The gender schema: how contrasts and multiple characteristics affect metaphorical gender in adults

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1 51 The gender schema: how contrasts and multiple characteristics affect metaphorical gender in adults RACHEL CHUNG* Abstract Schemata are an aspect of cognition consisting of hypothetical constructs that are then used in a person s perception of the world around them. Various cognitive processes manipulate a person s schemata one of these is gender. Gender is often defined as a social category system that is built around the distinction of male and female; however, it has also been suggested that objects and features of a person s world can be metaphorically associated with the concept. In the following study seventy one participants undertook a survey that aimed to investigate how the metaphorical gender of an item changed when compared to other items or was paired up with another characteristic. The results supported previous research in the area that suggested that an item s metaphorical gender can change depending on the context. 1. Introduction Cognition can be defined as an individual s thought process, comprising many mental activities such as analysing, evaluating, synthesising, and remembering, as well as the subsequent beliefs about the real world that those mental activities produce (Thomas 1999). Cognition consists of hypothetical constructs called schemata (singular schema), well integrated networks of information about the world, people, events, and actions (Eysenck 2004). When a person internalises information from the external world, it is organised into different schemata which help regulate the person s behaviour (Martin & Halverson 1981) A schema does this by providing us with a basis for anticipating the future, developing and implementing plans, and setting goals (Martin & Halverson 1981). For example, a person may have a schema about cats. From past experiences and knowledge integrated into their cat schema, a person will identify a cat as being a small, four legged animal, with fur, that meows. They may also have memories about particular cats, cats they have seen, or particular emotions that arise. As a person s schemata develop, they will form a complex and intricate network, each schema relating to others (Berk 2007). For example, the previous cat schema may connect with other schemata such as a dog schema, or an animal schema, which then in turn may arouse certain images or memories integrated into these related schemata. Metaphorical associations are characteristics of a related schema that have

2 52 attached to another schema where they do not literally apply (Leinback, Hort, & Fagot 1997). An example showing this phenomenon is the transfer of the word sweet, which in its original form comes from a taste schema. However it has been transferred to also mean a personality trait for young girls, such as oh, she is such a sweet girl. Vosniadou (1987) further suggested that the production of metaphorical language involves a transfer of knowledge from one conceptual domain to another (p. 870). Gender can be defined as being a social category system that is built around the distinction between male and female (Leinback, Hort, & Fagot 1997). Bem (1981) suggested that this distinction serves as a basic organising principle for every human culture (p. 354). Leinback, Hort, & Fagot (1997) supported Bem s view proposing that every known human society has their own roles, language, occupations, accoutrements and behaviours that are appropriate for each sex. For the purposes of this study, sex will refer to the dichotomous classification of people being either male or female and gender will refer to the dimensions of masculinity and femininity. Sex roles and sex typing can therefore be seen to be assigned on the basis of a person s sex (Bem 1981). On the other hand, gender is the process where male and female characteristics transfer to being considered masculine or feminine (Bem 1981). Bem (1981) suggested, however, that not just features directly related to male and female were being transmuted to masculine and feminine. Leinback, Hort, & Fagot (1997) also supported this idea, suggesting that gender includes more cultural and social factors as well as classifications based on sex. Apart from features such as anatomy, personality, reproductive function, and division of labour, which can be directly tied to sex, features of a more metaphorical relation were also seen to have gender associations (Bem 1981). This can include more prominent, well known social examples such as pink and blue, along with very abstract ideas such as the angularity or roundness of a shape (Bem 1981). Leinback, Hort, & Fagot (1997) also noted that many qualities associated with gender are of an abstract nature, and there is a pervasive infusion of gender into areas of knowledge where gender is not obviously relevant (p. 109). Bem (1981) suggested that these characteristics can be metaphorically related to the distinction of male and female due to the individual s network of associations. This phenomenon of associating characteristics to gender has been termed metaphorical gender (Leinback, Hort, & Fagot 1997). Gender schema theory proposes that this idea of metaphorical gender is derived when a child internalises the society s gender schema to form their own network of associations (Bem 1981). Children by the age of five have shown awareness of their culture s gender beliefs; by middle childhood, they share many of the common stereotypes shared by their society (Eysenck 2004). Therefore, it is of no surprise that

3 53 children can perceive, encode, and organise the information in their environment in terms of gender (Leinback & Fagot 1993). In other words, cultural definitions of what constitutes being masculine and feminine are encoded into the individual s gender schema (Leinback & Fagot 1993). There have been numerous studies that have looked at what is considered to be metaphorically masculine and feminine (Eysenck 2004). Eichstedt, Serbin, Poulin Dubois, & Sen (2002) studied infant s knowledge of conventional and metaphorical gender, their results indicating that both forms of gender knowledge are acquired by an infant s second year. Their study found that infants were able to relate items to a particular gender, such as fire hats, hammers, and bears being masculine (Eichstedt et al. 2002). Research has also been done to show that the gender schema is not only developed in childhood but is present right across the lifespan (Eysenck 2004). Leinback, Hort, and Fagot (1997) hypothesised that as an individual acquires more gender related information, their gender schema and thus metaphorical gender reservoir will also increase. To test their hypothesis, Leinback, Hort, and Fagot (1997) developed the gender stereotyping test (GST) in which items were rated on a sevenpoint Leichart scale ranging from one (extremely masculine) to seven (extremely feminine). Their results supported their prediction, showing that as age increased, so did the proportion of gender stereotypic assignments. Results suggested that hammer, fire, square, rough, knife, angular, and blue were considered masculine objects or characteristics, while feminine items included pink, soft smooth, curved, the moon, and round. The authors noted in their discussion, however, that an object s attributes or characteristics may also have metaphorical aspects which could change the results. For example, a toy truck was seen as being more masculine and belonging more to the male sex. However, this belongingness could be altered by associating the object with a second attribute or characteristic, such as if the truck had been pink. A study done by Picariello, Greenberg, and Pillemer (1990) looked at colour preferences in children aged between 4 and 6 years old. Different colours were rated on a five point scale to find the most feminine and masculine colours. Results showed that the most feminine colours were light pink (M = 4.9), bright pink (M = 4.6), and lavender (M = 4.0). The most masculine colours were found to be navy blue (M = 1.8), brown (M = 2.0), and maroon (M = 2.1). The authors then compared these results to what adults thought about metaphorical gender and found that they were consistent. These results give support to the idea that young children share the prevailing societal gender schemata linking colour to sex. It was also seen in their study that society uses colour in forming impressions about children as well as identifying the sex of an infant.

4 54 Results from another study, by Nadelman (1974), found that both boys and girls were found to prefer, recall, and know more same sex items then their gender counterparts. In other words, males knew more masculine items and females knew more feminine items. Their results also showed that there were significant differences between age groups, with older children showing a greater and more integrated gender schema than younger children. In addition, Nadelman (1974)also compared different cultures and found significant differences in nationalities. Martin and Halverson (1981) proposed a gender schematic processing model to examine how children acquired this phenomenon, the effects it had on perception and behaviour, as well as how it was maintained. The gender schematic processing model stated that information is organised and structured into the gender schema not by categories of masculine things and feminine things but by categories of things for me and things not for me. Their results found support for this approach, which also supports the idea that individuals identify more with same sex items. The aim of this study is to examine Leinback, Hort, and Fagot s (1997) proposal that attributing different characteristics can alter the item s belongingness to a gender. Items will be attributed different characteristics in two different ways. First, the items will be relative to another item. Second, a gender weighted adjective will be attached to an item. From the above literature it is hypothesised that both a) giving a context to frame the item and b) attributing different characteristics will affect the metaphorical gender of an item. 2. Method 2.1 Participants Seventy one participants undertook the survey (age: M = 24.27, SD = 7.71) with 21 reporting as male and 50 as female. Fifty two were born in Australia and 19 overseas; however, 62 of the participants identified themselves as being Australian citizens whereas only 9 did not. Sixty five of the participants reported speaking English, 2 reported speaking English and another language, and 4 participants reported speaking a language other than English. The participants were not advised of the objectives of the research. 2.2 Materials Data was gathered by administering a questionnaire. Participants were asked demographic details including age, gender, their first language spoken, the language they currently speak, where they were born and whether they identified as being

5 55 Australian. Following demographics, participants were given a forced choice between two words and asked which of the two was the more masculine and which the more feminine. Twenty pairs of items were used, including words taken from past literature and well known opposites acting as distracters. An example of an item pair (non distracter) is pink circle blue square. A complete list of the items used can be seen in the appendix. 2.3 Procedure The survey took about 5 minutes to complete. All participants were informed before completing the survey that it was not for scientific purposes and that all information was to be kept confidential until destroyed. Data was analysed using SPSS Results To find if there were any significant differences between choices, the data was first analysed using one way T tests. The number of participants who selected an item as masculine and of those who selected it as feminine were analysed using each part of the item pair as a separate test. Interestingly all items, including those meant to be distracters, were found to be significant to the level. Comparisons between first language spoken, language spoken and identified nationality were not analysed due to the lack of numbers. To see how particular characteristics affect an item s gender, the first item examined was moon, which the literature has found to be feminine. Moon was paired up with the items sun and stars, as well as having a morning evening pair in to examine related constructs. As seen in the figure below, when compared to star, moon was rated as being masculine by a significantly higher proportion of participants. However, when compared to sun, moon was rated by most participants as being feminine. Ratings for morning evening found that evening (related construct) was seen as being the more masculine; however, the difference is not as large.

6 56 Attributed gender Moon rated as being masculine Moon rated as being feminine Moon-Star Moon-Sun Morning-Evening Item: moon Figure 1: Percentage of participants who rated moon as being masculine and feminine when paired with star, sun and independent from a related construct, morning evening The second item that was examined was square, which has continuously been seen as a masculine object. Square was paired up with circle and with triangle. As seen in the figure below, when compared to the circle, square was rated as being masculine by a significantly higher proportion of participants, which is consistent with previous data. When compared to triangle, square was also rated as being masculine.

7 Attributed 70 gender Square-Circle Item: Square Square-Triangle Square rated as being masculine Square rated as being feminine Figure 2: Percentage of participants who rated square as being masculine and feminine when paired with circle and triangle. The colour blue was then examined, and was also found to be consistently a masculine item. Blue was paired with other items: pink and brown. As seen in the figure below, when compared to pink, blue was rated as being masculine by a significantly higher proportion of participants, which is consistent with previous data. However, when compared to brown, a more mixed result is seen. With this in mind, there is still a significant difference, as the majority of participants rated blue as being more feminine when compared to brown Blue rated as being masculine Blue rated as being feminine Blue-Pink Blue-Brown Figure 3: Percentage of participants who rated blue as being

8 58 masculine and feminine when paired with pink and brown. Finally the square circle item was mixed with pink blue to create some multicharacteristic items. Item pairs blue square pink circle and pink square blue circle were then examined. As seen in the figure below, pink and blue are dominant characteristics over square circle. Square, which is usually seen as a masculine item, is now feminine because of the characteristic attributed to it, and vice versa for circle. Attributed gender Blue Circle Blue Square Rated as being masculine Rated as being feminine Pink Circle Pink Square Item Figure 4: Percentages of how participants rated blue circle, pink square, pink circle, and blue square. 4. Discussion As the results have shown, different characteristics alter the metaphorical gender of an item. The metaphorical gender of the item moon significantly changed depending upon what it was relative to as well as which context it was in. Even relating constructs were found to have an effect upon the item s metaphorical gender attribution. Square was fairly resistant as belonging to males; however, when additional characteristics were added, this changed the results. When feminine and masculine colours were compared to each other, there was a very high consensus about which gender the colours are. However, when two masculine items were

9 59 compared (blue and brown), it is seen that gender is not a dichotomous relationship of masculine and feminine items, but is rather a continuum where particular items can belong more to one gender than to another. This study is therefore able to support the proposal put forward by Leinback, Hort, and Fagot (1997), that attributing different characteristics can alter the item s belongingness to a gender. However, it is noted that there are a few limitations to the study. First, there was a disproportionate sample of males to females. As noted in the literature review, individuals identify more with their own gender and therefore this disproportionate sample could have led to biased results. In the future, it is suggested that a more equal number of males and females be studied, with perhaps a larger sample size. Also, gender effects can then be studied to see if this does have an effect upon metaphorical gender. As well, there were a few participants who did not identify themselves either with being an Australian or as speaking English as a language. Because metaphorical gender was found to be a culture based concept, this may also have had some effects upon the results. However, if a larger sample was collected a cross cultural or cross lingual examination could be done. Another limitation to the study was using forced choices. Although this made the analysis easier, being able to compare the differences, some may have not agreed that particular items had metaphorical gender and may have considered them neutral. If a form of neutral decision or Leichart scale could be used or added into the questionnaire this would limit this bias. Future studies could also look into age differences. Previous literature has suggested that, although metaphorical gender stays relatively constant throughout the lifespan, in what is considered masculine and feminine, it is also noted that as an individual grows, so to does their schemata. This would be an interesting field to further develop in regards to finding what effects different characteristics have on different age groups. The effect caused by the characteristics of items in metaphorical gender is a fairly new field of research. This research paper attempted to be a pilot study so that more research can be done to be able to confirm the results. Studying the effects of different characteristics may help to find which attributes are more strongly tied to a culture s gender schema. *Author Notes Rachel Chung is currently completing her Bachelor in Psychology with Honours at Griffith University in Brisbane, Australia. Contact rachel.chung@student.griffith.edu.au

10 60 References Bem, S.L. (1981). Gender schema theory: a cognitive account of sex typing. Psychological Review, 88, Berk, L.E. (2007). Development through the lifespan. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon. Eichstedt, J.A., Serbin, L.A., Poulin Dubois, D., & Sen, M.G. (2002). Of bears and men: infant s knowledge of conventional and metaphorical gender stereotypes. Infant Behaviour and Development, 25, Eysenck, M.W. (2004). Psychology: an international perspective. Hove, East Sussex: Psychology Press. Leinback, M.D., & Fagot, B.I. (1993). Categorical habituation to male and female faces: gender schematic processing in infancy. Infant behaviour and development, 16, Leinback, M.D., Hort, B.E., & Fagot, B.I. (1997). Bears are for boys: metaphorical associations in young children s gender stereotypes. Cognitive development, 12, Martin, C.L. & Halverson, C.F. (1981). A schematic processing model of sex typing and stereotyping in children. Child Development, 52, Nadelman, L. (1974). Sex identity in American children: memory, knowledge and preference tests. Developmental Psychology, 10, Picariello, M.L., Greenberg, D.N., & Pillemer, D.B. (1990). Children s sex related stereotyping of colours. Child Development, 61, Thomas, R.M. (1999). Human development theories: windows on culture. London, UK: Sage. Vosniadou, S. (1987). Children and metaphors. Child Development, 58,

11 61 Appendix 1: List of items in the questionnaire. salt pepper fork knife water fire hammer nail blue circle pink square black brown moon star water wind smooth rough pink blue pink circle blue square sun moon circle square loud quiet morning evening table chair blue brown square triangle salt sugar fork spoon