An Investigation on the Impact of Teaching Vocabulary through Collocations on the Vocabulary Retention of EFL Learners

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1 International Journal of Basic Sciences & Applied Research. Vol., 4 (3), , 2015 Available online at ISSN An Investigation on the Impact of Teaching Vocabulary through Collocations on the Vocabulary Retention of EFL Learners Maryam Ghezelseflou 1, 2, Seyed Hasan Seyedrezaei 3* 1 Department of English Language Teaching, Golestan Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Gorgan, Iran 2 Department of English Language Teaching, Gorgan Branch, Islamic Azad University, Gorgan, Iran 3 Department of English Language Teaching, Aliabad Katoul Branch, Islamic Azad University, Aliabad Katoul, Iran * Corresponding Author srezaei.sh@gmail.com Abstract Vocabulary is of paramount importance in communication and the other skills of language. When vocabulary teaching is taken into account, EFL teachers usually prefer to apply traditional techniques for teaching new words. The purpose of this study was to determine the impact of a relatively new vocabulary teaching technique; teaching vocabulary through collocations on vocabulary retention. This experiment employed a Pre-test/Post-test Control Group Design. Sixty female students at the preintermediate level of English proficiency, learning English as a foreign language were selected through convenient sampling. They were divided into two groups of 30. In the experimental group new vocabulary was instructed by means of collocation technique, while in the control group classical techniques such as synonym, antonym, definition and mother tongue translation were used. The statistical analysis of the collected data proved that teaching vocabulary through their collocations resulted in a better retention of the words than teaching them by means of traditional techniques. Vocabulary instruction by means of collocations can be a effective factor in helping students to remember and make use of the new vocabulary without difficulty in EFL classes. Keywords: Collocation, Teaching vocabulary, Vocabulary retention. Introduction Vocabulary has been considered as the building block of language. Second language acquisition researchers believe that vocabulary learning is vital to second language learning. In communication and the other skills of language, vocabulary is of primary importance. Learners can improve their listening, speaking, reading and writing skills by learning new words. L2 learners can improve vocabulary knowledge formally in the classroom and informally through communication with others and by means of out of class activities. New words could be presented with collocation technique which is extremely important for acquiring vocabulary and has yet to be exploited to its full potential (Nattinger, 1988) so that students will be able to use these words later in their own performance. Despite the growing interest in teaching collocations in foreign language classes, experimental studies in Iranian foreign language classroom settings are still few. Although vocabulary has been the subject of many studies, few researchers have revealed the effective techniques of vocabulary teaching, especially the effect of using collocations on vocabulary retention. On the other hand, poor vocabulary knowledge of Iranian EFL learners is a matter of serious concern among educational practitioners. Therefore, it seems that it would be worthwhile to explore the effect of a relatively new vocabulary teaching technique, teaching vocabulary through collocations in Iranian EFL classes. while vocabulary is crucial to language and of significant importance to the language students (Zimmerman, 1997), teachers in Iranian EFL classes still tend to allocate more time to grammar or the structure of the language rather than paying special attention to vocabulary. Possibly it is due to the fact that grammar is somehow limited and easier to handle for the teachers, while vocabulary is not (Sheehan, 2004). And when the teaching of vocabulary items is taken into account, most of teachers prefer to use classical vocabulary teaching techniques like synonyms, antonyms, mother 162

2 tongue translation and definition. Consequently, students do not make any attempt to get to the meaning and it is unavoidable that they possibly will not remember the meaning of the new words, or even worse, they would not be able to use the new words they have learned even if they remember the meaning because they do not know the appropriate collocates. More student-centered approaches beyond behaviorism and rote memorization should be modified for the purpose of improving retention and usage (Nation, 2005). Vocabulary teaching by the use of classical techniques is considered to be too mechanical for the classroom learning. Acat (2008) declares that mechanical vocabulary learning, just memorizing new vocabulary word by word without interaction with existing knowledge, does little to improve students vocabulary. Also teaching vocabulary through classical techniques such as synonyms, antonyms, and hyponyms can cause confusion and take more time and attempt than anticipated (Erten & Tekin, 2008). Genç (2004) asserts that for stimulating interest and consciousness in students about vocabulary development and make the vocabulary learning process more meaningful, teachers should test different vocabulary teaching techniques. Vocabulary is the most vital part in learning a foreign language. Vocabulary learning is considered as the basic step toward mastering a foreign language. Different approaches toward language learning have a different outlook on vocabulary (Jesa, 2008). Some language teaching methodologies have attached great importance to vocabulary learning, and some others have abandoned it (Schmitt, 2000). In practice, grammar and pronunciation are at the heart of language learning, while vocabulary is neglected in most foreign language classes (Farghal & Obiedat, 1995; Fernández, Prahlad, Rubtsova, & Sabitov, 2009). Currently, it is generally established that vocabulary learning is one of the critical elements both of acquisition of one s native language and of learning a foreign language (Morra & Camba, 2009). Vocabulary learning is considered as a fundamental element to attain a high level of proficiency in the target language by a large number of scholars (Boers & Lindstromberg, 2008). It is believed that having a large and varied vocabulary is the sign of communicative competence and it is one of the central aspects of language learning (McCrostie, 2007). Furthermore, researchers, teachers and others involved in foreign language learning are paying special attention to foreign language vocabulary acquisition (Zu, 2009). Like grammar, vocabulary knowledge is one of the elements of language (Nation & Waring, 1997). It should be seen as an essential part of learning a foreign language since it paves the way to communication. That is, even a sufficient knowledge of vocabulary alone could be enough for a relative degree of communication to occur (Wallace, 1982). Moreover, Celce Murcia and Rosensweig (1989) have the same opinion that vocabulary should be accepted as a central element in language instruction from the beginning stages. They more ever confirm that having an adequate stock of vocabulary with a minimum number of structures usually helps the learner more not only in reading comprehension, but also in attaining more efficient communication than having a perfect command of structures with an inadequate amount of vocabulary. The Lexical Approach, made up by Michael Lewis, focuses on developing learners' proficiency with lexis, or words and word combinations (Lewis, 1993). Within the lexical approach, particular attention is intended for collocations and expressions that embrace institutionalized utterances and sentence frames and heads. As Lewis affirms, we attempt to think of collocations, and to use these collocations in our expressions instead of individual words. It means, rather than trying to split things into even smaller pieces, we have a cognizant attempt to see things in larger, more holistic manners (Lewis, 1997). Even though purposeful vocabulary teaching is only one of the least effective ways of developing vocabulary knowledge, it is furthermore considerably essential for a well-balanced vocabulary program. Vocabulary teaching assists learners when they feel it is required mostly for the message-focused activities including speaking, listening, reading and writing (Nation, 2005). With the recognition of the importance of vocabulary, Many approaches and techniques to teaching and learning vocabulary have appeared and collocation is merely one of those techniques. It is a widely accepted idea that collocations are very important part of knowledge of second language acquisition and they are essential to non-native speakers of English in order to speak or write fluently and accurately (Jaén, 2007). Skrzypek (2009) indicates the significance of collocation by asserting that one of the criteria for knowing a word is knowing other words with which it keeps company. As Shin and Nation (2008) explain one of the reasons as to why learners and teachers should be interested in collocations being that collocations boosts learners language fluency and ensure native-like selection. Nattinger (1988) claimed that collocations could assist learners in committing these words to memory and defining the semantic area of a word, and could allow learners to know and to foresee what kinds of words would be found together. Moreover, he gave the reasons of teaching lexical phrases. The most important reason was that teaching lexical phrases (collocations with pragmatic functions) would lead to fluency in speaking and writing because they change learners' attention from individual words to larger structures of the discourse and to the social aspects of the interaction. The aim of this study is to find out whether teaching vocabulary through collocations will result in better vocabulary retention than teaching vocabulary using classical techniques such as definition, synonym, antonym, and mother tongue translation. Its intention is to show the contribution of collocations to vocabulary retention of students in English Foreign Language (EFL) classes in Iran. It is hypothesized that learning vocabulary through collocations is an effective strategy that positively contributes to the development of vocabulary retention. Thus, this study aimed at finding a solution for the problem that in most Iranian EFL classes, classical techniques such as synonyms, antonyms, mother tongue translation and definition are still generally used for teaching new words. It is thought that there is an essential requirement of applying new vocabulary teaching techniques in EFL classes. Siyanova and Schmitt (2008) 163

3 advise that teachers should make crucial changes in their vocabulary teaching pedagogies by emphasizing on phrasal elements rather than individual words. Therefore, based on the existing literature and our above research motivation, the present study was seeking to find answers to the following question: Does teaching vocabulary through collocations have any significant effects on retention of the words by Iranian EFL Students? Methodology Pre-test/Post-test Control Group Design was utilized in this study. The present study employed a quasiexperimental design making use of two groups. This is the prototypical group design, including one experimental group and one control group. As the experimental group receives treatment, the control group does not (Schlosser, 2003). The design for this study is Quasi-experimental in nature, because the classroom groups are already in place and had to be intact. In order to have a strong quasi-experimental design, internal threats to validity were controlled by making use of pretesting. To be confident that there was no significant difference among the participants of the Experimental Group and Control Group regarding the variables under exploration, both groups were pre-tested at the commencement of the study. One group was the control group in which the new vocabulary was instructed merely via classical techniques (definitions, synonyms, antonyms, first language translations). The second group was the experimental group who was taught the same vocabulary via their collocations. Participants The population for this study included 60 female students at the pre-intermediate level of English proficiency, studying English as a foreign language whose first language is Farsi. The range of their age was between years. The study was carried out at Shokuh English Institute in Gorgan. Since the students were assigned to two different classes based on the institute's placement test, no homogeneity test was administered beforehand. They were divided into two groups of 30. Materials The words utilized in the treatment period were taken from the book Four Corners 3. Four Corners is an integrated four-skill course for adults and adolescents who want to utilize English to communicate efficiently in everyday life. It mixes communicative methodology with a practical outcomes-based approach. Four Corners features a lucid presentation of vocabulary, a systematic grammar syllabus, and an everyday functional language lesson in every unit together with systematic practice of all four skills. It puts particular emphasis on assisting students become confident and skilled speakers of English. Speaking activities at the end of every lesson, tied to clearly labeled assessable outcomes, permit students to observe the results of their learning and assist them to observe their progress. Procedure and Instruments At the beginning of the study, the researcher prepared two English vocabulary tests based on the book Four Corners 3 to determine the vocabulary level of the classes. Since they were researcher-made tests, they were subjected to a pilot study. To check validity, the tests were given to a couple of experienced language teachers at the institute. Their comments were implemented in the drafts of the tests. To check reliability, the pretest and the two posttests were given to a similar population. The reliability of the pretest was proved to be 0.83 and that of the post test was Then they were administered to participants as the pre and post vocabulary proficiency tests. The final form of each test was composed of forty multiple-choice items. In order to choose the words that students did not know, a list of words was specified for the students for each of the two passages. The two groups had to show their knowledge of the words by writing the meaning of the word. Only those words they were not acquainted with were chosen for instruction throughout the treatment. Each passage was offered in two sessions. Afterward, for those unfamiliar words, multiple suitable collocations were set up by means of Oxford Collocations Dictionary for Students of English, Oxford Advanced Learner s Dictionary, and Oxford Wordpower Dictionary. The participants were instructed for roughly 20 hours during a five-week period until ten reading passages were offered. The new vocabulary was offered to the control group via conventional techniques such as synonym, antonym, definition and mother tongue equivalence as it was in the preceding classes before the study. The experimental group was offered the new vocabulary via their collocations which were believed to be the most frequent ones. The unfamiliar word was written in a circle in the center of the board. Subsequently, collocations particularly those which were believed to be the most frequent ones were written around that word. The English teacher was instructing both the control and experimental groups throughout the treatment. In the experimental group, after reading the passage, the teacher offered the new vocabulary items. She offered numerous appropriate collocations for each word. In this fashion, students were learning a new word by means of its collocations. After offering all the new words through the application of collocations, five comprehension questions associated with the passage were asked and responded to make the task more meaningful. The same reading passages and procedures were received and followed by the control group. But for this group, as the teacher was presenting the 164

4 new vocabulary, simply conventional techniques (definition, synonym, antonym, mother tongue translation) were utilized as it had been before. That is, the words were offered to this group as it was in the prior reading classes before the study, and no new techniques were implemented. After finishing the treatment (20 hours), with a two-week delay, students in both groups took the researcher-made posttest consisting of 40 vocabulary multiple-choice items to observe the effects of the treatment during the study on the vocabulary retention of the students. Results After finishing the tests, to assess the differences between two groups, Independent Samples T-test was utilized. To assess the differences between the immediate and delayed proficiency tests, Dependent T-test was utilized. The results were analyzed by means of the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) for Windows software package. After the tests were administered, Independent Samples T-test was utilized to compare the means of the two groups for each test. In addition, dependent T-test for the experimental and control group was utilized to compare the difference between the pre-proficiency level test and post-proficiency level test. Categorizing the Participants into Control and Experimental Groups The two groups were selected based on convenient sampling, because the institute used its placement test to place students in different classes. A pre-test was administered to check the participants' vocabulary level in the two groups before treatment phase and an Independent Sample t-test was carried out to find out whether any differences existed between the two groups. Table 1. Descriptive statistics for the pre-test. Groups Mean N SD Std Error Mean Control Experimental Table 2. Independent sample t-test results for the pre-test. Levenes's Test for Equality of Variance F Sig. T df Sig. (2tailed) Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed As the results of descriptive statistics in Table 1 indicate, the mean score of the two groups was not that much different (56.47 vs ). Since the significance value for Levene's test is less than 0.05 (0.01< 0.05), the variances of the two groups are not equal and thus the second line of the table is reported. As can be seen from the table above, the significance level between the control and experimental groups with degree freedom of 57 and t value of -1.7 was found to be 0.93 which is not significant at 0.05 significance level. As the result indicates, it was concluded that the two groups were homogeneous regarding vocabulary knowledge and therefore they could safely be assigned to control and experimental groups. Data Analysis and Results for Post-test on vocabulary retention To find the effect of using collocations on vocabulary retention, the post-test was administered after a two-week delay to both groups. The mean differences were analyzed using Independent Sample t-test. The descriptive statistics and values of t-test are summarized in Table 3 and

5 Table 3. Descriptive statistics for the post-test. Groups Mean N SD Std Error Mean Control Experimental Levenes's Test for Equality of Variance Table 4. Independent sample t-test results for the post-test. F Sig. t df Sig. (2tailed) Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed * Significant at the 0.05 level As indicated in Table 3, there was a significant difference between the mean scores of the control and experimental groups (57.70 < 75.20). In other words, the mean score for the experimental group was higher than its counterpart. The results of Independent Sample t-test reported value of 0.02 for the Levene's Test which means that the assumption of equal variances was not met ( ). Consequently, the first line of the table should be reported. As shown in Table 4, the significance value for the difference between the two groups was found to be which is highly significant at 0.05 level (0.000 < 0.05). Therefore, by considering that the mean of the experimental group was significantly higher than the control group, it could be concluded that the use of collocation as a strategy for vocabulary instruction was influential in improving Iranian EFL learners vocabulary retention. The results of this table led to the rejection of the null hypothesis predicting no significant effect for using collocation on EFL learners' vocabulary retention. In addition, in order to see the progress of each group, paired sample t-tests were run for both control and experimental groups. To do so, the mean score of each group before and after the treatment was compared. Table 6 shows the results of paired sample t-test for control group. Table 5. Descriptive statistics for control group. Mean SD N Pre-test Post-test Table 6. Paired sample test for control group. Pair Mean SD t df Sig. Pre-test-Post-test As Table 5 shows, the difference between the pre-test and post-test scores for the control group was not significant (56.40 vs ). The results of paired sample t-test indicated that the difference between the two sets of scores for the 166

6 vocabulary retention of the control group was not statistically significant with t = -1.21, p = at 29 degrees of freedom. Another paired sample t-test was run for the experimental group of the study to compare their score in the preand post-test Table 7. Descriptive statistics of pre and posttest for experimental group. Mean SD N Pre-test Post-test Table 8. Paired Sample t-test results for experimental group. Pair Mean SD T df Sig. Pre-test-Post-test Significant at.05 level As indicated in Table 7, the mean difference between the pre-test and post-test scores for the experimental group was highly significant (58.73 vs ). The results of paired sample t-test indicated that the difference between the two sets of scores for the vocabulary retention of the experimental group was statistically significant with t = , p = at 39 degrees of freedom. Consequently, the findings of the analysis confirmed the results of Independent sample t- test mentioned above. In other words, the overall results of independent sample t-test and paired sample t-tests showed that the use of collocations could positively affect the vocabulary retention of Iranian pre-intermediate EFL students. Discussion and Conclusion The results of the data obtained from the experimental research were so decisive that they could absolutely make us conclude that teaching vocabulary through collocations led to a better retention of the words than presenting them using classical techniques. The obtained results may also propose that it would be desirable to teach vocabulary through collocations. In spite of the fact that the collocation technique was a very new technique for the learners, and previous to the study, they had never been taught via a vocabulary learning technique even similar to that, the experimental group's scores were superior to the control group's scores in every one of the vocabulary tests. It can even be claimed that they could get higher scores providing that they had some more time to become accustomed with the new technique. It is supposed that if they had more time, they would get used to learn the new words through their collocations and score even higher. This can persuade younger and less experienced teachers to employ such a new technique into their classrooms to change the status quo and get more confidence applying scientific findings to their teaching. A study by Eyraud et al. (2000) supports the findings of the present research. According to them, students vocabulary repertoire can be enlarged by rethinking educational priorities and taking some steps such as providing a vocabulary rich setting to endorse the incidental learning of vocabulary, catering to students with opportunities for vocabulary reusing in different meaningful contexts. Consequently, it can be concluded that the students' knowledge of the new words and their different meanings in different collocations can provide such opportunities as proposed by Eyraud et al. (2000). Furthermore, based on Nation (2001), there are three significant processes that may eventuate in remembering vocabulary. These processes are noticing, retrieval, and creative (generative) use. Noticing is paying attention to the vocabulary and being conscious of it. It can be concluded that introducing different groupings of new words can help student notice them and go through the first process to remember words. The fact that in the present study, the experimental group was greatly more prosperous than the control group in the post proficiency test, can make us conclude that instruction of vocabulary via collocations enhanced students proficiency levels in the experimental group whereas the same positive effect did not take place in the control group in which new vocabulary was instructed by means of conventional techniques. The anticipated effects of teaching new words via their most frequent collocations were acquired. Vocabulary teaching via the relatively new collocation technique assisted learners to keep in mind the vocabulary items very much better than the conventional techniques. In spite of the variety of the recent lexical instruction they have, Iranian EFL learners are still not highly motivated to learn vocabulary. This leads to defective recognition and use of vocabulary which negatively manipulate their performance in all language components. The findings of this study were in line with the researcher's expectations since this new technique seemed both motivating and helpful to EFL learners. 167

7 Moreover, based on the results, there was a significant difference between the pre and post-tests for the experimental group. This difference in the pre and post-tests definitely leads us to conclude that the proficiency level of the experimental group who learned new vocabulary through collocation technique was improved in the treatment stage of the study, and, accordingly, it can be proposed that teaching vocabulary via collocations is an efficient technique for the learners proficiency improvement. On the other hand, there was not a significant difference between the pre and post proficiency test scores based on the statistical results for the control group. On the basis of the results, the proficiency level of the control group remained constant. This might imply that the same positive effect on the students proficiency levels was not accomplished by classical vocabulary teaching techniques. The role played by collocations in foreign language instruction is integrally connected with a concept initiated in the 1970s, in accordance with which languages are learned in a series of prefabricated blocks or chunks, described by Lewis (1993) as unanalyzed wholes. These chunks are supposed to be the fundamental data, by which learners recognize patterns in a language. This approach deviates from vocabulary traditionally recognized as a store of individual words with predetermined meanings and focalizes on the fact that recurring and ready-made word groupings are the vital elements of a learner s lexis and create most of the learner s texts. Only a marginal of spoken sentences are completely fresh constructions. Both native speakers and second language learners are more prone to stock up and retrieve whole chunks rather than generate them from beginning. Therefore, collocation being a category of such chunks called multi-word items plays a vital role in foreign language acquisition. One of the language vital aspects that must be learned by people when they are learning a foreign language is vocabulary. By learning new vocabulary, foreign language learners can develop their listening, speaking, reading and writing skills. It is believed that the lack of required vocabulary is one of the most common causes of students failure to express themselves in English in EFL classes in Iran. In real life situations, students cannot utilize English outside the classroom in spite of studying English for many years. Moreover, they have serious troubles finding appropriate collocates of words frequently due to the differences between the word order in Farsi and English. This study may be useful for teachers and students to become adapted to a relatively new technique which will be ready to lend a hand in their vocabulary development. Nist and Simpson (1993) state that knowing the definition of a word is essential and may be adequate in many situations; however it is just a beginning point. Based on them, a memorized definition is normally the tip of the iceberg, the part erroneously supposed to be the total iceberg because it is so visible and noticeable. Underneath the surface of the water is a much larger mass of ice which is much more important. Their illumination about knowing the definition of a word advocates the hypothesis that traditional vocabulary instruction techniques do not lead to the development of new words. Furthermore, Maghsoudi (2010) advocates this proposition by asserting that although memorizing words with their L1 translations is fast and ideal on the part of learners, it is shallow and does not permit students to use the required vocabulary properly in proper context. In addition, Hsu (2010) explored the effects of direct collocation instruction on Taiwanese college English majors reading comprehension and vocabulary learning. In the same way, this researcher came to the conclusion that direct collocation instruction enhanced the subjects vocabulary learning. His proposition is in agreement with findings of the present study in that collocation instruction could be valuable to discover as a teaching choice. Nonetheless, contrary to this paper's findings, according to Altınok (2000), teaching words via their collocations for the students did not eventuate in better learning and retention. Even if teaching new words via collocations did not generate any statistically meaningful difference in learning and retention of new words, she still advocates the proposition that collocates of words ought to be instructed when introducing new vocabulary; because most students have trouble finding suitable collocates for new words. To put it briefly, this study has revealed that teaching vocabulary via collocations is a useful technique which is definitely contributing to the EFL learners' expansion of vocabulary retention. Concurrently, the results of this study have achieved the same discoveries as the earlier studies on collocation Hsu (2010), Lewis, 1997, Maghsoudi (2010), Nist and Simpson (1993), who give emphasis to its constructive effect on foreign language learning in many aspects. This research, like any other research, suffered from some limitations and constraints. The study was limited to a sample of 60 female students at the pre-intermediate level of English proficiency in Shokuh English Institute in Gorgan. Therefore the results are not generalizable to other larger populations due to the quite limited number and scope of subjects participating in this study. The classes at this institute lasted only for 20 hours, so the researcher was confined to do the study only through this limited time. This study employed quantitative methods in search of determining the effects of vocabulary teaching via collocations on EFL learners' vocabulary retention. Nevertheless, this can be considered as a starting point, and supplementary research in this field unquestionably will be crucial. Numerous suggestions are presented here for future research. This study was done with students learning English at one of the many English institutes in Iran, Gorgan. It would be appealing to replicate this study with other groups of learners and different nationalities and at different proficiency levels. Previously, there was a time period when vocabulary was abandoned. With the new trends, vocabulary began to gain more weight. Therefore, students ought to be cognizant of the different vocabulary learning strategies. The conventional memorization techniques, bilingual vocabulary lists or other traditional vocabulary learning techniques are supposed to be given up because they generate a type of reluctance on the part of the students. Teachers ought to be adapted to the modern vocabulary teaching techniques and utilize them in the class. Because collocational vocabulary 168

8 learning is a type of widely-accepted modern technique, it can be applied in the classroom securely. Mc Carten (2007) validates this suggestion about vocabulary instruction through collocation. He utters that while vocabulary can be taught and practiced intentionally through collocation technique at higher levels, it can furthermore be used even at the elementary level presenting the idea of words and expressions that are used together without using the term of collocation itself. Our study indicated that teaching vocabulary through collocations enhanced the vocabulary retention more than classical techniques. Consequently, teachers of English could be encouraged to spend some more classroom time for this kind of teaching in their classes and to allocate more importance to the application of certain learning strategies in vocabulary development in order to make vocabulary learning process more effectual and more significant for the students. Likewise, Deveci (2004) asserts that in recent years, English teachers and theorists assign more importance to vocabulary teaching in the sense that grammar could aid learners adequately only with a wide range of vocabulary. In addition, he argues that a wide range of vocabulary without adequate grammar knowledge does not assist learners too, since a single word hardly ever stands alone. Consequently, language teachers must teach collocations in order to assist learners obtain the language more quickly and efficiently. Since this study was carried out on a limited number of only female subjects, a suggestion to other researchers in this field can be to study with a larger group of students from both genders in a longer period of time. Since extended contact to the collocations is an essential factor. It is thought that longer time period will assist a lot to have a better result particularly for the younger learners. References Acat MB, Effectiveness of concept maps in vocabulary instruction. Eurasian Journal of Educational Research. 33: 1-16 Altınok S, Teaching vocabulary using collocations versus using definitions in EFL classes. Unpublished masteral thesis, hsan Dogramacı Bilkent University, Ankara, Turkey. Boers F, Lindstromberg S, How cognitive linguistics can foster effective vocabulary teaching. In: Boers F, Lindstromberg S (eds) Applications of cognitive linguistics: Cognitive linguistic Approaches to teaching vocabulary and phraseology, 1st edn. Berlin, Mouton de Gruyter Celce-Murcia M, Rosensweig F, Teaching vocabulary in the ESL classroom. In: Celce-Murcia M, McIntosh L (eds) Teaching English as a second or foreign language, 1st edn. New York, Newbury House Publishers Inc Deveci T, Why and how to teach collocations. English Teaching Forum. 42(2): Erten H, Tekin M, Effects on vocabulary acquisition of presenting new words in semantic sets versus semantically unrelated sets. System. 36: Eyraud K, Giles G, Koenig S, Stoller FL, The word wall approach: Promoting L2 vocabulary learning. English Teaching Forum. 38(3): 2-11 Farghal M, Obiedat H, Collocations: A neglected variable in EFL. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching. 33(4): Fernández RF, Prahlad SRR, Rubtsova E, Sabitov O, Collocations in the vocabulary English teaching as a foreign language. Acimed. 19(6): 1-5 Genç B, New trends in teaching and learning vocabulary. Journal of Çukurova University Institute of Social Sciences. 13(2): Hsu JT, The effects of collocation instruction on the reading comprehension and vocabulary learning of Taiwanese college English majors. The Asian EFL Journal. 12(1): Jaén MM, A corpus-driven design of a test for assessing the ESL collocational competence of university students. International Journal of English Studies. 7(2): Jesa M, Efficient English teaching. New Delhi: APH Publishing Corporation Lewis M, The lexical approach: The state of ELT and the way forward. Hove, England: Language Teaching Publications Lewis M, Implementing the lexical approach. London: Language Teaching Publication Maghsoudi M, Type of task and type of dictionary in incidental vocabulary acquisition. The Asian EFL Journal. 12(1): 8-29 McCarten J, Teaching vocabulary lessons from the corpus lessons for the classroom. New York: Cambridge University Press McCrostie J, Examining learner vocabulary notebooks. ELT Journal: English Language Teachers Journal. 61(3): Morra S, Camba R, Vocabulary learning in primary school children: Working memory and long-term memory components. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology. 104: Nation ISP, Learning vocabulary in another language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Nation ISP, Teaching vocabulary. Asian EFL Journal. 7(3): Nation P, Waring R, Vocabulary size, text coverage and word lists. In: Schmitt N, McCarthy M (eds) Vocabulary: Description, acquisition and pedagogy, 1st edn. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press 169

9 Nattinger JR, Some current trends in vocabulary teaching. In: Carter R, McCarty M (eds) Vocabulary and language teaching, 1st edn. New York, Longman Nist SL, Simpson ML, Developing vocabulary concept for college thinking (1st ed) Lexington: D. C. Heath and Company Schlosser RW, The efficacy of augmentative and alternative communication: Toward evidence-based practice (1st ed.) San Diego, CA: Academic Press Schmitt N, Vocabulary in language teaching (1st ed.) New York: Cambridge University Press Sheehan A, Making sense of words. English Teaching Forum. 42(1): 1-11 Shin D, Nation P, Beyond single words: The most frequent collocations in Spoken English. ELT Journal. 62(4): Siyanova A, Schmitt N, L2 learner production and processing of collocation: A multi-study perspective. Canadian Modern Language Review. 64 (3): Skrzypek A, Phonological short-term memory and L2 collocational development in adult learners. EUROSLA Yearbook. 9(1): Wallace MJ, Teaching vocabulary. London: Heinemann Educational Books Limited Zimmerman CB, Historical trends in second language vocabulary instruction. In Coady J, Huckin T (eds) Second language vocabulary acquisition: A rationale for pedagogy, 1st edn. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press Zu F, Using lexical approach to teach vocabulary. US-China Foreign Language. 7(8):