Civil Rights 21.1 Taking on Segregation The Segregation System Challenging Segregation in Court Reaction to the Brown Decision

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1 Civil Rights Chapter Taking on Segregation pp The Segregation System In the late 19 th century, Plessy v. Ferguson established the separate but equal rule which led to segregation in the South. Jim Crow laws not only restricted voting rights, but also outlawed interracial marriage and forbade various races in the same establishments. For black families moving up north was not always a solution, as forms of segregation and racism existed in the north as well. The beginning of what we know as the Civil Rights Movement began during World War II for several reasons. 1.New job opportunities for minorities on the home front. 2.African-American soldiers determined to fight for their own rights back home. 3.Prohibiting of racial segregation in the US government. Challenging Segregation in Court The NAACP legal team was led by Thurgood Marshall, who later became the first African American Supreme Court Justice. Marshall argued several cases such as Morgan v. Virginia that ruled segregated bus seats across state lines were unconstitutional. Marshall s most famous case was Brown v. The Board of Education (1954) which struck down Plessy v. Ferguson in public schools. The Brown case ruled that segregation of public schools was unconstitutional. Chief Justice Earl Warren cited the Equal Protection Clause of the 14 th Amendment to back his opinion. Reaction to the Brown Decision There was much anger surrounding the decision in the South, as governments were set to openly defy the order. One of the first schools to be integrated was Little Rock Central 1

2 governments were set to openly defy the order. One of the first schools to be integrated was Little Rock Central High School. The Little Rock Nine as they were called were nine students sent to the then all-white school under protection of the National Guard The Montgomery Bus Boycott Rosa Parks was a seamstress and NAACP officer who refused to give up her seat to a white man on December 1, 1955, leading to the Montgomery Bus Boycott led by Dr. Martin Luther King. Eventually bus segregation was declared unconstitutional in Martin Luther King and the SCLC Dr. King s philosophy was borrowed from several teachings of influential people. Jesus Christ s love thy enemy. Henry David Thoreau s civil disobedience- refusal to obey an unjust law. A. Phillip Randolph and organizing mass protests. Gandhi s resistance to violence. Dr. King preached nonviolence and forgiveness towards racist whites, organizing civil disobedience across the south. The Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) used black churches as bases to organize nonviolent protests. The Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) was a grassroots protest movement at the university level. The Movement Spreads The SNCC began to organize sit-ins where protesters would go to white-only lunch counters and sit until they were served, all while acting nonviolently The Triumphs of a Crusade pp Riding for Freedom The freedom riders were African-Americans who decided to test the Supreme Court s ruling in Morgan v. Virginia which declared segregation on buses to be unconstitutional. 2

3 segregation on buses to be unconstitutional. The freedom riders experienced violence and were beaten and abused by angry mobs. Eventually JFK sent in federal marshalls to protect the remaining freedom riders on the last leg of their trip Standing Firm James Meredith was an African-American student who won a federal court case allowing him to register at the University of Mississippi, or Ole Miss. Meredith was met with violent demonstrations since it was an allwhite university. Martin Luther King was arrested in Birmingham, Alabama, which was considered the most segregated city in the country, following a non-violent protest. Dr. King s Letter from a Birmingham Jail was written by him while he was in his cell, and focused on defending his civil disobedience from white religious leaders who felt his approach was too aggressive. Birmingham resulted in several intense riots after Dr. King was released from jail. The televised attacks from policemen, fire hoses, and K-9 dogs shocked the nation, and eventually Birmingham was desegregated. Marching to Washington Kennedy began working on civil rights legislation that became known as the Civil Rights Act of 1964 following his assassination. The act outlawed discrimination based off of race, religion, national origin, or gender, and allowed equal use of all facilities including the right to use the same libraries, drinking fountains, restrooms, and restaurants. Prior to this, on August 28, 1963, Dr. King and 250,000 supporters, 75,000 of which were white, marched onto Washington where Dr. King delivered the I have a dream speech. Fighting for Voting Rights Freedom Summer was a project designed to protect the voting rights and interests of African-Americans in the south. Freedom Summer organizers recruited college students, mostly white and 1/3 of which were women, to be trained in civil 3

4 Freedom Summer organizers recruited college students, mostly white and 1/3 of which were women, to be trained in civil disobedience and nonviolent resistance. The Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party (MFDP) attempted to gain seats in all-white Mississippi Democratic Party, though a compromise with nominee Fannie Lou Hamer resulted in only two seats out of 68. A voting rights campaign by the SCLC and Dr. King in Selma, Alabama resulted in widespread violence that horrified the nation. The Selma campaign was seen as a success, however, as President Johnson signed into law the Voting Rights Act of 1965 with the following provisions: Literacy tests were outlawed. Federal examiners could overrule local officials who denied African Americans suffrage Challenges and Changes to the Movement pp African Americans Seek Greater Equality Beginning in 1965 the questions of black identity and pride caused the Civil Rights Movement to drift apart into separate camps. Whereas the South had de jure segregation, meaning it was codified into laws, the North had de facto segregation, meaning there were no laws but still existed in practice. De facto segregation increased following World War II and the white flight which caused African Americans to remain in urban slums. The Voting Rights Act of 1965 caused widespread race riots in New York City and Watts, a Los Angeles African American neighborhood. New Leaders Voice Discontent Malcolm X was born Malcolm Little in 1925, and went to jail for burglary at the age of 20. When in jail, Little studied the teachings of Elijah Muhammad and founded the Nation of Islam after dropping his slave name and changing his name to Malcolm X. Malcolm X adopted radical views following his release from 4

5 changing his name to Malcolm X. Malcolm X adopted radical views following his release from prison, and as an Islamic minister in Harlem preached the views that whites were responsible for the black condition and therefore blacks must separate from white society. Malcolm X differed from Martin Luther King s civil disobedience and nonviolent protest by advocating armed resistance. Eventually Malcolm X split with Elijah Muhammad and the Nation of Islam over differing philosophies. After making the hajj to Mecca, Malcolm X learned that conventional Islam preached for racial equality and therefore his views changed. Malcolm X then supported ballots over bullets before being assassinated at the age of 39 on February 21, Meanwhile, a split occurred between Dr. King s followers into a camp led by Stokely Carmichael who began spreading the message of Black Power, calling for African Americans to define their own goals. In addition to the Black Power movement, the Black Panthers were established in Oakland, California in October 1966 by Huey Newton and Bobby Seale. The Black Panthers fought against police brutality in inner cities and urged African Americans to take back their communities with self-sufficiency and equal housing A Turning Point in Civil Rights Martin Luther King was assassinated on April 3 rd, 1968 by James Earl Ray, leading to massive scale riots in black neighborhoods across the country. Legacy of the Civil Rights Movement The Kerner Commission was established by President Johnson to investigate the causes of urban violence. The commission concluded that racism was the cause, and that society was shifting apart. The movement had the following successes: The Civil Rights Act of 1968 contained the Fair Housing Act which banned housing discrimination. Black colleges and black studies programs caused African Americans to take pride in their identity. 5

6 Black colleges and black studies programs caused African Americans to take pride in their identity. African Americans made significant political gains. The movement also had its shortcomings. De facto segregation existing in large numbers. Dwindling public support over radical agendas such as the Black Panthers. White flight led to a regression in school integration, as black and white students began attending different schools based off of neighborhoods. Protests over the use of affirmative action which was originally meant to help minorities. 6