The Jeremiad Over Journalism

Transcription

1 The Jeremiad Over Journalism - Studies in Americanization of Danish journalism 1. Introduction The jeremiad is a literary style lamenting people who have fallen into sinful ways and will face ruin unless they quickly reform. The jeremiad over journalism, as this study perceives it, bemoans the current state of the profession, and longs for a golden past. The jeremiad is essentially American, but it might as well have been Danish. 1 Since the early 20 th century, complaints about the American newspaper industry have found their way to Danish journalistic publications coupled with a fear of American influence on local journalistic practices. Consciously or unconsciously, the jeremiad over journalism has been used by Danes to deplore the American propensity to focus on the shocking and astonishing. 2 Closely associated with the criticism of American journalism is the idea that unbridled commercialism is detrimental to Danish journalism. Yet, the commercial aspects of American journalism have also served as inspiration for Danish journalists. To Henrik Cavling, the most prominent Danish journalist in the 20 th century, the United States was a place where the press played an important democratic role which was wholly absent from his experience in Denmark since newspapers were closely tied to specific political ideologies. 1 James A. Morone, Hellfire Nation: The Politics of Sin in American History (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2003). Page 14 and 44. Moral alarms inspire the essential American literary form, the jeremiad (a lament that the people have fallen into sinful ways and face ruin unless they swiftly reform). 2 H. T. Peck, "Amerikansk Journalistik [American Journalism]," Journalisten, October 1, Page Peck mentions the focus on sensation, celebrities and personalization coverage as something uniquely American, but goes on to defend American journalism after having referred to the following common assertion. It has therefore been ascertained and remarked until triviality that the lack of tact, sick vulgarity and shamelesness has never seen such a dreadful development as the one that the American press, even in its most excellent representatives, not only tolerates, but recommends. My translation. Original text reads, Det er derfor blevet slaaet fast og sagt indtil Trivialitet, at Mangel paa Takt, sygelig Vulgaritet og skamløs Ublufærdighed har aldrig set en saa frygtelig Udvikling som den, den amerikanske Presse selv i sine mest fremragende Repræsentanter, ikke blot tolererer, men anbefaler. 1

2 The press in America echoes the people s voice and yet, or perhaps therefore, it has reached its astonishing development (...) under such conditions the journalist is transformed to reporter. He has but one task, to go out and direct the questions at the masses and without his own opinion write the answers in the so-called interviews which are at the core of the American journalism. 3 To Danish reporters, American journalism contained the best, as well as the worst, of the profession. When it was at its best, American journalistic methods helped move democracy forward, at its worst it undermined the people s ability to elect public officials based on qualified information. 4 In terms of journalistic profit-seeking, ethics, production, methods and distribution Americanization was at once welcomed as well as frowned upon. Regardless of Danish journalists attitudes towards Americanization, scholars argue that European journalistic methods are increasingly approximating American conditions. Moreover, the most powerful force behind this homogenization transforming both print and electronic media in Europe, with the accompanying consequences for journalism and democracy is believed to be commercialization. 5 Since Americanization of Danish journalism and political discourse is both seen as a benefit and a problem for democracy, 6 empirically studying Americanization on Danish journalism will help shed light on its actual impact. 3 Henrik Cavling, Fra Amerika [From America], 2 vols., vol. 1 (Gyldendalske Boghandels Forlag, 1897). Page 89. My translation. Original text reads, Pressen i Amerika er Folkerøstens Ekko og alligevel eller netop derfor har den naaet sin forbavsende Udvikling. ( ) Under saadanne Forhold forvandles Journalisten til Reporter. Han har kun én Opgave, at gaa ud og rette Spørgsmaalene til Mængden og uden egen Særmening nedskrive Svarene i de saakaldte Interviews, der er Kærnen i den amerikanske Journalistik. 4 Thomas E. Patterson, "The United States: News in a Free-Market Society," in Democracy and the Media, ed. Richard Gunter and Anthony Mughan (ed.) (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000). Page 250. Also Joseph N. Capella and Kathleen Hall Jamieson, Spiral of Cynicism: The Press and the Public Good (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997). Page 9-13 and Leonard Downie Jr. and Robert G. Kaiser, The News About the News: American Journalism in Peril (New York: Vintage Books, 2003). Page Capella and Jameson have pointed to increased cynicism in American news reporting which carries over to the electorate, and argued that the media is undermining American democracy. Others like Downie and Kaiser point to American journalism not fulfilling its democratic purpose, since the journalistic field has become too focused on entertainment and profit instead of serving American communities by doing aggressive, thorough intelligent coverage and revelatory accountability reporting. 5 Daniel C. Hallin and Paolo Mancini, Comparing Media Systems. Three Models of Media and Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004). Page 273. Also Sigurd Allern and Mark Blach-Ørsten, "The News Media as A Political Institution: A Scandinavian Perspective," Journalism Studies 1 (2010). Page 2. 6 Frits Bredal, "Amerikanisering Af Dansk Valgkamp" [Americanization of Danish Election Campaigns]," Berlingske Tidende, August 29, Bredal, for instance notes that Danish political analysts assert that political coverage 2

3 Specifically this dissertation looks at the driving forces behind transmission, transnationalization and appropriation of Americanization and asks the question: How have structural and symbolic developments emanating from the United States influenced Danish journalism? 1.1 Research Methods The methodology of the social sciences can be likened to working with paint rollers, while the methodology of the historian uses a small bristle, writes the German economic historian Harm Schröter about the study of Americanization. He asserts that, in all cases of comparison, qualitative and quantitative evidence must be gathered to support conclusions. 7 Employing both the paint roller and the bristle, this dissertation will study Americanization of Danish journalism utilizing an interdisciplinary approach collecting both qualitative and quantitative evidence. By combining a historical hermeneutical method with a quantitative content analysis, the present study aims to identify both structural and cultural examples of American influence. According to communication scholars Daniel Hallin and Paolo Mancini, little work has been done tracing how the Americanization process happens concretely, and the present study seeks to provide tangible examples of how economic and cultural influences emanating from the United States have succeeded or failed in being appropriated by Danish journalists. 8 The interdisciplinary approach to studying Americanization is practical since the qualitative and quantitative methods chosen complement each other in important respects. To Hallin and Mancini, quantitative work is useful to a point, in tracing the process of Americanization but reveals little of what really matters, namely how journalists or other media personnel function in practice. 9 Qualitative work, on the other hand, can reveal important aspects of journalistic practice, but can be becomes increasingly superficial when influenced by the United States commercially oriented example. Others find the commercial aspect of American political campaigns and its coverage refreshing. See for instance Martin Vith Ankerstjerne, "Kronik: Demokrati: Amerikanisering Af Valgkamp - Ja Tak! [Feature: Democracy: Americanization of Election Campaigns - Yes Please!]," Berlingske Tidende April 18, Harm G. Schröter, Americanization of the European Economy: A Compact Survey of American Economic Influence in Europe since the 1880's (Dordrecht: Springer, 2005). Page Hallin and Mancini, Comparing Media Systems. Three Models of Media and Politics. Page We found in looking at the literature on Americanization that there was relatively little work done tracing how this process happens concretely what kinds of changes in journalism education take place, what interactions there are among journalists from different countries, what consultants are brought in, and what seminars held, and so on. 9 Ibid. Page

4 unrepresentative and atypical, as well as neither replicable nor comparable, when not conducted systematically. 10 The present study attempts to remedy the above-mentioned pitfalls of content analysis and historical hermeneutic inquiry by incorporating both approaches in the same study. Additionally, the historical and content analysis conducted here will provide an example of comparative historical research, which Hallin and Mancini find lacking in the field of communication where contemporary and ethnocentric studies abound. 11 The framework for historical analysis of Americanization is proposed by the Dutch Americanist Mel van Elteren and focuses on transmission, transnationalization, and appropriation of impulses from the United States, while the content analysis is inspired by comparative quantitative research between the United States and Europe which sees journalistic institutions relationship to the economic and political field as key variables shaping different journalistic practices historically. 12 The historical analysis is guided by van Elteren s recommendation that researchers immerse themselves in the life-worlds of historical actors as best as they can through combined culturalhistorical and historical-anthropological approaches that enable them to carefully offer tentative interpretations of people s attitudes, emotions and actions of relevance readings of past behavior that seems most adequate within the hermeneutic circle of this interpretative research. 13 Van Elteren s framework for studying Americanization is illustrated in Table 1 and 2 below and introduces the three main analytical categories along with four levels of driving forces in 10 Fiona Devine, "Qualitative Methods," in Theory and Methods in Political Science, ed. David Marsh and Gerry Stoker (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002). Page Hallin and Mancini, Comparing Media Systems. Three Models of Media and Politics. Page 2 and 304. There is a need for comparative historical research in communication. We were struck, just to take one example, at how little was available at least in the English-language literature and in other literatures we could read in the original on the history of the party press. Additionally, as Sørensen and Petersen note, while there has been a recent focus on Americanization of Danish society within the last decade, very few studies before this time dealt with the cultural aspect of Americanization. See Klaus Petersen and Nils Arne Sørensen, "Kommunister, Jan-Bøger Og Drømmekøkkener [Communists, Jan-Books and Dream Kitchens]," Jysk Selskab for Historie, no. 1 (2007). Moreover, no studies within the last decade has focused on Americanization of Danish journalism. 12 Mel Van Elteren, Americanism and Americanization: A Critical History of Domestic and Global Influence (Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers, 2006). Page See also Jesper Strömbäck and Daniela V. Dimitrova, "Political and Media Systems Matter: A Comparison of Election News Coverage in Sweden and the United States," Press/Politics 11, no. 4 (2006). Page As well as Daniel C. Hallin and Rodney Benson, "How States, Markets and Globalization Shape the News: The French and US National Press, ," European Journal of Communication 22, no. 1 (2007). Page Elteren, Americanism and Americanization: A Critical History of Domestic and Global Influence. Page

5 Americanization of Danish journalism. These driving forces have been identified through secondary literature as will become apparent in the subsequent literature review. Transmission Transna tionaliz ation Appropriation Table 1 Van Elteren s framework for Americanization: Transmission from the United States, picked up through transnational knowledge exchange and appropriated by the receiving country. United States Government Danish government State Department U.S. Information Agency Foreign ministry (In)direct subsidies Institutions Institutions Technology Schools of Journalism Newspapers Newspapers Schools of journalism Knowledge exchange Non-profit Non-profit Fulbright Journalisten Key Individuals Key Individuals Table 2 Framework for analysis of structural and symbolic Americanization 5

6 As can be seen in Table 2, from a transmission perspective, van Elteren s framework suggests analyzing the the public, private profit, and private non-profit sectors of society, here identified as the United States Information Agency (USIA) under the Department of State, educational institutions, media institutions, private corporations selling technology, as well as the non-profit institutions that facilitated exchange between Americans and Danes. Lastly, key individuals are identified by van Elteren as driving Americanization to other countries. 14 For purposes of the current study, previously classified documents from the Department of State are used to operationalize the American government s attempts to transmit American values and ideas overseas and will be the primary sources used for the analysis of American transmission. Van Elteren understands Transnationalization as contact zones, meaning areas where local meanings and practices interact with the intruding beliefs and practices. For the current project this is specifically operationalized in regards to the educational exchange carried out between the United States and Denmark from the end of World War II and forward. A host of Danish journalists were afforded the opportunity to study in the United States while a number of Americans were likewise invited to share their knowledge with Danes through different exchange organizations with the Fulbright program being the most prominent. An analysis of archival documents from the Fulbright Commission and the Denmark-America Foundation will provide the basis for this section. Appropriation in Van Elteren s framework means identifying the volume ( size and scale) of ideas, goods, services and practices imported or adopted from the United States, and the extent of their reach. For the purposes of the current project the appropriation analysis is delimited to the Danish Union of Journalists publication Journalisten, which is received and contributed to by the vast majority of Danish journalists and discusses a wide variety of topics from government policy, over education to journalistic practices. 15 The content analysis entailing a systematic reading of a body of texts, images, and symbolic matter, is guided by communication professor Klaus Krippendorff s conceptual framework which 14 Ibid. Page 145. As will become apparent in the chapters to follow Danish journalists such as Herbert Pundik and Anders Krab-Johansen, among others, are considered key individuals due to their role in international knowledge exchange and subsequent implementation of new-found knowledge in Danish journalistic practice. 15 Ibid. Page

7 emphasizes moving from research design, through data making, and inference to narration in the process of the study. 16 Specifically, the research design phase explains the choices made in relation to the research question, drawing inspiration from previous comparative content analysis studies, for example media researchers Daniel Hallin and Rodney Benson, as well as Jesper Strömbäck and Daniela Dimitrova. 17 The data making phase elaborates on the units of analysis, the coding and reliability of the study conducted, while the inference phase bridges the gap between descriptive accounts of texts and what they mean invoking the texts broader context to reach conclusions based on the available information. 18 Lastly, the narration phase seeks to discuss the results of the content analysis in connection with findings of the qualitative study as well as other comparative scholarly projects and makes connections between the two approaches. 1.2 Structure of the Dissertation After the current introductory chapter, the dissertation is divided into five subsequent chapters. Chapter 2 provides a critical review of the most important theoretical literature pertaining to the study of Americanization of Danish society. In this part of the dissertation, I show that there has been increased scholarly attention paid to Americanization of Danish society over the past decade, but argue that none of these studies has focused on journalism specifically. I also argue that the cultural imperialism perspective of the 1970 s and 1980 s is no longer plausible and should be replaced by a theory of Americanization occurring as a cultural encounter within an asymmetrical power relationship. Additionally, key concepts related to the historical and content analysis, such as commercialization, objectivity, new institutionalism, as well as framing, are defined. 16 Klaus Krippendorff, Content Analysis: An Introduction to Its Methodology (Thousand Oaks: Sage, 2004). Page The four phases identified are based on Krippendorf s Figure 4.2 Components of Content Analysis, on page Hallin and Benson, "How States, Markets and Globalization Shape the News: The French and US National Press, " See also Strömbäck and Dimitrova, "Political and Media Systems Matter: A Comparison of Election News Coverage in Sweden and the United States." Hallin and Benson as well as Strömbäck and Dimitrova emphasize the commercial aspect of media systems as well as the national media s proximity to the state as key variables for studying transnational differences in journalistic products. Additionally, the content analysis is structured around theoretical hypotheses of which characteristics one would expect Danish and American newspaper articles to display based on the above authors, as well as other media scholars, who have written on comparative research. 18 Krippendorff, Content Analysis: An Introduction to Its Methodology. Page

8 The third chapter, relating to structural Americanization, meaning economic, technological, political factors, 19 constitutes a critical overview of the American government s aims in regards to the military, economic and technological policy towards Denmark. Here I argue, that Denmark had some leverage in relation to the United States because of country s geographical importance to NATO s defense. Moreover, I demonstrate that the American first amendment absolutism, calling for no government regulation of the media market, is at odds with Danish politicians perspective that the press is worthy of subsidies because it serves a democratizing purpose in society. Nevertheless, this chapter also shows that the Danish media environment has become more commercialized over the years, though this commercialization has of yet not had a tangible influence on election coverage. Additionally, the third chapter reveals that there was great demand for American technological products after World War II among Danish journalists a fact that lends empirical support to the notion that some aspects of Americanization occurred by invitation instead of imperialism. The fourth chapter, focused on symbolic Americanization, meaning culture, ideology and institutions, 20 shows that the American government very actively, both covertly and overtly, attempted to influence Danish journalism after World War II through transmission of cultural products. I examine, the aims of the USIA, its own assessment of results, and Danish skepticism over the Central Intelligence Agency s work in Scandinavia. Additionally, it is demonstrated that the transnational exchange programs initiated by the United States government and private organizations in Denmark had lasting effects on the students and scholars who went and gave these students a more positive view of the United States than was the case before the exchange. The experience for some also exposed the differences between the Scandinavian and American media systems while creating an important international network for their future work and for some impacted their journalistic practice. Lastly, the chapter demonstrates that Danish journalists were aware of the commercial pitfalls espoused by the American media system, but at the same time appropriated journalistic practices emanating from America. In very real ways, the United States was seen by Danish journalists as the place to discover the future of journalism and the last part of this chapter, heeding Hallin and Mancini s suggestion, offers two concrete examples of how 19 Elteren, Americanism and Americanization: A Critical History of Domestic and Global Influence. Page Ibid. Page 142. See also Joseph S. Nye, The Paradox of American Power: Why The World's Only Superpower Can't Go It Alone (New York Oxford University Press, 2002). Page

9 Americanization of Danish journalistic practice happened by analyzing appropriation of New Journalism as well as investigative journalism. The fifth chapter presents a content analysis of selected American and Danish newspapers election front-page coverage between 1968 and 2008 and argues that while the studied Danish journalists adopted the American ideal of objectivity, the commercial influence from the United States has been hampered in part by the publicist tradition of the Danish press, which is a requirement for receiving direct government subsidies. The findings in the selected Danish newspapers election coverage thereby support the conclusion reached by the interpretative analysis of structural Americanization. The sixth chapter discusses the counterforces of Americanization and argues that the most important aspect of Danish society which impedes American influence on Danish journalism is the government s use of direct and indirect subsidies to promote political and cultural coverage among a variety of news outlets which might otherwise not exist in a free market without economic support. Additionally, a simplified model of peaks and valleys of Americanization in Danish journalism is presented, as the influence from the United States has been non-linear. Since the American government s strategic and economic goals cannot be separated from their cultural objectives, the unpopular foreign policy of the United States in the late 1960 s and early 1970 s led to less interest in using America as an example to follow, or describing the country favorably in journalistic content. A similar tendency can be seen in the pages of Journalisten during the 1980 s when commercial influence and American propaganda became topics discussed regularly in the main journalistic publication. Further, this chapter discusses some of the methodological shortcomings of the present dissertation and provides suggestions for further research in the field. 1.3 Research Question Through an analysis of newspaper content and archival material this dissertation will answer the following question: How have structural and symbolic developments emanating from the United States influenced Danish journalistic institutions and practices primarily after 1968? 9

10 2. Theory In order to tie abstract concepts such as Americanization, commercialization, objectivity, institutionalism and framing to the concrete study, this chapter will identify key texts related to the research question, and make an argument for how macro-level American influence translates into changes in journalistic institutions and micro-level reporting practices in Denmark. The following sections will clarify and define the theoretical concepts of Americanization, commercialization, the ideal of objectivity, new institutionalism 21 and framing. Moreover, the literature below will identify the key driving forces involved in the subsequent empirical analysis of structural and symbolic Americanization. The overarching aim of the chapter is to pin-point the importance of commercialization, technology, and educational exchange among other driving forces in previous studies of American influence which will then serve as the basis for sections within the chapters of structural and symbolic Americanization based on evidence from the archival analyis. Additionally, an important connection is made in relation to the content analysis, as it is here argued that developments at the structural level can impact individual journalists framing through the restraining and enabling influence of journalistic institutions. For example, I argue that commercial pressure exerted on journalistic institutions is potentially reflected in journalistic news frames. Turning to the subsection of important literature on Americanization, I argue that in order to study structural Americanization fruitfully, one needs to realize that there is a power asymmetry between Denmark and the United States, yet also recognize that the is a certain power of the weak to shape impulses from public and private sectors in America. 22 The perspective of asymmetrical power rejects cultural imperialist theory which understands Americanization as a process where a hegemonic America manipulated and ultimately imposed its way on passive recipients. 23 Often a 21 Timothy Cook, Governing with the News: The New Media as a Political Institution, Second ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005). Page 65 and Cook combines sociological and political science definitions of institutions, his aim is not to add to the theories of institutions, but to throw light on our understanding of the news media. 22 Poul Villaume, "Replik - Om Tankefængsler, Sikkerhedsdilemmaer Og Interessefællesskaber [Response: On Imprisoned Ideas, Security Dilemmas and Community of Interests]," Historisk Tidsskrift 16, no. 2 (1995). Page Elteren, Americanism and Americanization: A Critical History of Domestic and Global Influence. Page

11 pre-condition for Americanization is the receiver s voluntary acceptance, 24 but there are also certain structural limits to what is accepted and what is rejected. 25 Additionally, the subchapter on objectivity will demonstrate that the ideal of objectivity in journalism originated in the United States and incorporates both ontological, epistemological, and procedural understandings of objectivity. Moreover, the section shows that the discursive practices associated with American journalistic objectivity have spread to Europe. In terms of commercialization, this chapter shows that when commercial influence takes precedence it tends to overwhelm idealistic notions of customs or culture in favor of a monetarization of decision-making. Moreover, it is argued that journalistic institutions curtail individual journalists autonomy somewhat, which shows how societal structures such as increased commercialization impact journalistic institutions and can be argued to influence individual journalistic content. Lastly, this chapter ends with a definition of framing. It is here shown that journalists actively select and highlight aspects of perceived events based on organizational routines, a fact that has real consequences in regards to how receivers understand the material presented Literature Review: Americanization "The advent of the United States of America as the greatest of world-powers is the greatest political, social, and commercial phenomenon of our times, wrote William T. Stead in The Americanisation of the World in 1902 over the course of 182 pages. Stead attempted to trace Americanisation across the entire world focusing on religion, literature, journalism, art, science, music as well as theater, marriage, sports and business. 24 Harm G. Schröter, "Economic Culture and Its Transfer: An Overview of the Americanisation of the European Economy, ," European Review of History 15, no. 4 (2008). Page Mel Van Elteren, "Rethinking Americanization Abroad: Toward a Critical Alternative to Prevailing Paradigms," The Journal of American Culture 29, no. 3 (2006). Page Robert M. Entman, "Media Framing Biases and Political Power: Explaining Slant in News of Campaign 2008," Journalism 11, no. 4 (2010). Page 391. According to Entman, frames introduce or enhance the availability and apparent importance of certain ideas for evaluating a political object. 11

12 Stead had it right. Americanization was the greatest political, social, and commercial phenomenon of the 20 th century according to contemporaries. Even authors who disliked much of what they perceived America to be acknowledged that there was something to be learned from the United States. 27 While the Americans, in Stead s view, were extremely dynamic in every area he studied, his background was journalism, and he was very conscious of American influence on British media. As a consequence, Stead alluded to important characteristics of Americanization when he wrote, American journalism, as compared with that of Great Britain, is more enterprising, more energetic, more extravagant, and more unscrupulous. Moreover, the interview was a distinctively American invention, which has been acclimatised in this country. 28 Stead s implicit understanding of Americanization (he never defined it explicitly) has interesting parallels to subsequent the work of Americanization scholars, who have emphasized the distinctive elements of American society. Among them is van Elteren, who wrote about Americanism and Americanization approximately 100 years after Stead s study. 29 Van Elteren s work on Americanization has coincided with an increased focus on how the concept takes shape in a Danish context. 30 Yet, while studies exist that examine the Americanization of Danish music, retail and fashion, and other culture industries, no studies have systematically analyzed the Americanization of Danish journalism. Van Elteren, as we have seen, distinguishes between two interpenetrative levels of Americanization: the structural dealing with strategy, economy and technology; and the symbolic, dealing with cultural transmissions. While the current study emphasizes the latter, it also recognizes the need to take structural aspects of Americanization into account, and a chapter is therefore 27 Paul Dehn, Weltwirtschaftliche Neubildungen [Global Economy Innovations] (Berlin: Allgemeiner Verein für Deutsche Litteratur, 1904). Page 191. Not imitate, rather learn, wrote Dehn critically, but acknowledged that there was much to learn from the United States. In contrast, the Danish journalist Henrik Cavling was greatly inspired by the United States and wrote about this inspiration in his travel accounts. Cavling, Fra Amerika [From America]. Page William T. Stead, The Americanisation of the World (London: The 'Review of Reviews' office, 1902). Preface and page 111. According to Jean Chalaby, Stead actually incorporated the interview into British journalism practice between 1883 and Jean K. Chalaby, The Invention of Journalism (New York: St. Martin's Press, Inc., 1998). Page Elteren, "Rethinking Americanization Abroad: Toward a Critical Alternative to Prevailing Paradigms." 30 See for example Klaus Petersen and Nils Arne Sørensen, "Ameri-Danes and Pro-American Anti-Americans," in The Americanization of Europe: Culture, Diplomacy, and Anti-Americanism after 1945, ed. Alexander Stephan (New York: Berghahn Books, 2006). 12

13 devoted to their study. 31 Based on Van Elteren s writings, Americanization is defined as, [P]rocesses in which economic, technological, political, social, cultural, and/or sociopsychological influences emanating from America or Americans impinge on values, norms, belief systems, mentalities, habits, rules, technologies, practices, institutions, and behaviors of non-americans. 32 In terms of the content analysis, the current study will trace American influence on Danish political news coverage during national election campaigns from 1968 to 2008 analyzing how two distinctively American concepts, commercialization and the journalistic ideal of objectivity, can be identified through articles framing in selected newspapers. National election campaigns, according to media scholars are especially useful for cross-national comparisons as it allows for analysis over time as well as across cultures. 33 Moreover, election studies spur innovations in political communication, and have also been shown to prompt innovation in Danish journalistic practices, thereby making election periods ideal when looking for changes over time Cultural Imperialism During the 1970 s and 1980 s the prevailing understanding of American influence was one of 31 Elteren, Americanism and Americanization: A Critical History of Domestic and Global Influence. Page Van Elteren s framework for historical analysis includes an overall evaluation of America s position in the global system. The chapter on structural Americanization provides this insight in relation to Denmark s position in the global system. 32, "Rethinking Americanization Abroad: Toward a Critical Alternative to Prevailing Paradigms." Page Elihu Katz and Yael Warshel, eds., Election Studies: What's Their Use? (Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press,2001). Page Katz and Warshel note, As the role of parties continues to decline and the role of the media increases, campaigns provide a major vantage point for investigating not only the direct influence of media on opinion but also the indirect influence via phenomena such as media analysis of campaign events ('spin'), media representations of the distribution of opinion, media forecasts that may produce 'bandwagon effects' and 'spirals of silence,' or strategic 'horserace' coverage that may produce cynicism towrad the electoral process. See also Jay G. Blumler and Denis McQuail, "Political Communication Scholarship: The Uses of Election Research," in Election Studies: What's Their Use?, ed. Elihu Katz and Yael Warshel (Boulder: Westview, 2001). Page Blumler and McQuail also argue that election studies are convenient benchmarks for tracing developments over time, are useful when examining political communication in new media formats, help test key concepts from political communications theory and contribute significantly to the debate about citizenship. Also see Hallin and Mancini, Comparing Media Systems. Three Models of Media and Politics. Page Blumler and McQuail, "Political Communication Scholarship: The Uses of Election Research." Page 236. See also Peter Bro, Aktionsjournalistik [Public Journalism] (Odense: Syddansk Universitetsforlag, 2004). Page Bro shows how American public journalism inspired Danish regional election coverage in

14 cultural imperialism where individuals on the receiving end of Americanization had little opportunity to resist these influences. An overview and brief analysis of two American and one Danish example are provided in the pages below. Schiller, 1976 Media scholar and journalist Herbert Schiller s thematically organized book Communication and Cultural Domination, serves as an early example of the cultural imperialism paradigm within Americanization studies. In the book, Schiller demonstrates how closely the United States policy towards worldwide communication after World War II was tied to the country s economic, strategic and technological interests. 35 Through the prism of class-struggle between workers and capitalists worldwide, Schiller traces United States policy from World War II to the 1970s and shows that American leaders overtly have tried to mold the global communication structure to their own advantage. Utilizing terminology which includes cultural take-over, cultural imperialism, U.S. global hegemony, and imperial ascendancy, 36 Schiller argues that, Assisted by the sophisticated communications technology developed in the militarily oriented space program, techniques of persuasion, manipulation, and cultural penetration are becoming steadily more important, and more deliberate, in their exercise of American power. In addition, the accumulation of fifty years of domestic marketing expertise is now let loose in the world at large ( ) Made-in-America messages, imagery, life-styles, and information techniques are being internationally circulated and, equally important, globally imitated. 37 According to Schiller, cultural imperialism, as propagated by the United States, dominates other nations who are attracted, pressured, forced, and sometimes bribed into shaping social institutions 35 Herbert I. Schiller, Communication and Cultural Domination (New York: International Arts and Sciences Press, 1976). Page Writing on the development of satellites for communication purposes, Schiller notes, [i]n this effort monopolistic business worked closely with the U.S. Armed Forces, whose interest in instantaneous global communications was extraordinarily high. 36 Ibid Ibid. Page 3. 14

15 to correspond to, or even promote, the values and structures of the dominating center of the system. 38 As is apparent in Schiller s argument, nations on the receiving end of American influence have little agency or ability to resist the impulses received. Though Schiller sees American military and economic influence on the decline in the 1970s due to the failed Vietnam War, he perceives American attempts at influencing global communication structures as being on the rise. 39 In the realm of American journalism, Schiller demonstrates that after World War II leading media owners and editors have been able to frame the discussion over free access to information to coincide with the news outlets own economic interests. Additionally, Schiller argues that American institutions have directly influenced journalism teaching in Latin America, patterned after the North American model, by subsidizing journalism schools through funds which at times flow through obscure channels. 40 Furthermore, Schiller posits that the United States dominance in the technological realm, especially in the use of satellites for communication purposes, after World War II led to a shift in global communicative power from Britain, who dominated information transfer through cables in the early 20 th century, to the United States. The shift in power, in Schiller s view, leads to dependence on American government sponsored technological innovations by less affluent nations and thereby perpetuates global inequality. 41 Though Schiller s argument concerning the economic, strategic and technological policies explicitly meant to promote American interests globally is well-founded, and thereby presents a valuable contribution to the study of structural Americanization, his view of cultural imperialism leads much to be desired empirically. As in the example with American-sponsored journalism education in Latin America, Schiller generalizes without specifically stating how many or which universities are subsidized, and exactly what he means by the phrase concerning funding through sometimes obscure channels. 38 Ibid. Page Ibid. Page Ibid. Page 11 and Ibid. Page 47. Schiller writes, it is imperative today to consider the general role of technology not only as an instrument for effectuating cultural domination but as an embodiment of this very domination. 15

16 Additonally, Schiller s reliance on cultural imperialism as the framework though which he interprets events leaves out the instances when American technology is actually welcomed in by other countries and not forced upon them. As will become apparent in the subsequent section on how structural Americanization was perceived in Denmark, there was actually quite a demand for technology from the United States which was believed to make everyday journalism practices easier and not least cheaper. This aspect of empire by invitation, as the Norwegian director of the Nobel Committee, Geir Lundestad, has termed American influence in the post-world War II years, is absent from Schiller s study. 42 Ritzer and Stillman (2003) George Ritzer and Todd Stillman s book chapter Assessing McDonaldization, Americanization and Globalization, gives a fairly pessimistic appraisal of Americanization defined as a powerful one-directional process that tends to overwhelm competing processes (e.g. Japanization) as well as the strength of local forces that might resist, modify and/or transform American models into hybrid forms. 43 Americanization is described in terms of cultural, political and economic imperialism and in Ritzer and Stillman s view does not leave room for much individual agency on the receiving end of the process. Ritzer and Stillman organize their concepts in a hierarchy and argue that globalization is the broadest process, Americanization is a specific, powerful globalizing force, and McDonalidization is (among other things) a constituent part of Americanization. Yet the authors concede that in the political realm Americanization is perhaps the single most important concept in order to understand present day global society. The authors define McDonaldization as a top-down, iron cage version of modern social theory, associated with efficiency as well as standardization, and disclose their view of Americanization as cultural imperialism with the following definition. 42 Geir Lundestad, "Empire by Invitation? The United States and Western Europe, ," Journal of Peace Research 23, no. 3 (1986). Page 276. American expansion was one of the most striking phenomena of the post-war period; this expansion can be said to have created an American empire equal in scope to any the world had seen before. Yet, this was to a large extent an empire by invitation and it turned out that many of those who issued the invitations prospered more in material terms under the new order than did the United States itself. 43 George Ritzer and Todd Stillman, "Assessing McDonaldization, Americanization and Globalization," in Global America? The Cultural Consequences of Globalization, ed. Ulrich Beck, Natan Sznaider, and Rainer Winter, Studies in Social and Political Thought (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2003). Page

17 Americanization is a cousin to a neo-marxian conception of economic imperialism and cultural hegemony. This perspective asserts that America s aggressive exporting of media and commodities amounts to a crypto-imperialist attack on national sovereignties. 44 In line with their cultural imperialist definition of Americanization, the authors attach negative connotations to the concept that may not have been present had the study incorporated van Elteren s more inclusive definition focusing both on the sender and receiver perspective while acknowledging the asymmetrical power relationship between the two. To Ritzer and Stillman globalization holds more positive potential for the people experiencing this process than does Americanization or McDonaldization. Here globalization emphasizes the self-creating agency of individuals which in turn generates a host of new organizational forms that increase the options for local actors, rather than damaging or displacing traditional forms. 45 In essence, Ritzer and Stillman thereby see globalization as a process which expands individuals choices in modern society, while Americanization limits these choices. Yet, despite their pessimistic view of Americanization, the authors concede that the concept is presently useful, because of the United States current military, diplomatic, economic, technical and cultural power, while they argue that globalization theory will be prove more functional in the years to come as America s dominant position is increasingly challenged. 46 It seems clear that the globalization perspective has perhaps glimpsed the future but also has overstated the case for the present. Nation states are by no means on the verge of disappearing 47 Even if Ritzer and Stillman view Americanization negatively, the concept to them still holds important explanatory power in terms of politics. Americanization is a political reality, note the 44 Ibid. Page Ibid. Page This observation is also apparent from the classification between the concepts made by the authors. Globalization is described as multi-directional circulation of persons, information, resources and commodities, while Americanization, according to the authors is, exploitation of world markets and resources. Lastly, McDonaldizaiton is portrayed as emphasis on eficiency, predictability, calculability, and the replacement of human with non-human technology. 46 Ibid. Page Ibid. Page

18 authors, adding that the United States plays a role of key mediator in international diplomacy and is obviously an influential political player on the world scene. 48 Ritzer and Stillman conclude that McDonaldization, with its emphasis on efficiency and rational principles, is on the rise but at the expense of individual creative energy, while globalization s insights into the diversity of other global flows, serve as a useful corollary to the perils of Americanization. 49 Ritzer and Stillman s categorization of the three main concepts rests mainly on secondary literature and seems not to have taken the latest developments within Americanization studies into account. The authors have used a definition for Americanization based on a book from 1962, 50 while the definitions chosen for globalization and McDonaldization are from and respectively. This difference in chronology seemingly plays a part in the authors out-dated view of Americanization as cultural imperialism compared to definitions emphasizing assimilation or asymmetrical power. 53 Christensen et al., 1983 In 1983 Peter Knoop Christensen et al. edited Amerikanisering Af Det Danske Kulturliv i Perioden [Americanization of the Danish Cultural Life in the Period ] a volume that the authors described as the first study to incorporate the concept of Americanization in Danish economy and culture after World War II. The authors define Americanization as the sum of the economic, political, ideological and cultural influence we receive from USA in the period, but in addition the development and processing of i.e. the production environment, the production methods, the distribution patterns, social interaction, literary expressions and language. 54 From the very first pages it is apparent that the authors view the struggle between labor and capital (and by extension capitalist fueled American influence) as the driving force of history. The text 48 Ibid. Page Ibid. Page Francis Williams, The American Invasion (New York: Crown, 1962). 51 Roland Robertson, Globalization: Social Theory and Global Culture (London: Sage, 1992). 52 George Ritzer, The McDonaldization of Society (Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge, 2000). 53 Ritzer and Stillman, "Assessing McDonaldization, Americanization and Globalization." Page 36. The authors use Francis Williams definition from his 1962 book The American Invasion as their characterizaiton of Americanization. 54 Peter Knoop Christensen, ed. Amerikanisering Af Det Danske Kulturliv I Perioden [Americanization of the Danish Cultural Life in the Period ] (Ålborg: Ålborg Universitetsforlag,1983). Page 8. 18

19 abounds with references to American imperialism, hegemony, class struggle, working class, and critical stabs at the bourgeoisie. 55 As a consequence, the text serves as a lucid example of the cultural imperialism paradigm within Americanization studies. 56 In the authors interpretation the influence from the United States is all encompassing and furthermore happens against the wishes of the so-called Danish masses. In a telling example, the authors argue that a referendum concerning membership of NATO could easily have been decided to the advantage of the opposition, and cite Gallup surveys between February and April 1949 to back up their claim. Yet, for every political party cited in the survey, with the obvious exception of the communists, the support for NATO membership is on the rise between the first and third survey. Support for NATO is not attributed to a genuine popular sentiment, but rather a hetz against [the] Soviet [Union], as well as horror propaganda from the Social Democrats. 57 Consequently, the Danish population s ability to resist or adapt American influence is absent from this study and especially in the realm of culture does this become evident for the authors. Through the four overall themes of Cold War, growth, class cooperation, and family the authors analyze cartoons, journals, novels, advertisements, film, music and the development of language. This leads Christensen et al. to conclude that the messages conveyed through the Danish version of Readers Digest along with cartoons and novels, resonate with the working class wishes for (or experience of) upward social mobility, while the bourgeoisie is not affected by the same American trivialization, but instead adopt American influences or practices through high-brow plays, journals or rationalization techniques in business. 58 In a final attempt to demonstrate Danish opposition to American influence, the authors argue that anti-americanism in Denmark, personified by the hippie movement, was inspired by the student protests in France, the cultural revolution in China, and the Vietnamese fight against American imperialism, but Christensen et al. ignore the fact that this Danish movement was largely inspired 55 Ibid. Page 11, 19, 22, 29, 35, 46, 63, 83-86, 88-89, 90, Marianne Rostgaard, "Opinionsdiplomati Og Amerikanisering [Public Diplomacy and Americanization]," Arbejderhistorie, no. 4 (2004). Page Christensen, ed. Amerikanisering Af Det Danske Kulturliv I Perioden [Americanization of the Danish Cultural Life in the Period ]. Page Ibid. Page

20 by the so-called American counterculture, 59 made up of a disaffected young students who chose long hair and beards as a way of distancing themselves from traditional norms of middle-class respectability. 60 In this respect, the authors make the cultural imperialism fallacy of viewing the United States as a monolithic nation in regards to the military, the economy and the diverse cultural currents. Christensen et al. convincingly demonstrate the United States leading role in transnational economic organizations like the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), but put too much emphasis on capitalism as the primary driving force of Americanization at the expense of agency within the receiving nation. 61 Conclusion The above review have revealed some of the key aspects forces in Americanization deemed important by researchers writing from a cultural imperialist perspective. Schiller s study emphasizes the importance of the American government s conscious involvement in shaping international communications networks after World War II. Ritzer and Stillman s study acknowledges that Americanization is the most fruitful way to understand contemporary society out of the transnational tendencies they evaluated. Additionally, Christensen et al. argue the significance of capitalism as the main driving force behind Americanization and point to the Danish counterculture s importance in understanding opposition to Americanization, and in the process inadvertently highlight the fact that the Danish counter-culture resisted structural Americanization but appropriated parts of symbolic Americanization. 59 Ibid. Page These observations have also been made by Søren Schou, "Det Er Dansk - Eller Er Det? [It Is Danish - or Is It?]," Mediekultur, no. 5 (1987). Page 14 and Petersen and Sørensen, "Ameri-Danes and Pro-American Anti-Americans." Page 138. Also Klaus Bruhn Jensen, ed. Dansk Mediehistorie Og [Danish Media History and ], 4 vols., vol. 2, Dansk Mediehistorie (København: Forlaget Samfundslitteratur,2001). Page William F. Chafe, "The Unfinished Journey: America since World War II," (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991). Page Christensen, ed. Amerikanisering Af Det Danske Kulturliv I Perioden [Americanization of the Danish Cultural Life in the Period ]. Page 14, 22 and The daily dose of Americanization is difficult to avoid since it occurs at the work place and in the spare time ( ) these cultural expressions are contingent upon some basic economic structures that the ideology is produced by an imperialistic superpower, and that both directly and indirectly it is connected to profit motives to export different products which contain this ideology. Page