The effects of the Indian ocean tsunami on peace in Sri Lanka and Aceh
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1 University of Wollongong Research Online University of Wollongong Thesis Collection University of Wollongong Thesis Collections 2006 The effects of the Indian ocean tsunami on peace in Sri Lanka and Aceh Meredith Melecki University of Wollongong Recommended Citation Melecki, Meredith, The effects of the Indian ocean tsunami on peace in Sri Lanka and Aceh, M.A.-Res. thesis, School of History and Politics, University of Wollongong, Research Online is the open access institutional repository for the University of Wollongong. For further information contact the UOW Library:
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3 THE EFFECTS OF THE INDIAN OCEAN TSUNAMI ON PEACE IN SRI LANKA AND ACEH *A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the degree MASTER OF ARTS (RESEARCH) from UNIVERSITY OF WOLLONGONG by MEREDITH MELECKI, BA, MA (COURSEWORK) FACULTY OF ARTS 2006
4 CERTIFICATION I, Meredith L. Melecki, declare that this thesis, submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of Master of Arts (Research), in the Department of History and Politics, University of Wollongong, is wholly my own work unless otherwise referenced or acknowledged. The document has not been submitted for qualifications at any other academic institution. Meredith L. Melecki 10 July 2006
5 TABLE OF CONTENTS List of maps List of tables List of graphs List of special names and abbreviations Abstract Acknowledgements Introduction PART 1 A Background to the Conflicts in Sri Lanka and Aceh 1 Sri Lanka 1.1 Background The Path of Economic Development: Shifting from Import Substitution to Export Orientation Political Change: An Unfulfilled Democratic Legacy 1.2 War and Peace Beginnings of a Peace Process: The Indian Peace-Keeping Force Government Violations of Human Rights LTTE Abuses of Human Rights Beginnings of A Peace Process: The Indian Peacekeeping Force An Internal Solution The Norwegian Model 1.3 The Political Situation Since the Tsunami 1.4 Conclusion 2 Aceh 2.1 Background Aceh and the Darul Islam Rebellion Economic Marginalisation and Growing Dissatisfaction 2.2 War and Peace The New Order and Aceh s DOM Status GAM GAM s Relationship with Islamic Terrorist Organisations GAM vs. Exxon-Mobil The Post-DOM Period Habibie s Response Wahid s Response Megawati s Response Aceh s Best Chance For Peace? What Peace Looks Like Conclusion iii
6 2.3 The Crisis Management Initiative and Aceh s Best Chance for Peace? An Agreement Is Reached 2.35 Early Problems Arise 2.36 Implementation Begins 3 Finding Similarities and Differences Between the Conflicts: Sri Lanka and Aceh from the Perspectives of Development and Conflict Resolution Theory 3.1 Introduction Does Participatory Democracy Promote Peace and Development? Is the Nation-State Universally Relevant? Theories of Development 3.2 Similarities Structural Factors Political Factors Economic Factors Cultural Factors 3.3 Differences Colonial Experience Type of Conflict and International Response Economic Impact of Conflict 3.4 Conclusion 86 PART II A Literary Framework 4 The Potential or Non-Potential of NGOs: An Interrogation of the Literature 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Benefits Economic Benefits Advantages in Policy-Making and Peacebuilding Advantages of Being Non-State Actors Strengths in the NGO/Civil Society Relationship 4.3 Criticisms NGOs Have Been too Idealized NGOs Lack Effective Mechanisms for Conflict Resolution Politics and Aid Cannot Be Separated NGOs May Impede Negotiations NGOs Cannot Escape Western Attachments Questions Surrounding Civil Society 130 iv
7 4.3.7 Problems of Dependency 4.4 Recommendations for Successful Involvement 4.5 Conclusion PART III An Examination of NGOs in Post-Tsunami Sri Lanka and Aceh 5 NGOs in Post-Tsunami Sri Lanka and Aceh 5.1 Introduction Oxfam International CARE International 5.2 Sri Lanka Issues Facing NGOs in Rehabilitation and Recovery Oxfam International Immediate post-tsunami disaster relief Medium and long-term goals Strengthening civil society: Peacebuilding and conflict resolution CARE International Immediate post-tsunami disaster relief Medium and long-term goals Strengthening civil society: Peacebuilding and conflict resolution 5.3 Aceh Issues Facing NGOs in Rehabilitation and Recovery Oxfam International Immediate post-tsunami disaster relief Medium and long-term goals Strengthening civil society: Peacebuilding and conflict resolution CARE International Immediate post-tsunami disaster relief Medium and long-term goals Strengthening civil society: Peacebuilding and conflict resolution 5.4 Conclusion Conclusion Bibliography v
8 LIST OF TABLES 1.1 Proportion of Tamils Employed in State Services Estimates of Economic Costs of Sri Lanka s Civil War Principles Guiding NGO Activities Summary of Oxfam International in Sri Lanka Summary of CARE International in Sri Lanka Summary of Oxfam International in Aceh Summary of CARE International in Aceh 211 LIST OF MAPS 1.1 Ethnic Communities and Religions of Sri Lanka Boundaries of Tamil Eelam Provinces of Sri Lanka Map of Aceh Province 63 LIST OF GRAPHS 1.1 Breakdown of Major Ethnic Groups in Sri Lanka Ethnic Groups of Indonesia 54 vi
9 LIST OF SPECIAL NAMES AND ABBREVIATIONS ABC Australian Broadcasting Coorporation Accord refers to the Indo-Lanka Peace Accord Aceh Nanggroe Aceh Darusslam AMM Aceh Monitoring Mission ANU Australian National University BPKI Badan Penjelidik Kemerdekaan Indonesia or Committee for the Investigation of Indonesian Independence BRR Rehabilitation and Reconstruction Agency for Aceh and Nias CARE Cooperative for Assistance and Relief Everywhere CMI Crisis Management Initiative COHA Cessation of Hostilities Agreement Darul Islam House of Islam uprising DOM Military Operations Region EPDP Eelam People s Democratic Party EPRLF-V Eelam People s Revolutionary Liberation Front Varathar FDI Foreign Direct Investment FPI Islamic Defenders Front GAM Gerakan Aceh Merdeka or the Free Aceh Movement GDP Gross Domestic Product GoSL Government of Sri Lanka GRDP Gross Regional Domestic Product HD Centre Henry Dunant Centre HRW Human Rights Watch ICG International Crisis Group ICISS International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty ICRC International Committee of the Red Cross IDP Internally Displaced Person ILRF International Labor Rights Fund IMF International Monetary Fund INGO International Non-Governmental Organisation IOM International Organization for Migration IPKF Indian Peace-Keeping Force JI Jemaah Islamiyah JVP Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna LNGO Local Non-governmental Organisation LTTE Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam MER-C Medical Emergency Relief Charity MILF Moro Islamic Liberation Front MMI Indonesian Mujahideen Council MoU Memorandum of Understanding MPR Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat or People s Conslultative Assembly Indonesia s highest state institution; equivalent to Parliament or Congress New Order Orde Baru NGO Non-Governmental Organisation OPEC Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries PLOTE People s Liberation Organization of Tamil Eelam PULO Pattani United Liberation Organization vii
10 SAP SLFP SLMM Sri Lanka TAFREN TNI TRO TULF UN UNDP UNHCR UNP USD WB WFP WHO Structural Adjustment Program Sri Lanka Freedom Party Sri Lanka Monitoring Mission The Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka Task Force for Rebuilding the Nation Tentara Nasional Indonesia National Army of Indonesia Tamil Rehabilitation Organisation Tamil United Liberation Front United Nations United Nations Development Programme United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees United National Party United States Dollar World Bank World Food Program World Health Organisation viii
11 Abstract The 26 December 2004 tsunami was far reaching in its effects but the two areas most devastated by the tidal wave were the Indonesian province of Aceh and the country of Sri Lanka. These areas have much more than the impact of the tsunami disaster in common. They have both also been sites of decades-long violent conflicts that have compounded many of the problems caused by the tsunami. One result of the tsunami was an influx of NGOs into these two areas. NGOs, as promoters of development, have increasingly been associated with activities deemed necessary to the creation of peace. This stems from an understanding in the fields of development and peace and conflict resolution that not only does war undermine development, but that the cause of internal wars can be linked to failures of development. Therefore, the role of NGOs is important when examining efforts at peace creation in Sri Lanka and Aceh since the occurrence of the tsunami. In this thesis I have focused on Oxfam International and CARE International which are two of the largest international NGOs acting in both Sri Lanka and Aceh. In undertaking this assessment I aim to consider the ways in which NGOs may have impacted the resumption or resolution of conflict in Sri Lanka and Aceh, and whether or not NGOs have played a role in the differing outcomes of the wars in these areas. To undertake this investigation I first present an overview of the conflicts in Sri Lanka and Aceh. This includes an inspection of the historical, economic, and political elements that have been contributed to the origination of each conflict. This is followed by an exploration of development theories and theories of peace and conflict resolution, focusing on the ways in which the situations of Sri Lanka and Aceh support or contradict arguments from these fields. I then examine the literature concerned with NGOs in order to present a thorough consideration of the pros and cons associated with ix
12 NGOs in both conflict situations and the creation of peace before I review and evaluate NGO activities in Sri Lanka and Aceh subsequent to the tsunami disaster. In the course of writing this thesis I have found that many of the advantages and disadvantages emblematic of NGO involvement in conflict and post-conflict situations are currently present in Sri Lanka and Aceh. However, NGOs in Sri Lanka have been associated with fewer of the drawbacks identified with non-governmental organisations in conflict situations than NGOs in Aceh. If the proposition that NGOs can aid in peacemaking and peacebuilding is correct, we could therefore expect that in this situation NGOs have been more effective in Sri Lanka than Aceh. This highlights one of my primary findings which is that NGO activities addressing problems associated with underdevelopment cannot in themselves lead to the creation of peace. In fact, it seems that NGO efforts are merely an adjunct to endeavours to create peace. x
13 I wish to thank the numerous people who have helped me throughout the process of creating this thesis. It could not have been completed without the countless supporters who helped me in a multitude of ways. I would especially like to thank my supervisor s - Dr. Kate Hannan and Dr. Ruchira Ganguly-Scrase - who read through many drafts, provided rich insights, and supplied a great deal of direction when it was needed. I am also grateful to the postgraduate students and staff of the University of Wollongong s Faculty of Arts who gave me academic and moral support and supplied me with many appreciated and rich educational opportunities. Thank you to my parents who provided me with inspiration and the backing to complete this project, and always did their best to help me in whatever way they could. The rest of my family, who have been a fantastically supportive and caring group of people, cannot be excluded from this either. Finally, thank you to all of my friends who helped me in their own ways through listening, helping me to maintain some balance, or providing me with laughs throughout many stressful moments. xi
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