate, will be especially well fitted to teach older students preparing to enter a university degree in biology Role of National Scientific Associations The Royal Society is the principal national scientific society for Britain. The UK. has no national commission supervising the tertiary teaching of biology, but various Learned Scientific Societies have an educational interest in the training of young people in their own specialist fields, for example the Biochemical Society, the Royal Entomological Society, the British Ecological Society, and within the general area of science, the British Association for the Advancement of Science. These learned societies may have education sub-committees, they often give students cheap membership concessions, and may organise student prizes for research studies, sponsor lectures, and arrange student meetings. They also provide the main forum for practising biologists to update their knowledge during their regular paper-reading and poster meetings and workshops. There are also professional societies for e.g. biologists, medics, foresters and dentists, which are not only concerned with remuneration, but also with quality assessment and training. The Institute of Biology through its Royal Charter has the authority (1) to define the minimum standard of qualifications and experience needed for a professional biologist; (2) to admit as Members or Fellows people who reach the relevant standards; (3) to allow them to use the Chartered Biologist designation at either the Member (CBiol MIBiol) or Fellow (CBiol FIBiol) level (Ten per cent are Fellows; 56% are Members;13% graduate members;16% student members; and 4% associate members). At the end of 1999, there were 12,000 Chartered Biologists, more than 90% of whom work in the UK. This status is relevant to the title of Eurobiologist as discussed in the Directive 89/48/EEC (See Priestley, R.H. (1992) Biologist 39 (2) 52-56). 4. New Needs in Biology Studies 4.1. Shortcomings and Gaps In the UK. as a whole, employment prospects suggest that there is no general shortage of biologists, and the increasing competition between training establishments for good students is making them increasingly sensitive to gaps in the market. Students have a wide range of courses from which to choose, and successful, oversubscribed courses are soon emulated elsewhere. However, student choice of course to follow is not closely related to employment opportunities. Whole organism and ecological themes are popular but supply is often in excess of employer

9 demand. This is becoming the case for molecular and biochemical themes. Whilst this may well be regarded as unsatisfactory from the point of view of matching expensively trained young people to the demands of society, gaps in providing for student-led demand are not perceived as a major problem. Many of the skills acquired in a biological training are transferable to other activities. An understanding of the techniques of multivariate analysis; the ability to test hypotheses in complex systems; familiarity with the problems of mapping the likely effects of environmental changes on living organisms, including humans; a knowledge of the techniques of behavioural studies, and an appreciation of the role of chance, are a list of only a few. These transferable elements need to be emphasised in a biological education, and their relevance to society as a whole stressed. Moreover, biology students have the advantage over many other science graduates in being both numerate and literate Future Requirements It is not difficult to speculate that these are likely to be in the areas of biotechnology, environmental biology, the conservation of biodiversity, and if world population trends continue, renewed pressure on food production. It is much more difficult to know if our present system of student led demand will fill gaps in provision in time, or whether more direction of student choice in the degrees they follow will be required. Specialist Master's courses will continue to fill many of the gaps, and as these are scholarship financed, often from the European Social Fund, a more rapidly reacting directed mode is available to match employer's requirements with the supply of manpower. However, it is to be hoped that many students will continue to study intellectually challenging topics which interest them, and this is well served by the present system. Nevertheless, there is concern that in opening higher education to increasing numbers of students could result in what many would call a "dumbing down" due to the lower level of background information of many of the future students. However, providing the way in which these students are taught, aligned with a change in the types of degrees taught i.e. not to put all of these students onto special honours degree programmes, but onto broader programmes taught to a general degree level, could make for a profitable future. 5. Ways to Satisfy these New Needs 5.1. At University Level There is a general feeling that we now need a period of consolidation in which to judge the value of the wide range of alternative biology schemes already in existence, and to assess how successful each is. An area of disagreement, as mentioned above, is the provision within our three year structure, of specialist biologists with some knowledge in depth, as against more generally trained students with a broad knowledge of e.g. mathematics, the physical sciences, languages and management. Continuing discussion on the length of biological education throughout the EC would be welcome. Changing fashions in student choice are difficult to foresee, and consequently it is difficult to have a suitable supply of expert teachers ready at short notice. Equally, once demand has been satisfied, it is difficult to redirect older staff already hired. Faced with falling demand, the way forward is often to abandon teaching in a particular subject area which can lead, eventually, to redundancy. Managers of higher education must plan for a basic coverage of the discipline by highly trained research staff, in the knowledge that demands on them for teaching are likely to fluctuate during their working life. Consequently opportunities for sabbatical leave, and retraining must be an integral part of the employment conditions for academics.

10 10 A. Sarbu - A. Vadineanu 5.2. At Government Level Flexibility in the work force is a key to the efficient utilisation of skilled biologists, and easy transition between teaching, academic research and application in industry or public service should be encouraged at all stages. Continuing to underpin the research of temporarily unfashionable areas of biology helps to ensure teaching in important basic skills such as taxonomy, and provides manpower to fulfil changing requirements as new needs for these skills come to light. However, extreme pressures to produce well-funded, high-level research through the periodic Research Assessment Exercise which affects both funding and the ability to attract good undergraduate and post-graduate students, make this a difficult exercise At EC Level The above flexibility needs also to operate at an EC level if we are to remain in the forefront of biological research, and if we are to remain competitive in biology based industries. Continuing international education of scientists through workshops, meetings, intensive courses and training assignments between member states will reinforce the success of the SOCRATES, TEMPUS and COMET schemes. The EC's task is to minimise the obstacles which prevent biologists talking freely to each other, studying in each other's laboratories, and sharing field experience. The EurBiol qualification can provide a basic badge of professional competence which should be recognised throughout Europe. The possession of an Institute of Biology CBiol will be accepted as part of the qualifying requirements. Euro-qualifications can be expected to increase in importance in Biology in the coming years