Predictors Of Success In Accounting Distance Education: Tax Research & Televised Instruction

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1 Predictors Of Success In Accounting Distance Education: Tax Research & Televised Instruction Stephen C. Gara, Old Dominion University Abstract Distance education has seen tremendous growth, as increasing numbers of institutions are offering an increasing number of programs. As a result, comparative performance of traditional on-campus students and their off-campus counterparts has become an issue of greater concern. Are distance education students receiving the same education as those enrolled in an on-campus setting? Do they perform as well as their on-campus peers? This paper compares the performance between on-campus and off-campus students enrolled in a graduate accounting course offered via Interactive Television (ITV). Additionally, the role of various explanatory factors, including GMAT score, gender, work experience, CPA certification, and expected grade are examined as well. The overall results fail to reveal any significant difference in performance, using either course grade or comprehensive examination score, between the two types of students. However, support is indicated for a positive relationship between GMAT score, work experience, and current CPA certification on course performance, regardless of a student s site location. The paper concludes with a suggestion for greater examination and study of graduate business distance education across discipline and institutions. I. INTRODUCTION The growth of distance education on college campuses has been tremendous. According to the U.S. Department of Education, 750,000 students were enrolled in college distance education programs during 1995 (Picciano, 2001). That number has only increased, as more institutions jumped on the distance education bandwagon, to over 1.3 million students by 1998 (Svetcov, 2000). Business schools have jumped on board as well. According to the AACSB, 39 percent of accredited schools offer at least one distance education program (Britt and Frand, 1999). Distance education comes in many forms and variations. Currently available mediums of distance education delivery include online, interactive television (ITV), and prerecorded media (tape or CD-ROM), among others (Simonson et al., 2000). However, the two most prevalent methods of delivery are online and ITV (Picciano, 2001). It should be noted that these two methods are not mutually exclusive. For example, a course taught via ITV may be accompanied by an online presence, course website. However, the success of distance education is still unanswered. Faculty and students fall on both sides of the issue. Comments have ranged from overwhelming support to outright opposition (Franklin, 2002; Seay, Rudolph, and Chamberlain, 2001). Research on the success of distance education programs is also mixed, with some studies reporting distance education students performing worse than those in a traditional setting, others showing distance education students outperforming their peers on-campus, and others reporting no significant difference in performance (Terry, Owens, and Macy, 2000; Sugrue, Rietz, & Hansen, 1999; Heins & Hulse, 1996; Seay & Milkman, 1994; and Pirrong & Lathen, 1990).

2 This study will examine course performance for students enrolled in a graduate tax research course taught via interactive television (ITV), using what the university refers to as TELETECHNET. Predictors of course performance will be identified and used to compare the relative performance between students taking the course off-site (via ITV) and those taking on the course on-campus. This study differs from prior work in that this is one of few to study the effectiveness of ITV distance delivery in a graduate business course. Additionally, performance in the course is not tied solely to exam score, but is also based upon written and oral presentations, as well as completion of various research assignments. Unlike many of the business courses previously studied, the tax research course is very skills focused and requires a high degree of interaction, which can be challenging in a distance education environment. II. BACKGROUND TELETECHNET is the official term used to describe the variation of ITV used at the institution under study, a state-supported urban university located within a mid-sized southeastern city. According to the university s office of distance learning, the TELETECHNET system is one of the largest ITV programs in the nation, enrolling over 5,000 students, or approximately 25 percent of total university enrollment. Courses are broadcast throughout the state, as well nationally and internationally, including deployed naval vessels. However, the primary mission of the program is to provide higher education opportunities to rural residents of the state. Courses are taught by the same full-time faculty that teach traditional courses. Programs offered include both undergraduate degree completion programs (designed for community college transfers) and graduate degrees. Business programs offered via TELETECHNET include a B.S. in Business Administration program, as well as M.B.A. and Master of Taxation (M.Tax) programs, with the M.Tax taught entirely via TELETECHNET. The M.Tax. is a 30-credit hour program with enrolled students scattered across the state and the nation, as well as locally. TELETECHNET classes are broadcast using 1-way video along with 2-way audio, using a combination of satellite transmission and telephone lines. The originating site is a classroom equipped with cameras and microphones for the instructor and the on-campus students, as well as monitors showing the broadcasted images. The remote sites are generally located at community colleges and consist of a classroom with a video monitor for showing images broadcast from the originating site, and student desks with microphones. All students can see and hear the instructor and can communicate live with the instructor using microphones located at their desks (students voices are then broadcasted to all sites). However, the instructor cannot see the remote site students. Aside from broadcasting the instructor s image, the originating site can also broadcast PowerPoint slides, Web pages, videos, and slides. The particular course under study is required for both the M.Tax program, as well as the M.S. in Accounting. While the M.S. in Accounting program is not offered via the TELETECHNET system, this particular course was offered exclusively via ITV. Students enrolled in the course were beginning their respective program. Tax research is a very hands-on skills oriented course, designed to teach students to analyze complex and ambiguous fact patterns, identify material tax issues, and locate, interpret, and apply relevant legal authority, to arrive at conclusions resolving the identified issues. Students must then present their findings, both orally and in writing. Grading in the course is

3 based upon completion of research assignments (increasing in difficulty and complexity during the semester), a research paper, class presentation, and a comprehensive final examination. Assignments and the paper were turned in via to the instructor, while the examination was given in class, under locally proctored conditions. Class presentations were accomplished using PowerPoint slides ( ed to the instructor prior to class) broadcasted from the originating site, and student oral comments broadcasted from their local location. III. METHODOLOGY The sample consists of students enrolled in Tax Research, categorized as on-campus or remote site students. Data was collected from a student survey completed by all enrolled students during the course. However, GMAT scores are obtained from university records. The dependent variable of interest is student course performance. Two alternative measures are used to capture performance. The first is the student s course grade, measured as 4.0 to 0.0. The second measure is the student s grade on the comprehensive final examination. This alternative measure is captured for two reasons. First, the exam grade follows a scale, allowing a more fine distinction between individual students. Second, the final examination was an objective test and thus provides a more objective measure of performance, as compared to written research reports and oral presentations. The literature on student performance, particularly graduate business coursework, has identified a number of predictors of academic success. Variables that have been examined include: academic aptitude, gender, age, undergraduate major, work experience, and student effort (Apostolou et al., 2001; Rebele, et al., 1998). Aptitude has long been show to be a predictor of academic success (Keef and Roush, 1997). Academic aptitude has been measured using prior grades and standardized test scores (Turner et al., 1997; Terry et al., 2001). For graduate business education, the strongest predictor for success has been the student s GMAT score (Fisher and Resnick, 1990). While undergraduate GPA has been found to be significant, its usefulness is limited by the variation in grading standards across undergraduate institutions (Davidson and Gohmann, 2000). While the GMAT score has provided a successful predictor of graduate business performance, the CPA examination provides a more refined measure of a student s mastery of accounting. As a result, a positive relationship should be found between a students GMAT score and their course performance, as well as between a student s passing of the CPA examination and course performance. The role of gender in accounting course performance has proven quite illusive. While prior literature has shown that females tend to outperform males in accounting coursework this trend has not been consistent (Carpenter et al., 1993; & Buckless et al., 1991). Accordingly, it is not anticipated that gender will have a significant impact on performance. The effect of prior related coursework has been examined in a number of cases, including intermediate accounting, M.B.A. financial accounting, as well as the M.B.A. program overall (Canlar, 1986; Moses, 1987; & Davidson and Gohmann, 2000). However, the effect of prior coursework has been found to be transitory at best. Students with prior related coursework start out with an advantage over other students and exhibit higher performance levels in the beginning of the course, but this advantage wears off as the course goes on. By the end of the semester, both groups of students are on more-or-less equal footing (Canlar, 1986). Additionally, course success is more a function of a student s analytical skills than knowledge of concrete tax law,

4 and students arrive in the course with the same academic tax background, namely one undergraduate introductory tax course. As a result, the impact of prior tax coursework on student performance is not predicted to be significant in this course for the reasons above A student s level of related work experience has been shown to be a significant predictor of success at the MBA level (Seay and Milkman, 1994; & Moses, 1987). Students with more work experience are generally older, and more motivated (Wooten, 1998). According to Moses (1987), students with related work experience are better able to comprehend the course subject matter and its practical application. Tax research, being a hands-on subject is very amenable to experience. Students with prior relevant work experience posses an advantage over those without such experience. Accordingly, students with work experience should out perform those students without such experience. Additionally, students with current tax-related experience will likely be more motivated, since they can see the practical application of the course material to their employment, and hence exert greater effort. Another measure of effort is the student s self-reported expected grade in the course. Students anticipating an A are likely to be more motivated and exerting greater effort than those anticipating a C (Tuner et al., 1997). Additionally, Gul and Fong (1993) found a significant relationship between expected grade and course performance in a study of Hong Kong introductory accounting students. Greater effort leads to better course performance (Wooten, 1998). Course performance is compared between on-campus students and remote site students. As indicated earlier, course performance is measured alternately using course grade and final examination score. The following model is used to test the relationship between a student s site location and course performance. PERF i = α + β SITE i (1) Where: PERF i = Course performance for student i, using either course grade or final examination score SITE i = Site location for student i, 1 for remote site and 0 otherwise Additionally, a multiple regression model will be run for the full sample to test the impact of the explanatory variables described earlier on course performance. The following explanatory variables will be examined in conjunction with site location: GMAT score, CPA certification, possession of related work experience, expected grade, undergraduate major, and gender. Due to the small sample size, only one explanatory variable can be examined at a time. The following model will used to test the contributing role of these variables on course performance, given the student s site location. PERF i = α + β SITE i +χ EXP ij (2) Where: PERF i = Course performance for student i, using either course grade or final examination score SITE i = Site location for student i, 1 for remote site and 0 otherwise EXP ij = Explanatory variable j for student i: Employment = 1 if accounting related, 0 otherwise CPA = 1 if the student is presently a CPA, 0 otherwise GMAT = GMAT score Undergraduate Major = 1 if accounting, 0 otherwise Gender = 1 if male, 0 otherwise

5 IV. RESULTS Expected Grade = Self reported expected course grade (0 to 4). Descriptive statistics, as shown in Table 1, reveal that while approximately two-thirds of the students sampled were enrolled off-campus, there is little difference in their course performance. The remote site students are a few years older, but both groups are approximately two-thirds female and possess comparable GMAT scores. However, a greater percentage of the remote site students possess an undergraduate accounting degree, accounting-related employment and the CPA designation. Accordingly, the remote site students possess greater practical and academic accounting experience than those enrolled on campus. [Table 1] No support is found for a relationship between site location and course performance, based on either measure. No significant differences in course performance are reported in Table 2 between on-campus and remote site students. This finding is consistent, however, with Pirrong and Lathen (1990), who found a similar lack of significance in an examination of introductory accounting students. [Table 2] Six explanatory variables are also examined, in association with site location, to determine performance. Presented in Table 3, site location is only significant in conjunction with a student s CPA designation. Interestingly, a student holding a CPA certificate exhibits stronger classroom performance, based on either performance measure. Support is also found for a positive relationship between current accounting employment and exam score, as well as between GMAT score and course grade. [Table 3] V. CONCLUSION Distance education has seen tremendous growth, as increasing numbers of institutions are offering an increasing number of programs. As a result, comparative performance of traditional on-campus students and their off-campus counterparts has become an issue of greater concern. Are distance education students receiving the same education as those enrolled in an on-campus setting? Do they perform as well as their on-campus peers? Prior research in this topic has produced mixed results. Additionally, the prior literature has generally focused on undergraduate education. The present study examines the relative performance of on-campus and remote site students in a graduate accounting course. Additionally, the explanatory role of various factors is identified as well, as they relate to classroom performance and site location. The overall results fail to reveal any significant difference in performance, using either course grade or comprehensive examination score, between the two types of students. However, the results do support a positive association between course grade and GMAT score, as well as a student s possession of a CPA certificate. Additionally, accounting-related work experience also tends to lead to better course performance, as measured by examination score. The CPA certificate typically requires both related work experience and a demonstrated understanding of accounting topics and methodology. Accordingly, a student with both qualities appears to be stronger candidate for successful performance, regardless of site location. An

6 unreported test of the direct association between classroom performance and CPA certification, GMAT score, and work experience supports this conclusion, regardless of site location. The present study is subject to two significant limitations. The small sample size restricts power of the statistical tests and generalizabilty of the findings. Additionally, the nature of the course and institution under study also limit generalizability. Further research should examine graduate student performance in business distance education across disciplines, institutions and delivery methods. VI. REFERENCES Apostolou, B., S.F. Watson, J.M. Hassell, and S.A. Webber. Accounting Education Literature Review ( ), Journal of Accounting Education, 19 (No. 1, 2001). Britt, J.A. and J. Frand. Fifteenth Annual AACSB/UCLA Computer Usage Survey, AACSB Newsline, (Winter, 1999) Buckless, F.A., M.G. Lipe, and S.P. Ravenscroft. Do Gender Effects on Accounting Course Performance Persist After Controlling for General Academic Aptitude, Issues in Accounting Education, 6 (Fall, 1991). Canlar, M. College Level Exposure to Accounting Study and Its Effects in the First MBA-Level Financial Accounting Course, Issues in Accounting Education, 1 (Spring, 1986). Carpenter, V.L., S. Friar, and M.G. Lipe. Evidence on the Performance of Accounting Students: Race, Gender and Expectations, Issues in Accounting Education, 8 (Spring, 1993). Davidson, A.B., S.F. Gohmann. Differences in Predictors of Grade Point Average for Internal and External Masters of Business Administration Students, Journal of Business Education, 1 (Fall, 2000). Fisher, J.B. and D.A. Resnick. Standardized Testing and Graduate School Admission: Review of Issues and an Analysis of a Baruch College MBA Cohort, College and University, 6 (No. 2, 1990). Franklin, C.L. Distance Versus Live Education: Points of Compromise, Points of Synergy, Proceedings of the Academy of Educational Leadership, 7 (No. 2, 2002). Gul., F.A. and S.C.C. Fong. Predicting Success for Introductory Accounting Students: Some Further Hong Kong Evidence, Accounting Education, 2 (March, 1993). Heiens, R.A., and D.B. Hulse. Two-Way Interactive Television: An Emerging Technology for University Level Business School Instruction, Journal of Education for Business, 72 (Nov./Dec., 1996) Keef, S.P, and M.L. Roush. New Zealand Evidence on the Performance of Accounting Students: Race, Gender and Self-Concept, Issues in Accounting Education, 12 (Fall, 1997) Moses, O.D. Factors Explaining Performance in Graduate Level Accounting, Issues in Accounting Education, 2 (Fall, 1987). Picciano, A.G. Distance Learning: Making Connections Across Virtual Space and Time. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall (2001). Pirrong, G.D. and W.C. Lathen. The Use of Interactive Television in Business Education, Educational Technology, 30 (May, 1990). Rebele, J.E., B.A. Apostolou, F.A. Buckless, J.M. Hassell, and D.E. Stout. Accounting Education Literature Review ( ), Part II: Students, Educational Technology, Assessment, and Faculty Issues, Journal of Accounting Education, 16 (No. 2, 1998).

7 Seay, R.A. and M.I. Milkman. Interactive Television: An Assessment of Student Performance and Attitudes in an Upper Division Accounting Course, Issues in Accounting Education, 9 (Spring, 1994). Seay, R., H.R. Rudolph, and D.H. Chamberlain. Faculty Perceptions of Interactive Television, Journal of Education for Business, 77 (Nov./Dec., 2001). Simonson, M., S. Smaldino, M. Albright, and S. Zvacek. Teaching and Learning at a Distance: Foundations of Distance Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall (2000). Sugrue, B, T. Rietz, and S. Hansen. Distance Learning: Relationships Among Class Size, Instructor Location, Student Perceptions, and Performance, Performance Improvement Quarterly, 1 (No. 3, 1999). Svetcov, D. The Virtual Classroom Versus the Real One, Forbes (Sep. 11, 2000). Terry, N., J. Owens, and A. Macy. Student and Faculty Assessment of the Virtual MBA: A Case Study, Journal of Business Education, 1 (Fall, 2000). Terry, N., J. Owens, and A. Macy. Student Performance in the Virtual Classroom, Journal of the Academy of Business Education, 2 (Spring, 2001). Turner, J.L., S.A. Holmes, and C.E. Wiggins. Factors Associated with Grades in Intermediate Accounting, Journal of Accounting Education, 15 (No. 2, 1997). Wooten, T.C. Factors Influencing Student Learning in Introductory Accounting Classes: A Comparison of Traditional and Nontraditional Students, Issues in Accounting Education, 13 (May 1998). VII. TABLES TABLE 1: Descriptive Statistics Full Sample On-Campus Remote Site Number of Students Course Grade (mean) 3.3 (1) 3.2 (1) 3.2 (.6) Final Examination (mean) 85 (9) 84 (15) 86 (9) Age (mean) 36 (10) 33 (10) 37 (10) Female 65% 63% 66% GMAT (mean) 553 (56) 552 (63) 554 (54) Accounting Employment (#) UG Accounting Major (#) Expected Grade (mean) 3.6 (1) 3.5 (1) 3.6 (.5) CPA (#) Number in ( ) indicates standard deviation TABLE 2: Course Performance and Student Location PERF i = α + β SITE i PERF = Course Grade α t-value β t-value R 2 Adjusted R ** PERF = Examination α t-value β t-value R 2 Adjusted R ** TABLE 3: Role of Explanatory Factors on Course Performance PERF i = α + β SITE i + χ EXP i

8 PERF = Course Grade EXP variable α t-value β t-value χ t-value R 2 Adjusted R 2 GMAT *** * Gender ** UG Major ** Accounting ** Employment Expected Grade ** CPA ** * PERF = Examination EXP variable α t-value β t-value χ t-value R 2 Adjusted R 2 GMAT ** Gender ** UG Major ** Accounting ** * Employment Expected Grade ** CPA ** * ** PERF i = The course grade or score on comprehensive final examination for student i. SITE i = 1 if student i is enrolled at a remote site location, 0 otherwise EXP i = GMAT score, Gender (1=female, 0 otherwise), Undergraduate Major (1=accounting, 0 otherwise), Employment (1=accounting related, 0 otherwise), Expected Grade, or CPA (1=a CPA, 0 otherwise) for student i. ** = Statistical significance at.01 level. * = Statistical significance at.10