Climate change and migration The need for a cohesive global approach

Transcription

1 Climate change and migration The need for a cohesive global approach Abstract This paper argues that, apart from some conceptual and methodological reflections (Black et al. 2011), a major global research project (EACH-FOR 2009), and some stocktaking activities (Foresight 2011a, Gemenne et al. 2012), research on the potential nexus between climate change and migration remains scattered and disconnected. Empirical results are not conclusive and highly context-specific, while theoretical approaches at the global level often do not take local and regional differences as well as individual agency in migration decisions into account. Given the high relevance of the subject for policy-makers, there is a strong need to compare and to connect existing case studies approaches and results to allow well-informed predictions of trends in potential changes of migration flows as a consequence of climate change. Furthermore, it might be helpful to design new research into the nexus between climate change and migration, which seeks to inform global policies, in a way that allows comparisons between different case studies in different local settings. One way of conceptualizing and designing such research is an analysis of the climate sensitivity of existing migration flows, which has been suggested by Black et al (2011). While concrete changes to the volume of migrants caused by climate change are difficult if not impossible to predict, it is feasible to identify likely future trends regarding the development of existing migration flows. Furthermore, this approach allows an identification of those factors involved in migration decisions that can be expected to have most influence on changes to existing migration patterns under scenarios of future climate change. 1. Introduction The lack of a convincing conceptual and methodological approach for empirical research into the nexus between climate change and migration is a major impediment to obtaining empirical results suited to inform policies. Most existing approaches fail to acknowledge the complexity of all factors involved in the climate change-migration nexus. This paper starts with an analysis of the complexity of different manifestations of climate change and its effects on people s livelihoods. The second part analyses the complexity of migration decisions, focusing on the multi-causality of migration, acknowledged in different migration theories and approaches explaining migratory behaviour. The third part of the paper argues that migration might be one among many responses to external shocks and stresses, and that household s decision-making processes in the context of risk are influenced by a variety of factors. Finally, the paper 1

2 develops an alternative conceptual approach for studying climate change-migration linkages, based on the argument that climate change as well as people's migration decisions and responses to risk are complex and context-specific processes. 2. The complexity of climate change While a growing number of recent publications to various extents acknowledge the complexity of the nexus between climate change and migration (Tacoli 2010, Hunter 2005), most empirical research so far failed to consider the complexity of climate change by using some form of a local weather extreme as a proxy for climate change. However, research using a present or past local climate stressor as a proxy for future climate change ignores the difference between climatic variability and climate change, as well as the fact that the consequences of climate change are likely to occur at the global and at the local level. Furthermore, research into the social consequences of climate change, including its effects on migratory behaviour, needs to take the uncertainty of climate change predictions and of predictions of people s future behaviour in response to changing climatic conditions into account. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change defines climate change as a change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods (UNFCCC 1992:3). A similar but more concrete definition of climate change in the Working Group II Report of the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) also stresses that climate change refers to changes to the mean or to the variability patterns of the state of the climate, which persist over an extended period of time, mainly decades or longer. These changes need to be identifiable by statistical tests (Solomon et al. 2007) or as the World Meteorological Organisation (WMO) write about climate change 1 : In statistical terminology, the curve of the frequency distribution representing the probability of specific meteorological events occurring is changed. Furthermore, the IPCC report distinguishes between internal processes and external forcings causing changes to the climate. Atmospheric (internal) processes cause a natural variability of the climate system, including variations in temperature, precipitation, but also extreme events. In contrast, external phenomena include natural disturbances, such as changes to solar radiation and volcanism, but also 1 2

3 anthropogenic impacts leading to long term changes of the climate system (Solomon et al. 2007). The distinction between natural climate variability and climate change is important for researching its impact on migration. Natural climate variability, caused by atmospheric processes and natural external phenomena, has affected migration patterns for generations. One of the well-known examples is the seasonal labour migration in the Sahel during or after droughts (Rain 1999). McLeman and Hunter (2010) argue that research into this kind of historical and present patterns of climate-migration linkages can be helpful for predicting the effects of future climate change on migration patterns. Yet, they also acknowledge the limitations to this approach: While the specific details of the case examples [...] may not capture the full range of possible manifestations of anthropogenic climate change to come, we are nonetheless able to identify from them some general dimensions of environmental migration that are useful when considering how migration decisions and processes unfold in response to conditions and events that may become more common or widespread as a result of anthropogenic climate change in coming decades (McLeman and Hunter 2010:454). Historical and present examples can provide some insights into the future effects of climate change on migration, when trying to predict people s response to different types of climate related shocks and stresses, such as droughts, hurricanes or floods. Yet, predicted effects of climate change are complex and not limited to simple increases of the intensity and frequency of already existing climate stressors. Historic examples that parallel these complex consequences of expected future climate change do not exist. Therefore, climate change might or might not lead to completely new impacts on existing migration patterns, which cannot be predicted by only using analogues to past events. Furthermore, the consequences of climate change are predicted to be complex and to go beyond worsening local weather conditions, increasing the severity and frequency of droughts, floods and hurricanes. Climate change is likely to have severe impacts on people s local livelihoods but also on global structures and systems, changes which might also negatively affect the livelihoods of many people. It is likely that climate change will affect global food production and therefore basic commodity and food prices (Foresight 2011b). Recent research constructs a more pessimistic scenario than the 2007 IPCC report regarding the decline of crop productivity and finds that the effect of CO 2 enrichment is likely to be smaller than projected in earlier studies (Good et al. 3

4 2010). It is also conceivable that energy and water prices, or even the availability of water and energy in certain areas of the world, might be negatively affected by climate change. These global and indirect effects of climate change are predicted to affect people s livelihoods and should therefore be considered when studying linkages between climate change and migration. Most case studies into the relationship between climate change and migration in a geographical region look at that area in isolation and do not consider that the destination areas of migrants might also become affected by climate change. One sector, in which many migrants usually work, is commercial agriculture, which is highly susceptible to climate change, also in migrant receiving areas. The consequences of climate change might force landowners to stop farming or switch to alternative crops or production methods, which might affect the need for migrant labour. It is uncertain if workers, who might be made redundant as a consequence, will find employment in other sectors, or will be able to move to other destinations or not. A decline in the need for migrant workers is particularly conceivable in regions dominated by commercial agriculture, such as California, where many migrants from Mexico but also from Central America go. As a consequence, areas in the world, which are currently receiving many migrant workers, might cease to be attractive destinations for migrants in the future. Another potential effect might be that areas projected to become more attractive for farming due to changing temperature and precipitation patterns or a higher CO 2 concentration in the atmosphere might become new destinations for future migrants. Yet, the question if new migrant destinations might open up as a consequence of climate change highly depends on the accessibility of these regions for migrants, i.e. favourable migration policies, access to recruiters and emerging networks. Furthermore, climate change is likely to affect most current migrant sending regions to some extent, so that common destinations might become saturated in the case that climate stressors stimulate outmigration from many of these areas. In addition to the general level of uncertainty regarding predictions of the future, approaches aiming to predict the future relationship between climate change and migration should take uncertainties regarding climate change scenarios as well as uncertainties regarding the effects of climate change on migration into account. The uncertainty of predicted climate change scenarios has been widely acknowledged (Kniveton et al. 2009). It is linked to three different sources, the internal natural climate variability, different climate change outcomes due to different scenarios about the level of future emissions, and different climate change models which do not present the same results for all areas of projected future climate change (Foresight 2011b). 4

5 In addition to the uncertainty of the physical consequences of climate change, there is a high level of uncertainty regarding the question of how people will react under scenarios of changing climatic conditions. For instance, although dry weather conditions might stimulate certain forms of migration in the Sahel, this does not mean that less rainfall will stimulate even more migration. Patterns might remain the same, destinations might change, or migration flows in general might increase or decrease (Tacoli 2010, Black et al. 2011). 3. Migration theories and multi-causality The idea that migration decisions are complex processes is supported by the number of different theories and approaches trying to explain migration from different perspectives. Mainly in the second half of the 20 th century, various migration theories were developed, which seek the causes of migration at the macro, the micro or the meso level Massey et al. (1993). These theories and approaches are sometimes complimentary but also often contradictory (Bakewell 2010). So far, no successful attempts to integrate these approaches into one universal theory were made. This lack of a universal theory explaining migration decisions has been considered a significant problem because researchers often need to combine different theoretical approaches to fit their research designs into a theoretical framework. Yet, doubts about the feasibility of constructing such a universal migration theory, given the complexity of migration and the various approaches trying to explain it, have also been expressed (Bakewell 2010). Bakewell (2010) stresses that the most important divide between migration theories is the distinction between explanations at the macro or structural level and explanations at the micro level or related to human agency. Some approaches also try to combine explanations at the two levels, based on Giddens' structuration theory, which stressed the importance of both the aggregate and the individual level for understanding social processes, including migration (Bakewell 2010). Meanwhile, Faist (1997) stressed the importance of the meso level and of including migration networks and institutions into migration theories. None of the existing migration theories explicitly acknowledges the potential role that the environment might play in migration decisions. This is potentially linked to the fact that contemporary migration theories in fact are theories explaining international migration (King and Skeldon 2010), while it has been suggested that environmental stressors affect, if at all, internal migration to a much larger extent than international migration. However, the fact that environmental stressors are not mentioned as causes for migration does not mean that they do not have some effect on the economic factors 5

6 at the micro or the macro level, which some migration theories acknowledge as causes for migration. Nevertheless, migration research so far did not show much concern for climate change or any kind of environmental problem as a cause for migration. While each migration theory seeks to explain migration processes differently and stresses different aspects of its causality, one of the major common aspects of these theories is the multi-causality of migration, which has been acknowledged for decades within the field of migration research (Kritz et al. 1992, Castles and Miller 1993, Boyle et al. 1998). Existing migration theories thus oppose the idea of a strong and linear relationship between environmental or climate change and migration because they do not explicitly include the environment as a cause for migration and they stress the multi-causality of migration decisions. The growing volume of empirical research into the nexus between a specific environmental stressor and migration thus lacks a background in migration theory, which makes it more difficult to deduct a generalised global pattern of the impacts of climate stressors on migration, based on empirical case studies in different parts of the world. 4. Explaining household decision-making in the context of risk Migration is one potential response out of many others to environmental shocks and stresses. People affected by environmental stressors often make use of a combination of livelihood strategies in response, which might or might not include some form of migration. The question how households respond to risks is thus just as complex as the question how they take migration decisions. The Sustainable Livelihood Approach (SLA) and the New Economics of Labour Migration (NELM) might be useful tools for the understanding of causal linkages between climate stressors and migration (Kniveton et al. 2008). One of the important arguments of the SLA is that people respond to external shocks and stresses by making use of different assets. Thus they rely on a variety of responses to climatic stressors. This idea is supported by a major argument put forward in the context of NELM. NELM is based on the idea that migration should be conceptualised as one source of household income among others. Internal or international migration and local income generating activities are not mutually exclusive but complementary livelihood strategies of different household members (Massey et al. 1993). 6

7 Figure 1: Different potential responses to climate stressors Source: author Thus migration can be used by households to spread the risk of having no income in case that one of the other income generating activities of household members experiences difficulties. Similar to the SLA, NELM thus suggests that families tend to rely on different sources of income to minimise potential risks. If climatic stressors can be considered as constituting a risk to a family s livelihood, both SLA and NELM suggest that families or other social units use migration as one strategy among others in response to the risk of climate stressors. Figure 1 shows how migration can be conceptualised as one potential response to climate stressors. Figure 2: Migration as a potential response to different livelihood stressors Source: author 7

8 Another underlying idea of the SLA is that livelihoods are subject to various types of internal and external shocks and stresses. Climate related shocks and stresses are affecting people in combination with economic, social, cultural and other stressors. Different forms of migration are potential responses to these different kinds of shocks and stresses. While NELM limits the reasons for migration to economic drivers, it acknowledges the multiple sources of risks, which might negatively affect a household s income stability. Figure 2 depicts different forms of migration as a potential response to different livelihood stressors. The two diagrams above thus single out and illustrate two important aspects of the climate change-migration nexus. First climatic stressors are likely to lead to a variety of different responses, potentially including migration. Second, different forms of migration can be caused by different livelihood stressors and aspects affecting people s livelihoods. These livelihood stressors might include climate related stressors among many others. This illustrates that the conceptualisation of a linear relationship between climate change and migration is wrong because of the multiple responses to climate related stressors and because of the multi-causality of migration. The previous sections showed that SLA and NELM are useful tools to explain why gradual climate change is unlikely to entail unprecedented migration flows. Yet, the relationship between climate change and migration is more complex than the previous sections outlined and goes beyond the aspects that SLA and NELM can explain. While neo-classical migration theories and also NELM focus on the macro or the micro level, more recent approaches such as network theories and the theory of cumulative causation are concerned with the important effects of structures and institutions at the meso level on migration decisions (Faist 1997). Kandel and Massey (2002) showed by using the case of Mexico how people s perceptions of migration as a normal part of adult life or even a rite of passage for transition into adulthood affects people s livelihoods. Migration has thus a long history in many parts of the world and has in many cases become an important and institutionalised part in people s lives. This argument counters the often implicit assumption that most migration flows caused or affected by climate change are new. 5. An alternative conceptual approach Existing studies, while sometimes partially acknowledging the complexity of migration decisions and of the relationship between climate change and migration, in most cases fail to acknowledge the complexity of people's responses to risk related to climate 8

9 stressors and the complexity of climate change. Jónsson (2010) divides the conceptual frameworks of these existing empirical studies into push factor type studies and studies on multi-level contextual drivers, as shown in figure 3. In Jónsson s terminology, push factor type studies assume a strong direct, linear and positive link between environmental or climate stressors and migration. The conceptual framework of these studies is based on neo-malthusianism and on a push-pull framework of migration, which ignores influences on the meso- and on the macro-level (Jónsson 2010). In contrast, studies on multi-level contextual drivers acknowledge the complexity of the relationship between the environment and migration. They are conceptualised around migration theories such as the New Economics of Labour Migration (NELM) and around sustainable livelihood approaches (SLA). They are also often informed by social constructionism and political ecology (Jónsson 2010). Figure 3: Conceptual approaches to the environment-migration nexus Push factor type studies: Climate change Migration Studies on multi-level contextual drivers: Social factors Demographic factors Environment Migration Political factors Economic factors Source: author, adapted from Jónsson (2010) Different migration theories explain decisions for or against migration by factors at the micro, meso, and macro level. It is thus unlikely that migration will be caused by climate change alone, and the multi-causality of migration should be acknowledged. Furthermore, migration has different forms as migrants, alone or with their families, move over short or long distances, internally and internationally, legally and undocumented, and to rural or urban destinations. As, for example, international, longdistance migration seems to require more resources than internal migration over a 9

10 short distance, it is also likely that the factors which influence decisions for different forms of migration are not the same. Thus, push factor type studies, which, as shown in figure 3, depict climate change as a single reason for migration, are conceptually unconvincing. Studies on multi-level contextual drivers acknowledge the complexity of migration and argue that environmental or climate stressors might affect migration decisions in combination with social, demographic, political, economic and other factors. While this approach is more convincing than the approach that ignores the multi-causality of migration, it also does not capture all the elements involved in the potential relationship between climate change and migration. The decisions households take when faced by shocks or stresses are as complex as migration decisions. Just as environmental or climate stressors are not the only driver of migration, migration, in turn, is not the only response to external stressors. Households facing stressors to their livelihoods can often choose between various responses and different forms of migration might be one potential response among many others. Sustainable Livelihood Approaches and the New Economics of Labour Migration suggest that households spread the risk of loss of income by making use of various adaptation strategies at the same time. A conceptual approach, which tries to explain the nexus between climatic stressors and migration, thus needs to acknowledge the multi-causality of migration as well as the multiple potential responses to different livelihood stressors. Climate change can be expected to affect people s livelihoods directly and indirectly at the local and at the global level. While, for example, changing precipitation and temperature patterns at the local level are likely to affect agricultural output and the livelihoods of people who depend on farming, climate change at the global level might increase global food prices and most severely affect the livelihoods of poor people worldwide. Furthermore, climate change might render some rural destinations unattractive for migrants if it affects the agricultural productivity of these areas and the need for migrant workers decreases as a consequence. Yet, most existing empirical research into the nexus between the climate and migration simply uses some form of a local environmental stressor as a proxy for climate change and does not consider the potential indirect and global effects of climate change on people s livelihoods. Most existing research also ignores the fact that climate change is likely to affect in various ways and to different extents the many factors involved in migration decisions. 10

11 An alternative approach to studying climate-migration linkages thus needs to take into account the complexity of migration decisions and of people s responses to livelihood stressors. Furthermore, it should acknowledge that most elements involved in migration decisions are likely to be sensitive to the consequences of climate change. The conceptual approach, on which the research presented in this thesis is based, therefore suggests that a mix of various social, demographic, environmental, political, economic and cultural factors triggers a mix of different responses, potentially including different forms of migration. In turn, these factors involved in migration decisions and in decisions for alternative responses are likely to be affected by climate change. Figure 4 presents a simplified scheme of this conceptual model. Figure 4: Conceptual model acknowledging the complexity of climate change impacts on migration decisions Social factors Demographic factors Micro business Credits Climate change Environment Migration Political factors Economic factors Government aid Sell assets Cultural factors Source: author It has to be acknowledged that interlinkages between different livelihoods stressors and between different responses are likely to exist, which the diagram does not capture. Several livelihood stressors might affect people at the same time and people might make use of a combination of different responses. Furthermore, the diagram does not show that also individual preferences and experiences are involved in decisions for or against migration. Nevertheless, the diagram shows the main contribution of this alternative conceptual approach for studying the nexus between climate change and migration. It underlines that the relationship between climate change and migration is not linear and not necessarily positive. It also shows that climate change is not one element, which can be separated out of many other drivers of migration. In contrast, it shows that climate change is likely to affect stressors to people s livelihoods, which might lead to migration as well as to other responses. 11

12 6. Conclusion This paper suggests that existing research into the nexus between climate change and migration is scattered and unconnected and that the results of various case studies are inconclusive. The importance of considering local and regional contexts when conceptualising research into the relationship between climate change and migration is acknowledged. Yet, this paper argues that the lack of a conceptual framework at the global level is a major impediment to obtaining more conclusive and comparable results on the potential impacts of climate change on global migration patterns. The previous sections presented such a conceptual framework, which might, adapted to local aspects, be one option for a conceptual approach that serves as a framework for future research into the potential nexus between climate change and migration. 7. References Bakewell, O., 2010.Some Reflections on Structure and Agency in Migration Theory. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 36(10), pp Black R., Kniveton D., Schmidt-Verkerk K., Migration and climate change: towards an integrated assessment of sensitivity. Environment and Planning A, 43(2), pp Boyle, P., Halfracree, K. and Robinson, V., Exploring Contemporary Migration. Harlow: Pearson Education Limited. Castles, S. and Miller, M. J., The age of migration: International population movements in the modern world. Basingstoke: Macmillan. Faist, T., The crucial meso level. In: M. Martiniello and J. Rath, eds Selected Studies in International Migration and Immigrant Incorporation.Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press. Foresight, 2011 International Dimensions of Climate Change, Final Project Report. London:The Government Office for Science. Good, P., Gosling, S.N., Bernie, D., Caesar, J., Warrens, R., Arnell, N.W., Lowe, J.A., An updated review of developments in climate science research since the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report. AVOID. Hunter, L.M., Migration and Environmental Hazards, Population and Environment 26(4), pp Jäger J., Frühmann, J., Grünberger S. and Vag, A., EACH-FOR Environmental Change and Forced Migration Scenarios Synthesis Report, EACH-FOR. 12

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