The balance between project and process

Transcription

1 Management of complex spatial development projects Graduation thesis Pelle de Wit

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3 Colophon: Title: The balance between project and process Management of complex spatial development projects Location: Baarn / Delft Date: 30th of March, 2010 Pages: 163 Status: Final version Author Name: P.Y. (Pelle) De Wit BSc. Student number pwi@atosborne.nl / pelledewit@hotmail.com Master Program: Specialisation: Faculty: University: System Engineering, Policy Analysis and Management (SEPAM) Land Use & Development (LUD) Faculty of Technology, Policy and Management (TPM) Delft University of Technology Graduation Committee Graduation section: Graduation professor: First supervisor: Second supervisor: External supervisor: Policy, Organisation, Law & Gaming Prof. Dr. J. A. (Hans) De Bruijn (Faculty of TPM, section POLG) Dr. W.W. (Wijnand) Veeneman (Faculty of TPM, section POLG) Prof. dr. W.A.M. (Wil) Zonneveld (OTB Research Institute) Drs. P.A. (Peter) Kee (AT Osborne) Delft University of Technology Faculty of Technology, Policy and Management Postbus GA Delft AT Osborne B.V. Postbus AD Baarn Tel: March

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5 Preface This research report, on combining project and process management, is the result of my graduation internship at AT Osborne and also serves as thesis for the Master System Engineering, Policy Analysis and Management. The past 6 years I have followed this education programme and the preceding Bachelor programme at the faculty of Technology, Policy and Management at Delft University of Technology. Education and research at this faculty focuses at social problems in which technology plays an important role. I have enjoyed this education programme which fitted well with my broad interest. From the beginning of my study at the faculty of TPM, I followed a specialization in spatial development. During an earlier internship I already learned a lot about policy issues related to housing and spatial development. In addition to this experience I wanted to focus on the implementation and management of these developments during my graduation project. Therefore, it was with great motivation that I took the possibility that AT Osborne offered me to focus my graduation research on the management of complex spatial development projects. During the graduation period I could not only develop my knowledge on this subject, I also got a unique inside look into many of the largest projects in the Netherlands. At the conclusion of my research I warmly thank my supervisors from the TU Delft for the provided assistance. Wijnand Veeneman, Wil Zonneveld and graduation professor Hans de Bruijn have repeatedly supported me with useful comments. Within a moment, Wijnand was always able to focus at the most important elements of my work and to provide me with subtle instructions that kept me on the correct path. Discussions with Will were a perfect opportunity to reflect on my research and he made sure that I was keeping a close eye on the structure of my report. At slightly greater distance also Hans de Bruijn redirected my research with some crucial comments. During my research I have also received support and a pleasant working environment within AT Osborne. Therefore at first I d like to thank Peter Kee, who was my first external supervisor and contact person within AT Osborne. He supported me by ensuring that my research was well in line with practice and he brought me in contact with many other specialists that work within AT Osborne. However, Peter was not the only one who provided me with advice. During different stages of my internship, about a dozen of colleagues contributed to the result of my research. They provided me with comments on the draft versions of my research proposal and my interview protocol. They shared information with me about recent studies and interesting practices that could enrich my research. They accompanied me to some of my interviews. They discussed with me on preliminary research results. This support was a nice incentive to pursue my research. My enthusiasm about managing spatial development projects has only grown during this research and thereby this graduation period offered me a nice conclusion of my study. I hope you all enjoy reading the results. Pelle de Wit March 2010 March

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7 Summary I Problem statement and research design The planning and implementation of a high proportion of complex spatial development projects is facing problems. Managing these projects is a challenge because they are technically complex, take place in a dynamic environment and many stakeholders are involved. To successfully manage these projects a combination of project management and process management is required. This is in contrast with the scientific literature, where project and process management are quite separated worlds. A clear scientific framework or theory about connecting project and process management is not yet present. Project managers seem to have insufficient support to successfully apply project and process management interventions. It is expected that project managers who have a better picture of potential interventions can manage more effectively. The objective of this research is to develop a scientifically based framework that presents a categorised and extensive overview of project and process management interventions. This framework should support project managers to successfully apply these managerial interventions in the management of infrastructure and urban development projects. To achieve this objective a research question is formulated and further detailed in four sub-questions. How can managers of spatial development projects, given the context and management issues in these developments, properly apply project-oriented and process-oriented interventions and by that increase the success of their management? 1 Which project management and process management interventions can be applied by project managers? 2 Which types of complexity and issues do project managers face during spatial development projects? 3 What are the possibilities and limitations in combining project and process management interventions? 4 Given a specific issue and context in spatial development projects, which interventions should be applied to increase the success of the overall project? To answer these questions, two research methods are used. First is a literature review performed to compose a theoretical framework. Second, 31 interviews with experienced project managers are conducted to obtain information on the implementation of project and process management and on interventions with a decisive influence on project results. II Answers on the sub-questions 1 Which project management and process management interventions can be applied by project managers? Managers of spatial development projects have the availability of a large range of managerial interventions. Interventions are conscious interferences of a project manager in a project or process. With an intervention managers steer or influence the current situation and aim at achieving change. March

8 Pure project management and pure process management exist of opposing approaches to comparable situations. Project management aims at structured accomplishment of a definite and demarcated scope and thereby steers on control of time, money and quality. Process management aims at collective enabling of a dynamic and discussable scope and thereby steers on increasing support, acceptation and feasibility. During the interviews 20 intervention opportunities are observed whereby project managers were able to achieve a decisive influence on the project results. To further categorize these interventions three major characteristics of interventions are described: 1 The intervention depth describing the intensity of a proposed change. 2 The intervention width describing the number of involved stakeholders. 3 The intervention length on describing the period in which the intervention takes place. 2 Which types of complexity and issues do project managers face during spatial development projects? Complexity The context of spatial development projects is characterized by four components of complexity: Size complexity, related to the number of parts, such as stakeholders or sub-projects. Interdependence complexity, related to the interdependencies between these parts. Uncertainty in goals, which means objectives or scope of the project are uncertain. Uncertainty in methods, which means there is uncertainty on how project goals will be achieved. The interviews revealed practical examples of complexity in spatial development projects. Financial complexity of urban development projects is high because earnings are vulnerable to market developments. Infrastructure projects are mainly funded by the government, which causes a lower level of uncertainty of benefits. Social complexity in spatial development projects is high which is mainly caused by political involvement. Involvement of various governmental levels is greatly complicating and unexpected political interventions can disrupt the progress of a project. Issues In spatial development projects many different issues can occur and give cause to an intervention. An important distinction among the issues can be made between risks and uncertain events. In the case of a risk, the probability of the issue can be determined and a project manager can take action on forehand. In the case of an uncertain event the issue is not predictable and project managers have to react after the event. The interviews revealed practical examples of important issues. Achieving and maintaining spatial quality is one of the major issues in urban development projects. Planning issues are relatively less important in the realisation of urban development projects in comparison to infrastructure projects. The planning is often perceived as a derivative of quality and budget. Increasing the speed of the planning phase is one of the biggest issues for project managers in infrastructure projects. Involving and informing the appropriate stakeholders is one of the key issues in all spatial development projects. March

9 3 What are the possibilities and limitations in combining project and process management interventions? Project management is based on control and reducing complexity, while process management is based on flexibility and coping with complexity. Caused by these intrinsic discrepancies, interventions can constrain each others possibilities. Applying a project management intervention can have negative consequences for the possibility to apply a process management intervention. Process management interventions can also raise a blockade for subsequent project management interventions. Still there are different possibilities to combine project and process management. The relationship varies by project due to project specific characteristics or circumstances. Project managers consider the chart in figure I as the best visualisation for the combination of project and process management in spatial development projects. This graphs shows that the quantitative share of process management is declining but a small amount of process management remains required. The decrease of process management is capricious, which means that the long term decrease is interrupted by a temporary renewed attention for the process. Connections between project and process management are visible through the peaks in the graph. Figure I: The development of the proportion of project and process management during projects The peaks in the graph indicate two different events. First, a peak can indicate a decision-making process. Process management plays an important role in the phase previous of decision-making, causing a peak in the share of process management. A second explanation for the peaks is the emergence of unexpected issues. In order to resolve issues, additional process management is often needed. The capricious graph indicates that project managers should be able to switch between different approaches because at one moment a project management intervention is required, but shortly thereafter a process approach might be desirable. 4 Given a specific issue and context in spatial development projects which interventions should be applied to increase the success of the overall project? Project managers and their organization have to posses the ability to apply an intervention at the right time, which offers exactly what is required in a unique situation. The substance of the intervention should be unique, but it is possible to present an overview of the applicable intervention mechanisms. An overview of observed intervention mechanisms that can have a crucial contribution to project results are shown in figure II. March

10 Pure interventions refer to process management interventions and project management interventions that are fully consistent with the definitions of project and process management as used in this research. Elements that require project management are a defined scope, hierarchical relations, a stable environment and limited complexity. Elements that require process management are a discussable scope, interdependent stakeholders, a dynamic environment and high complexity. Mutually reinforcing interventions show synergy between project and process management. Examples are project-oriented interventions that contribute to the objectives of process management and process-oriented interventions that contribute to the achievement of project goals. This shows that interventions can be applied to achieve unexpected goals and contribute to each other s objectives. Mutually compensating interventions are project-oriented interventions complemented with process conditions and process-oriented interventions complemented with project conditions. These conditions function as a compensation for potential negative effects of the original intervention. Mutually allowing interventions are project-oriented interventions that are possible through the outcomes of an earlier process and process-oriented interventions that are possible by the results of previous project phases. This mechanism shows that project and process management interventions can be applied based on each other s results. Figure II: Overview of different intervention mechanisms III Conclusions Answer main research question How can managers of spatial development projects, given the context and management issues in these developments, properly apply project-oriented and process-oriented interventions and by that increase the success of their management? March

11 Project managers can influence the success of their project by applying interventions that match the current project situation. There are 20 distinctive interventions opportunities observed that may have a decisive influence on project results. It is possible to distinguish elements of a projects situation that require project management and elements that require process management. However, a project situation is almost never purely suited for project management or purely suited for process management. Therefore in many interventions aspects of project and process management have to be combined. There are several mechanisms to combine project and process management by interventions. Determining the most appropriate intervention is difficult due to the ambiguous and complex project situations. To support this choice the project manager and his organization must posses: A good analytical ability to recognize upcoming problems in spatial development projects. A good analytical ability to assess the presence of factors that influence the success of interventions, specifically the presence of various components of project complexity. Knowledge about factors that determine if a project situation requires a project management or a process management approach. Knowledge on combining project and process management in intervention mechanisms. The quality to create and apply effective interventions that are appropriate to deal with unique situations which emerge in spatial development projects. Contribution to scientific literature There are three elements of this research that can contribute in connecting the currently separate literature schools on project and process management. 1 This study shows that the combination of project and process in practice takes place regularly. Project and process management are often naturally combined by project managers to match the characteristics of the project situation. Also in scientific literature these separate worlds have to be combined. 2 This research provides insight into the connection between project and process management at the project level. Project managers switch between a project and a process approach around decision-making processes and in response to unexpected events. This approach can be visualized into a capricious relationship between the demand for project and process management during spatial development projects. 3 A conceptual framework is designed to show how interventions can be applied at the interface of project and process management. This framework provides a description of mechanisms by which managers combine originally opposite management approaches. The analysis shows that in practice project and process management are not only connected, but by applying these mechanisms both approaches reinforce each other. Comments on research The disadvantage of the research method is that through interviews the perceptions of project managers are measured and there was no possibility to objectively monitor these perceptions. This has several consequences. Respondents may have presented their projects more positive than it is reality and they may have focused on achieved successes. Moreover, respondents might have overestimated their own role in the projects and underestimated the influence of the context. Although interviews March

12 are rated as the best method for answering the research question, these factors weaken the certainty of the formulated conclusions. IV Recommendations Based on this research, three recommendations are formulated: Windows of opportunity The success of interventions is depended on the context in which they are applied. Applying an intervention in the appropriate context requires a good preparation. It is recommended to actively search for windows of opportunity, which offer the perfect opportunity to successfully apply a specific intervention. A necessary element of a window of opportunity is dissatisfaction about the current situation or a chance of significant improvement. To apply a process-oriented intervention the presence of a shared sense of urgency among the stakeholders is also important. To apply a project-oriented intervention the absence of possible resistance is critical. Connect project and process management Project situations contain both elements that require process management and elements that require project management. These elements often appear simultaneously and cause ambiguous project situations. To intervene successfully in these ambiguous situations, interventions should contain a combination of project and process management. It is recommended to weave project and process management together in an individual intervention or in a series of linked interventions. Mechanisms to realize this connection are described in the next recommendation. Combining intervention mechanisms Three intervention mechanisms are identified to combine project and process management. 1 Mutually reinforcing interventions: Project management should not only be used for the realization of project-oriented objectives, it may also contribute to the achievement of process-oriented goals. Conversely, process management should not only be used for the achievement of process management objectives, it may also contribute to the achievement of project-oriented objectives. It is recommended to let project and process management contribute to each others objectives. 2 Mutually compensating interventions: Project management interventions could raise resistance among other stakeholders and process management interventions may contain excessive openness and thus cause additional uncertainty about the scope, schedule or budget. It is recommended that these potential negative effects of interventions are compensated by adding projectoriented conditions to process-oriented interventions and by adding process-oriented conditions to project-oriented interventions. 3 Mutually allowing interventions: Appointing and utilizing achievements in relation to project management objectives can create conditions that allow the appliance of process management interventions. Conversely also the results of performed process management can be used to create conditions that allow appliance of project management interventions. Project and process management interventions can therefore be applied based on each other's results. March

13 Content Preface 5 Summary 7 1 Introduction Research topic: (un)manageable projects? Research context Structure of the report Research design Problem statement: management of complex projects Research objective and research questions Research method Project and process management interventions Introduction Project and process management Opposing management interventions Categorisation of interventions Conclusion management interventions Complexity and management issues Introduction Complexity in spatial development projects Management issues Conclusion complexity and management issues The challenge of combining project and process management Introduction Combinations of project and process management Limitations in combining project and process management Conclusion possibilities and limitations Experiences of project managers Introduction Selection of respondents Interview protocol Experiences with project and process management Experiences with crucial interventions Further analysis of interventions Conclusion empirical research...68 March

14 7 Integration of project and process management Introduction Pure project and process management Mutually reinforcing interventions Mutually compensating interventions Mutually allowing interventions Conclusions appropriate interventions Conclusions and recommendations Introduction Answers on the sub-questions Answer main research question Discussion research results Recommendations Epilogue Comments on research Further investigation Personal reflection Literature 121 Appendix I: Categorized interventions 125 Appendix II: Lijst met interview respondenten 133 Appendix III: Interview protocol 137 Appendix IV: Summary of interviews in 150 quotes 143 Appendix V: Nederlandse samenvatting 157 March

15 1 Introduction 1.1 Research topic: (un)manageable projects? Management of large spatial development projects has an unfortunate image. As research indicates, 90% of infrastructure projects faces cost overruns and benefit forecasts are often wrong by more than 20% (Flyvbjerg, 2007). But not only infrastructure projects are confronted with these drawbacks. Also urban development projects are often confronted with delays and cost overruns. A look at the headlines of the Dutch newspapers in 2009 gives an indication that realisation of large spatial development projects is still associated with problems. Box 1-1: Headlines Dutch newspaper in 2009 indicating problems in management of large projects Works at North/Southline shut down for at least two weeks City council Wieringen rejects EIA Wieringenborderlake; construction companies threat with claims Antwerp hit as Westerschelde works suspended Diversion A9 at Badhoevedorp delayed Banks withdraw as partners, auction nv Zuidas stopped Another delay for high-speed railway south Some of these projects, such as recently the Noord/Zuidlijn in Amsterdam, are delayed by technical and financial issues during realization. However, also social complexity during the initiatory and planning phase causes problems for the management. This indicates that those large spatial development projects are complex in several dimensions, both technical and social. Traditional project management tools are not sufficient to deal with this complex and ambiguous reality (Streatfield, 2001). To deal with all present dimensions of complexity those projects require a combination of management styles. As is further explained in the problem statement, both project and process management are necessary to successfully complete large infrastructure or urban development projects. 1.2 Research context This research is performed by Pelle de Wit as graduation thesis for the Master System Engineering, Policy Analysis and Management at the faculty of Technology, Policy and Management of Delft University of Technology. During the realization of the research, Pelle is appointed as intern at AT Osborne. AT Osborne is a Dutch consultant and management company working in the field of spatial development and real estate. Employees of their department Infrastructure, Urban Planning and Environment" are active as project manager or consultant in several large infrastructure and urban development projects in the Netherlands. To perform in these complex projects it is important that their employees are able to apply an effective combination of managerial interventions. March

16 Employees of AT Osborne learn by experience but also participate in research projects to increase their understanding of management of infrastructure projects and urban development. AT Osborne also explicitly offers possibilities for students to execute their graduation thesis at AT Osborne and to develop more knowledge about management of large spatial development projects. This research is an example of that commitment en does focus at the challenge of connecting project and process management. 1.3 Structure of the report In chapter 2 the research design and the analytical framework of this study are discussed. The chapter explores the research problem and the objectives of the study. Also the applied research strategy is formulated. Chapter 3, 4 and 5 elaborate on the theoretical framework of the research. Assumption is that to successfully manage spatial development projects knowledge is needed on what interventions (chapter 3) should be applied in which situations (chapter 4) and that project managers should deal with the mutual relationship between these interventions (chapter 5). Chapter 3 focuses on project management and process management. The characteristics of the two management styles are discussed and differences are shown by describing the opposing interventions that these styles use to tackle managerial problems. Chapter 3 also describes a further categorization of interventions based on three distinctive criteria. In chapter 4 the various situations in which process and project management interventions are implemented are discussed. A description is given of various types of project complexity that play a role in large spatial development projects. It also discusses the various kinds and types of issues that can arise and force managers to apply interventions. Chapter 5 presents the final part of the theoretical framework. It further explores the relationship between project and process management throughout the duration of a project. What expectations exist in the literature about this relationship? And what limitations impose the two management styles on each other? Besides literature study, empirical data is gathered by conducting interviews. The set up of the interviews and a first analysis of the results are presented in chapter 6. The way project managers experience the relationship between project and process management is compared with the hypotheses from chapter 5. Chapter 7 is a detailed analysis of the interventions discussed in the interviews. Specific attention is paid to the question which interventions are applicable in which situations. Not only pure process and project management interventions are described, but also intervention mechanisms that combine both approaches. The study is concluded in Chapter 8 by providing conclusions on the research questions. Based on the obtained information recommendations are formulated to improve the management of complex spatial development projects. Also the added value of this research to the existing scientific literature is discussed. Chapter 9 contains an epilogue in which the quality of the research is discussed. Moreover, the chapter explores the possibilities for further research and presents a personal reflection of the researcher. March

17 2 Research design In this chapter the research design is explained. In paragraph 2.1 the problem is demarcated on the basis of which a problem statement can be formulated. Subsequently on basis of this statement in paragraph 2.2 a research objective is defined. To achieve this objective in the same paragraph a main research question is formulated and divided in a number of sub-questions. Paragraph 2.3 elaborates on the research method to answer these questions. 2.1 Problem statement: management of complex projects Demarcation of the problem The research topic of combining project and process management is too broad to research all involved aspects in the limited time for this graduation project. Therefore demarcation of the research problem is necessary. A large amount of scientific literature is available on both project management and process management. However, project and process management schools can be qualified as separated worlds. Only recently a smaller section of these literature schools underlines that both project and process management are essential and should be combined in spatial development projects (Collyer and Warren, 2009; Geraldi, et. al., 2008; Shenhar and Dvir, 2007; Whitty and Maylor, 2009). Next step is to create knowledge how to realize this combination between project and process management interventions. The amount of scientific research that addresses this issue is relatively small. Available research projects are partly case studies on projects where project and process management are successfully combined (Edelenbos and Klijn, 2009; Klijn and Teisman, 2002). However, results of these case studies are predominantly theoretical and for the most part not applicable in practice by project managers. Nevertheless it can be concluded that recently literature is seeking the relation between project management and process management in managing complex projects (Geraldi et. al., 2008). The personal skills and preferences of project managers play an important role in the application of managerial interventions. Often managers constrain themselves unconsciously to a small amount of managerial interventions which they are comfortable with. There is no extensive framework for managers with an overview of managerial interventions they can apply to realize a successful combination of project-oriented and process-oriented strategies. Literature suggests that fruitful combinations of project management and process management approaches might be possible (Geraldi, 2008). Therefore such a framework is expected to contribute to the success of the management of spatial development projects. Based on this observation the problem that is addressed in this research is demarcated and limited to the lack of practical guidelines for project managers to use an effective combination of project and process management interventions during spatial development projects. March

18 2.1.2 Practical and scientific problem To define a clear problem statement, a closer look is taken at the work of project managers and project delivery organizations. Project managers have to posses a certain combination of knowledge and skills to successfully manage complex projects. They should posses the ability to analyze the current situation of a project, to identify objectives of the project and to compare these two situations. Based on this comparison project managers should posses the capacity to apply an appropriate intervention (either process or project oriented) that contributes to achieving these objectives. Last but not least, they need the skills to implement these interventions. This demanding combination of skills is not always present among project managers. First problem is that the managers in daily practice of spatial development projects do not posses an extensive overview of managerial interventions. Second, there is limited knowledge about the question which intervention is appropriate in which situation of a project. These two aspects contribute to a situation in which managers mainly trust on their personal skills, preferences and intuition while managing their projects. The preceding description of the work of project managers introduces the practical aspects of the problem. In addition to this the problem statement also has a scientific aspect. There is a lack of scientific theory or a scientific framework which provides evidence about successful mechanisms to combine and integrate project and process management. In box 2-1 both the practical and scientific aspects of the problem statement are presented. Box 2-1: Problem statement Practical problem statement: Managers in spatial development projects rely significantly on personal skills, preferences and intuition in the application of project and process management interventions which causes a risk of unsatisfying management results. It is expected that project managers who have a better picture of potential interventions can manage more effective. Scientific problem statement: A clear scientific framework or theory to combine project and process management is not yet present which is an important knowledge gap in this field of research. 2.2 Research objective and research questions On the basis of the formulated problem statement an objective for the research is defined (box 2-2). Box 2-2: Research objective Develop a scientifically based framework that presents a categorised and extensive overview of project and process management interventions to project managers. This framework should support them to successfully apply these managerial interventions in the management of infrastructure and urban development projects. March

19 In accordance with this research objective, focus of this research is on identifying managerial interventions and applying those interventions in appropriate situations in spatial development projects. To achieve this objective a research question is formulated in box 2-3. Box 2-3: Research question How can managers of spatial development projects, given the context and management issues in these developments, properly apply project-oriented and process-oriented interventions and by that increase the success of their management? To answer this main research question, sub-questions are defined. By answering these questions a solution for the defined problem statement is generated. 1 Which project management and process management interventions can be applied by project managers? Sub-question 1 presents a categorised list with possible interventions related to project and process management. Project managers can use these interventions to influence spatial development projects. The list of interventions can be used as an operationalization of the concepts project management and process management. 2 Which types of complexity and issues do project managers face during spatial development projects? Sub-question 2 aims at exploring the context in which project managers operate by describing the complexity and issues that managers face during spatial development projects. Describing this context is important because different context characteristics require different types of interventions. 3 What are the possibilities and limitations in combining project and process management interventions? Sub-question 3 does focus on the relationship between project and process management. Project and process management interventions influence each potential. Therefore it is important to explore the possibilities and limitations to apply interventions from both approaches in spatial development projects. 4 Given a specific issue and context in spatial development projects, which interventions should be applied to increase the success of the overall project? Sub-question 4 describes a range of intervention mechanisms and the appropriate situations in which they should be applied. Thereby this question presents the answer on the practical problem statement of this thesis. 2.3 Research method To answer the defined research questions a research approach is composed (figure 2-1). Two main research methods are used, namely literature study and interviews. March

20 2.3.1 Literature study The literature study is used to answer the first three research questions. This paragraph provides a short overview of the steps that are taken in the literature review. First a description of project and process management and a list of available managerial interventions in complex projects is formulated (question 1). An extensive literature review is performed as theoretical method for composing this overview of managerial interventions. In literature on project and process management a wide range of managerial interventions is identified. To understand the working of interventions and make a further categorization of interventions, also literature on intervention management is studied. Based on this literature, different types of interventions are identified. Figure 2-1: Research approach Second an extensive overview is presented of the context in which managers operate in spatial development projects and the important managerial issues that arise in these projects (sub-question 2). The context of large spatial development projects is among other things characterized by complexity and uncertainty. This categorization is used to order project contexts into different categories. Presenting an overview of both important the managerial issues and the context of spatial development projects is important because this determines which managerial interventions can effectively be applied. The results from the literature study are used as input for the interviews. March

21 2.3.2 Interviews During the interviews empirical data is collected that presents a necessary supplement to the data collected in literature. Empirical data is of more recent date than available data in literature. Besides the topicality, the gathered empirical data is better suited to answer the fourth research questions and not yet available in literature. This advantage above literature review is expected because collecting data among people is specifically suited to gather information about knowledge, attitude and opinion of the interviewee s. To ensure the quality of the data, correct respondents should be selected. This selection is further discussed in Chapter 6. The method that is used for the interviews is a semi-structured interview. Advantage of a semistructured interview in comparison with a structured interview is the possibility to bring up new questions during the interview as a result of the answers of the interviewee. This structure is chosen because the quality of the data will be improved if the interviewer can focus on the most relevant topics without a constraining format. Conducting a semi-structured interview does not mean that the topics to be explored should not be discovered well in advance. Therefore the interviewer composes an interview protocol that describes the main topics that will be discussed. This interview protocol is added in Appendix III. The data collected in the interviews is analyzed and mainly used to formulate and answer on subquestion four. However, also the answers on the other research questions are supplemented with the results from the interviews. March

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23 3 Project and process management interventions 3.1 Introduction In the first two chapters the research has been introduced and the research questions are defined. This chapter describes project management and process management interventions and thereby answers the first research question: 1 Which project management and process management interventions can be applied by project managers? First an introduction in project and process management is presented in paragraph 3.2. In paragraph 3.3 the concepts project and process management are further operationalized by presenting an extensive overview of opposing interventions. This extensive overview is needed to make it possible to categorize the interventions that are discussed during the interviews as either project-oriented or process-oriented. The description of the interventions is all-embracing but rather simplified. As a consequence relatively extreme archetypes of a project and a process management approach are described. In chapter 7 a more intensive description of important interventions is given. This description is based on the empirical data. The interventions that are identified in paragraph 3.3 posses a wide range of characteristics. It is desirable to be able to classify the interventions that are discussed during the interventions in specific categories. This makes it possible to investigate if specific types of interventions are more or less suitable for specific issues and contexts. Therefore in paragraph 3.4 a categorisation is made of these interventions based on intensity, dimension and duration. Finally paragraph 3.5 answers sub-question Project and process management Both project and process management are essential elements in the management of nowadays complex spatial development projects. Interactive process strategies are necessary to operate as a manager in the current network society. Process management is a style of management that emerged mainly in the last twenty years and is specifically aimed at dealing with interdependencies and dynamics in network situations. Also control strategies based on more old-fashioned project management are needed. Controlling budget and time of a project remains important. Not all aspects of spatial projects are complex and especially in more simple contexts project management remains critical. This paragraph introduces process and project management and shortly addresses the strengths and weaknesses of both management styles Project management The characteristics of project management as described in this paragraph are based on the work of Meredith and Mantel (2000), Mantel (2005) and Miller and Lessard (2000). Project management can be seen as the means, techniques, and concepts used to run a project and achieve its objectives (Meredith and Mantel, 2000). In project management the substance of a plan March

24 is the leading element and project management is aimed at realization of the defined project objectives, which are related to performance, time and cost. The management approach and decisionmaking occurs structured and linear. Key element in this traditional project management approach is control. To realize strict control over the project the project manager has to set up a project organization with effective information flows (Mantel, 2005; Meredith and Mantel, 2000). Also risk assessment and risk management are incorporated in the control strategy. Projects are split up in phases. In (inter)national literature a large number of different divisions in phases can be found. One of the most used project management methods is the so-called Prince 2 method. Prince 2 offers a framework and clear guidelines for managing project by dividing them in four phases: preparation, initiation, implementation and closing. In project management methods, the content of plan is worked out in detail at the start of the project and afterwards this content is used as a communication tool and to create support among involved actors. Starting point is that the content of the plan will not be adapted as consequence of the dynamics in or around the project. Decision-making in project management is characterized by hierarchy. In hierarchical situations the decision-making has a structured progress from problem definition to solution. Project management solves problems by splitting them up in solvable, smaller projects and rapid decision-making Process management The description of process management is mainly based on the work of De Bruijn et. al. (2002) and supported by work from Teisman and Edelenbos (2008) and Koppenjan and Klijn (2004). Where project management does focus at the substance of a project, process management or interactive management strategies focus at gaining support and acceptance for a plan or process. The feasibility of a plan or project plays a central role, even if this means that original plans have to be adapted. The process is more important than the originally defined objectives. Therefore process management is sometimes referred to as consciously directing the dynamics in and around a project, by managing the interaction between people. Process management acknowledges that a project manager is not in the position to use hierarchical management tools, but that the project manager is one of the interdependent actors around the project. Decision-making in process management is related to decision-making in networks, which involves unpredictability and whimsicality. Process management broadens the problem definition to search for solutions and postpones difficult decisions Although the process is leading, this does not mean that process management is without rules. De Bruijn et. al. (2002) identified four main principles for setting up a good process. 1 First the process has to be transparent and open to all relevant parties. Everybody should have the possibility to join the process 2 Second the core values of the actors involved have to be respected. Besides by protecting their main interests, this is possible by let them commit to the process rather then to the result and by offering them exit options from the process. 3 Third the process has to show speed, which for example is stimulated by offering prospects of gain. 4 Fourth and last principle is that the process should posses enough substance. Therefore it is important that the process moves from substantial variety to selection. March

25 3.3 Opposing management interventions To create better understanding of the differences between project and process management in this paragraph an overview of interventions is introduced. Interventions can be defined as the way by which a manager interferes in a project or process to steer or to influence the current situation. Also consciously not taking action or ignoring a specific signal is an intervention. Thereby interventions create change (De Caluwe and Vermaak, 2006; Boonstra and De Caluwe, 2006). Box 3-1: Definition of interventions Interventions are conscious interferences of a project manager in a project or process to steer or to influence the current situation and thereby aimed at achieving change. The discrepancies between project and process management are explained by describing the opposing approaches from project and process management to react on comparable situations. On the basis of this contrast it is possible to define interventions that are discussed during the interviews as a project-oriented or a process-oriented intervention. Consequence of the ambition to present a comprehensive overview of interventions is that the delineation of these interventions is short and simplified. To show the contrast between project and process management extra emphasis is put on the differences of the interventions. This leads to extreme archetypes of a project management and a process management approach. It should be noticed that these short descriptions do not reflect the full complexity and specific characteristics of the interventions. In reality more complicated interventions can be applied, for example possessing elements from both project and process management. As counterbalance to this quantitative paragraph, based on the empirical research chapter 7 presents a more qualitative view on interventions. The crucial interventions that are discussed in the interviews are compared with this extensive list based on literature. Thereby the most important intervention opportunities according to project managers are selected Categorisation of interventions In spatial development projects managers have to intervene on different subjects. Interventions can for example affect the costs of a project, the technical possibilities or the support among stakeholders. The large variety of possible subjects is categorized in seven subjects. The classic project management approach is aimed to realize a plan according to the defined specifications (performance), at the desired time (planning) and within budget (cost) (Meredith and Mantel, 2000). The classic triangle of scope, cost and planning are core elements of project management and present the first three subjects in which interventions are classified. To realize a project within scope, time and budget, according to the same authors, a project managers first task is to set up a project organization including effective information flows. Therefore organization is the fourth subject of interventions. The subjects identified so far are mainly internal focused. However, projects are operated in an environment and a large number of stakeholders are involved in spatial development projects. Three subjects of interventions related to stakeholders are defined. These are related to building a stakeholder network (stakeholder involvement), maintaining relations with the actors in this network (stakeholder March