Sandec-UNITAR-WBI. Governance in Urban Sanitation Sector. Module 1: Introduction. Rabat, June Samir Bensaid

Transcription

1 Governance in Urban Sanitation Sector Module 1: Introduction Rabat, June 2008 Samir Bensaid

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3 Contents Abbreviations 1. Rationale and methodology 2. Definitions and concepts 2.1 Standard definitions of sanitation and hygiene 2.2 Broad definitions of sanitation 2.3 Centralized urban sanitation systems 2.4 Decentralized sanitation systems or onsite sanitation 2.5 Sustainable sanitation 3. Overview of the sanitation context and challenges 3.1 An alarming situation 3.2 The scale of sanitation challenges in urban areas 4. International commitment to sanitation 4.1. The MDGs and the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation (JPOI) 4.2. International Year of Sanitation (IYS) 5. The Importance and benefits of sanitation 5.1 Sanitation links to the eight MDGs 5.2 Sanitation links to health 5.3 Economic benefits of sanitation improvement 5.4 Sanitation links to the environment 6. Obstacles to sanitation improvement 7. Steps to overcome the obstacles to sanitation improvement 7.1 Strategic Action Plan on Municipal Wastewater (SAP) 7.2 Ecosan approach 8. Additional specific critical issues related to sanitation 8.1 Linkage between sanitation and integrated water resource management (IWRM) 8.2 Reuse of treated wastewater (REUSE) 8.3 Sludge management 8.4 Stormwater management 8.5 Advocacy and awareness for sanitation improvement 9. Annexes Annex 1: The 10 keys of SAP for local and national action on municipal wastewater Annex 2: Glossary Annex 3: References and further reading 3/37

4 Tables Table 1:Global population without access to improved drinking water and improved sanitation Table 2: Selected examples of the ways in which domestic water supply and sanitation and water resources management and development contribute to the MDGs Table 3: The benefits of meeting sanitation MDGs related to health Table 4: Meeting sanitation MDG (annual figures, in USD million) Figures Figure 1: Sanitation rationale and methodology framework Figure 2: Proportion of population with access to basic sanitation Figure 3: System approach to Ecosan Figure 4: Decision-making process Figure 5: A typical project cycle Figure 6: Communication for development model Boxes Box 1: The 10 keys of SAP for local and national action on municipal wastewater Box 2: The Bellagio Principles 4/37

5 Abbreviations CSD Eawag Ecosan GTZ IWRM IYS JPOI MDG REUSE Sandec SAP UESS UNDP UNEP UNICEF UNITAR USD WBI WBISD WHO WSSCC WWTP Commission on Sustainable Development Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology ecological sanitation Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit GmbH integrated water resource management International Year of Sanitation Johannesburg Plan of Implementation Millennium Development Goal reuse of treated wastewater Department of Water Supply and Sanitation in Developing Countries Strategic Action Plan on Municipal Wastewater urban environmental sanitation services United Nations Development Programme United Nations Environment Programme United Nations Children s Fund United Nations Institute for Training and Research United States dollar World Bank Institute World Bank Institute Sustainable Development Division World Health Organization Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council wastewater treatment plant 5/37

6 1. Rationale and methodology The Introduction of Module1 is based on the logical framework as shown in Figure 1. Figure 1. Sanitation rationale and methodology framework What is the global situation of the sanitation sector in the world (especially urban sanitation in developing countries)? An alarming situation What is the response of the international community to this situation? MDGs commitments IYS Why is sanitation important? Advantages and benefits of improved sanitation (sanitation impact on the eight MDGs) What are the obstacles to improving the sanitation sector? Multiple obstacles: the major one is a governance problem Which approaches should be used for implementing improved sanitation? This enables developing the appropriate option for a given situation Moreover, specific issues related to the sanitation thematic are tackled such as stormwater management, the sludge issue, reuse and wastewater recycling. Finally, Module1 will meet most of its objectives if the following strong messages are well delivered: The sanitation crisis is above all due to a governance problem. As emphasized in the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) Human Development Report 2006, achieving the eight United Nations Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) depends strongly on enhancing water and sanitation governance. Sanitation is in a state of emergency regarding the scale of the sanitation crisis and its negative impact on a number of social and economic sectors and also on water resources in terms of pollution. 6/37

7 There is no unique or miracle solution to the multiple and various situations of inadequate sanitation. It is necessary to fully consider plausible sanitation options that may suit a concrete situation. In some cases, it would be wise to swim against the tide. The sanitation domain is a very complex issue. It is not only a technical question, it also deals with political, financial, social and cultural aspects and involves land planning fields as well. 7/37

8 2. Definitions and concepts The first challenge in improvement of sanitation governance is to clearly define the terms and concepts. Thus, it is important to clarify sanitation and hygiene since these two issues are often confused Standard definitions of sanitation and hygiene (stricto sensu) Sanitation: safe collection, storage, treatment and disposal/reuse/recycling of human excreta (faeces and urine) and wastewater. Hygiene: safe water storage safe handwashing practices safe treatment of food stuffs Broad definitions of sanitation There are diverse definitions of sanitation, but most commonly it is understood that sanitation aims to remove and dispose of human waste (excreta and urine) and wastewater in such a way that it creates convenience and privacy for the users, and creates a hygienic environment that reduces the risks of pathogen transmission from human waste. Some definitions take into account the removal of stormwater, hospital waste, industrial waste and solid waste. Improved sanitation The term improved sanitation is used in the MDGs and defined by the Joint Monitoring Programme of the World Health Organization (WHO)/United Nations Children s Fund (UNICEF) as connection to a public sewer, a septic system, pour-flush latrine, simple pit latrine and ventilated improved pit latrine. Not considered as improved sanitation are service or bucket latrines (where excreta is manually removed), public latrines and open latrines. Also, some types of pit latrines are considered unimproved sanitation. However, simply setting up a safe and adequate disposal and evacuation facility for wastewater at the household level is not sufficient if it is not treated. Consequently, it is important to retain, in the framework of these modules, the definition of sanitation as an entire chain of evacuation, collection, transport, treatment, disposal, reuse of wastewater and sludge management, excluding solid waste. This includes human, hospital, industrial wastewater and stormwater, and also applies equally to centralized or decentralized wastewater systems as well as to combined or separate stormwater and wastewater networks Centralized urban sanitation systems In general, conventional urban sanitation systems consist of: 8/37

9 sanitation systems that use water as a means of waste (excreta) transport (flushing systems); collection and transport of wastewater and stormwater through combined or separate sewers; treatment of the wastewater and sludge wastewater treatment plant (WWTP); treatment of stormwater. Conventional sanitation systems are based on flushing of excreta with water and water-borne transport in sewers. They began to spread in European cities from around the end of the nineteenth century, when piped water supplies and the use of flush toilets led to an increased water consumption and wastewater production Decentralized sanitation systems or onsite sanitation Conventional onsite (or individual) sanitation systems have been used for centuries to provide excreta disposal at the household level. There are two basic types: dry systems: simple pit latrine (unimproved), covered pit latrines and ventilated improved pit latrines; water-based systems: pour-flush latrine (single or double pit), pour-flush toilet to septic tank with subsequent infiltration or sewerage of liquid fraction and emptying, collection and treatment of the solid fraction (also called faecal sludge) Sustainable sanitation Ecological sanitation (Ecosan) is a term used to define sanitation systems that place resource recovery (water, nutrients, energy) in the main focus of attention. Sustainable sanitation, on the other hand, stresses the importance of achieving a holistic view and balance in all aspects of sustainability such as economic viability, social acceptability and technical and institutional appropriateness and, finally, protection of the environment and natural resources. Therefore, when improving an existing and/or designing a new sanitation system (for Ecosan as well as for all sanitation solutions), sustainability criteria related to the following aspects should be considered: health environment and natural resources technology and operation financial and economic issues socio-cultural and institutional aspects. These aspects are valid for all sanitation solutions, not only for Ecosan. In order to fully understand the sprit and the dimensions of sustainable sanitation, a specific part of the module is dedicated to dealing in detail with this approach (see section 7.2). 9/37

10 3. Overview of sanitation context and challenges 3.1. An alarming situation Improved sanitation (such as safe drinking water) is fundamental to people s health, environment and development (see Table 1). Yet, nearly 40 per cent of the world s population lacks adequate sanitation. In terms of economic and financial loss, the costs are enormous. For example, in developing countries, the costs of disease caused by the lack of hygiene and inadequate sanitation are equivalent to 2 per cent of gross domestic product. Table 1. Source: World Health Organization (WHO), United Nations Children s Fund (UNICEF). Geneva, New York, Different studies and publications in particular, the Human Development Report 2006 demonstrate and illustrate with figures and statistics that many developing countries are not only far from attaining the MDGs with regard to drinking water and sanitation, but the majority of the countries are also not even on the right track for achieving these objectives within the next several decades. This is particularly true for the sub-saharan African Region. Vulnerable groups are particularly affected by this deplorable situation that especially concerns children, women and generally poor populations in peri-urban areas, with a profound impact on many aspects of their lives: Health: More than 2.2 million people in developing countries, most of them children, die each year from diseases associated with the lack of access to safe drinking water, inadequate sanitation and poor hygiene. Dirty water and inadequate sanitation account for most of the 5,000 childhood deaths that occur every day from diarrhoea. Waterrelated diseases also prevent them from attending school costing 443 million school days per year. 10/37

11 Source: Human Development Report Beyond Scarcity: Power, Poverty and the Global Water Crisis. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), Geneva, Education: Inadequate sanitation in schools affects attendance rates, particularly of girls who drop out of school when they reach puberty, for instance, because toilets offering privacy are not available. Women: Women may also drop out of the urban workforce for the same reason of lack of privacy. In urban areas, issues of personal safety may mean that many people, particularly women and girls, cannot leave their houses at night to go to the toilet. As a result, they are forced to simply throw excreta into the dirty and poorly drained streets outside their homes. 删 除 的 内 容 : available 删 除 的 内 容 : that offer privacy Source: UN-HABITAT. Framework for Gender Mainstreaming: Water and Sanitation for Cities. Nairobi, Economics: National economies are weakened by the need to spend significant funds on health care and medicines, while many working days are lost to ill-health resulting from poor water and inadequate sanitation. Furthermore, the lag in sanitation affects developing countries more, especially sub-saharan Africa and Southern and Eastern Asia Regions, as shown in Figure 2. Figure 2. Proportion of population with access to basic sanitation 1.5 billion live in China di di Sub-Saharan Africa: 37% coverage South Asia 34% coverage 2.6 billion people do not have access to basic sanitation! Source: World Health Organization (WHO), United Nations Children s Fund (UNICEF). Geneva, New York, The consequences of inadequate sanitation are further evidenced by looking at how improved access would contribute to the overall possibility of attaining all of the MDGs The scale of sanitation challenges in urban areas 11/37

12 Today, worldwide urbanization seems to be inevitable and, according to predictions, by 2025 at least two thirds of the world's population will live in cities. Most of this urban growth is taking place in the developing world where two billion people already live in cities. In this context, it is easy to imagine the critical consequences of escalating urbanization on urban planning and on the management of the urban services including wastewater management. For this reason, there is increased focus on urban sanitation issues in the following sections. 12/37

13 4. International commitment to sanitation 4.1. The MDGs and the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation (JPOI) In September 2000, the United Nations General Assembly adopted the MDGs that challenged the global community to reduce poverty and increase the health and well-being of all peoples. Among those targets is the MDG Target 10, which consists of cutting in half, by 2015, the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water. In September 2002, the World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg reaffirmed these goals and added access to basic sanitation as a centrepiece of the poverty eradication commitments. By including sanitation and hygiene in the MDGs and the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation (JPOI), the global community has recognized the importance of promoting sanitation and hygiene as development interventions and has set a series of goals and targets to: halve, by 2015, the proportion of people without access to basic sanitation; improve sanitation in public institutions, especially schools; promote safe hygiene practices; Wastewater management is not specifically a part of the MDGs. This is why, in the critical review of the monitoring of the MDGs, a call is made to include a consideration of the management of waste when looking at access to sanitation. United Nations Millennium Development Project, promote affordable and socially and culturally acceptable technologies and practices; integrate sanitation into water resources management strategies; implement plans, national policies and incentives for waste minimization and improved recycling and reuse of wastewater; develop innovative financing and partnership mechanisms; build institutional capacity and develop programmes for waste collection and disposal services for unserved populations; strengthen existing information networks. The 12th session of the United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD-12), held in 2004, identified constraints to, and continuing challenges for, the implementation of these goals, including the JPOI target on access to basic sanitation. Therefore, CSD-13, in April 2005, recommended policy actions to be implemented by Member States in addressing the sanitation challenges. 删 除 的 内 容 : 13/37

14 4.2. The International Year of Sanitation (IYS) Recently, recognizing the impact of sanitation on public health, poverty reduction, economic and social development and the environment, the United Nations General Assembly moved to declare 2008 the International Year of Sanitation (IYS). IYS objectives The central objective of the IYS is to put the global community on track to achieve the sanitation MDG. Sanitation is the foundation of health, dignity and development. Increased sanitation access, especially for poor people, is fundamental for attaining all of the MDGs. The IYS aims to: increase awareness and commitment; mobilize governments to secure real commitments; encourage demand driven, sustainable and traditional solutions; secure increased financing; develop and strengthen institutional and human capacity; enhance the sustainability; promote and capture learning. The organization of the IYS is led by the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. (For more details visit the official web site of the IYS at 14/37

15 5. The importance and benefits of sanitation development 5.1. Sanitation links to the eight MDGs It is important to emphasize that for each of the MDGs, water and sanitation are essential since they affect all forms of social and economic human development and they are also linked to the environment (see Table 2). Table 2: Selected examples of the ways in which domestic water supply and sanitation and water resources management and development contribute to the MDGs Source: United Nations Millennium Project Task Force on Water and Sanitation. Achieving the Millennium Development Target for Water Supply and Sanitation. Final report. United Nations, New York, /37

16 5.2. Sanitation links to health Listed below are several examples of the impact of improved sanitation and hygiene on reducing water-borne diseases (also see Table 3). Diarrhoea and cholera: 1.8 million people die every year from diarrhoeal diseases (including cholera); 88 per cent of diarrhoeal disease is attributed to unsafe water and sanitation; improved sanitation reduces diarrhoea morbidity by 32 per cent. Schistosomiasis: an estimated 160 million people are infected with schistosomiasis; tens of thousands of deaths occur every year, mainly in sub-saharan Africa; schistosomiasis is strongly related to unsanitary excreta disposal; basic sanitation reduces schistosomiasis by up to 77 per cent. Intestinal helminths (e.g. ascariasis): 133 million people suffer from high-intensity intestinal helminth infections; these diseases cause around 9,400 deaths every year; access to safe water and sanitation facilities and better hygiene practice can reduce morbidity from ascariasis by 29 per cent. Source: World Health Organization (WHO.) Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Links to Health: Facts and Figures. Geneva, updated November Table 3. The benefits of meeting sanitation MDGs related to health Source: Haller L., Hutton G., Bartram J. Estimating the Costs and Health Benefits of Water and Sanitation Improvements at Global Level. World Health Organization (WHO), Geneva, /37

17 5.3. Economic benefits of sanitation improvement The cost benefit ratio of meeting sanitation targets is consistently high across all regions with an average of $5.5 per $1 invested as detailed in Table 4. Total benefits include time savings due to closer sanitation facilities, productive and educational time gain due to less illness from diarrhoea, and health sector and patient savings due to less treatment for diarrhoeal disease. Table 4. Source: Haller L., Hutton G., Bartram J. Estimating the Costs and Health Benefits of Water and Sanitation Improvements at Global Level. World Health Organization (WHO), Geneva, In the United Republic of Tanzania, for example, an annual investment of $20.5 million would achieve the sanitation target with potential economic benefits to the health sector alone of $15.4 million each year and more than 1.5 million diarrhoea cases averted every year. In Viet Nam, an annual investment of $96.7 million would avert more than four million cases of diarrhoea alone and achieve potential savings in the health sector of over $66.7 million Sanitation links to the environment In regions where wastewater flows directly into aquatic systems (streams, rivers, lakes, seas), particularly in the context of urbanization, this presents a variety of concerns in terms of environmental pollution and exposing millions of children to disease. In extreme cases (which are not uncommon in developing countries), the receiving water can become seriously deoxygenated, even anaerobic, with a literally deadly effect on aquatic life and on the lives of those who use the polluted water for domestic purposes. In this context, about 90 per cent of sewage and 70 per cent of industrial waste in developing countries are discharged untreated into watercourses, often polluting the usable water supply. Improved sanitation reduces environmental burdens and increases sustainability of environmental resources. 17/37

18 6. Obstacles to sanitation improvement Despite the evidence of the benefits of sanitation on health, economic development or the environment as described in the section above, the progress made in this sector lags behind those in water and other social sectors such as health and education. Most of the studies, conducted in several developing countries, concluded that the principal obstacles to sanitation improvement are linked to the following areas: problem of the definition of sanitation and confusion with hygiene; institutional fragmentation: the split of sanitation responsibilities at the national level; major capacity gaps at the local level; low budgetary priority given to sanitation and hygiene relative to the drinking water supply and other social sectors; doubts as to levels of household demand; the complexity of promoting changes in behaviour. Furthermore, there are six major obstacles to sanitation improvement in developing countries as follows. 1. The weakness of the political will at both the national and the local levels: issue as a priority, and very few developing countries have national sanitation policies; at the local level: there is a dilemma between entrusting sanitation to local authorities while not providing them with sufficient financial, logistical and human resources or enabling an adequate institutional/organizational environment for professionally operating this service at the local level. 2. The high costs of the implementation of an action plan of sanitation compared to the drinking water sector. 3. The complexity of the sanitation sector in terms of planning, engineering, construction and operations and maintenance. 4. The unwillingness of people to pay for sanitation and hygiene services, which is due, in particular, to the ignorance of the benefits of the services. The state of poverty that exists in most of the areas suffering from inadequate sanitation (very low revenues) is an additional problem. 5. The inadequate choice in terms of technology. For example, many conventional sewage treatment plants in many cities in developing countries do not function properly due to the lack of expertise and financial resources. 6. Lack of awareness and communication: promoting sanitation and hygiene presents a substantial communication challenge. According to an anonymous source, an Indian specialist explained it this way: Statistics make no impact on people, so that it is not enough to state to villagers that diarrhoea kills x thousands of children in their country every year. The real challenge is to make clear the links between common illness and the practice of e.g. open defecation. 18/37

19 7. Steps to overcome the obstacles to sanitation improvement As mentioned above, there is no unique solution with regard to the variety of the problems and situations related to sanitation; however, there are approaches that are meant for helping in the design of sanitation projects. Indeed, the new approaches advocate sustainable, appropriate solutions and take into consideration Ecosan. Several of these approaches are presented below Strategic Action Plan on Municipal Wastewater (SAP) In the framework of the UNEP/WHO/UN-HABITAT/WSSCC Strategic Action Plan on Municipal Wastewater (SAP), adopted in 2001, 10 key points have been formulated for local and national action on municipal wastewater. These 10 keys, listed and annotated in Box 1, are presented as the prerequisite for successful municipal wastewater management (for a comprehensive text of the 10 keys, see Annex 1). Both the guidelines and keys for action cover policy issues, management approaches, technology selection and financing mechanisms. 19/37

20 Box 1. The 10 keys of SAP for local and national action on municipal wastewater 1. Secure political commitment and domestic financial resources. 2. Create an enabling environment at national and local levels. 3. Do not restrict water supply and sanitation to taps and toilets. 4. Develop integrated urban water supply and sanitation management systems that also address environmental impacts. 5. Adopt a long-term perspective, taking action step by step, starting now. 6. Use well-defined timelines, and time-bound targets and indicators. 7. Select appropriate technology for efficient and cost-effective use of water resources and consider Ecosan alternatives. 8. Apply demand-driven approaches. 9. Involve all stakeholders from the beginning and ensure transparency in management and decision-making processes. 10. Ensure financial stability and sustainability: 10.1 Link the municipal wastewater sector to other economic sectors Introduce innovative financial mechanisms, including private sector involvement and public public partnerships Consider social equity and solidarity to attain cost recovery. Source: United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), World Health Organization (WHO), UN-HABITAT, Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council (WSSCC). Guidelines on Municipal Wastewater Management. Nairobi, Geneva, /37

21 7.2. Ecosan approach Principles This relatively recent approach, commonly addressed as Ecosan, is presented by its advocates as an alternative to conventional sanitation. It is based on an overall view of material flows as part of an ecologically and economically sustainable sanitation system tailored to the needs of the users and to specific local conditions. Ideally, Ecosan systems enable the complete recovery of all nutrients from faeces, urine and greywater to the benefit of agriculture and the minimization of water pollution, while at the same time ensuring that water is used economically and is reused to the greatest possible extent, particularly for irrigation purposes (see Figure 3). Figure 3. System approach to Ecosan Source: GTZ. Ecosan Closing the Loop in Wastewater Management and Sanitation. Eschborn, Germany, Ecosan does not promote a specific sanitation technology, but rather a new philosophy in recycling-oriented resource management in accordance with the Bellagio Principles as formulated by the Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council (WSSCC) (see Box 2). 21/37

22 Box 2. The Bellagio Principles 1. Human dignity, quality of life and environmental security at household level should be at the centre of the new approach, which should be responsive and accountable to needs and demands in the local and national setting: solutions should be tailored to the full spectrum of social, economic, health and environmental concerns; the household and community environment should be protected; the economic opportunities of waste recovery and use should be harnessed. 2. In line with good governance principles, decision-making should involve participation of all stakeholders, especially the consumers and providers of services: decision-making at all levels should be based on informed choices; incentives for provision and consumption of services and facilities should be consistent with the overall goal and objective; rights of consumers and providers should be balanced by responsibilities to the wider human community and environment. 3. Waste should be considered a resource, and its management should be holistic and form part of integrated water resources, nutrient flows and waste management processes: inputs should be reduced so as to promote efficiency and water and environmental security; export of waste should be minimized to promote efficiency and reduce the spread of pollution; wastewater should be recycled and added to the water budget. 4. The domain in which environmental sanitation problems are resolved should be kept to the minimum practicable size (household, community, town, district, catchment and city) and wastes diluted as little as possible: waste should be managed as close as possible to its source; water should be minimally used to transport waste; additional technologies for waste sanitization and reuse should be developed. Source: Sandec, Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council (WSSCC). Dübendorf, Geneva, The Bellagio Principles are considered to be essential in planning of all sustainable sanitation improvements. Tools To implement sustainable sanitation projects based on the Bellagio Principles, it is recommended to adopt a household-centred environmental sanitation approach. Figures 4 and 5 illustrate the main components of this approach. 22/37

23 Figure 4: Decision-making process Source: Eawag. Household-Centred Environmental Sanitation, Implementing the Bellagio Principles in Urban Environmental Sanitation: Provisional Guidelines for Decision-Makers. Dübendorf, Switzerland, June /37

24 Figure 5: A typical project cycle Source: Eawag. Household-Centred Environmental Sanitation, Implementing the Bellagio Principles in Urban Environmental Sanitation: Provisional Guidelines for Decision-Makers. Dübendorf, Switzerland, June /37

25 8. Additional specific critical issues related to sanitation 8.1. Linkage between sanitation and integrated water resource management (IWRM) The fact that managing sanitation services is usually the responsibility of local authorities may be contradictory to an integrated water resource management (IWRM) approach, which is operated at the catchment level and involves different water using sectors. This is especially true for the wastewater treatment and pollution prevention of water resources. Indeed, local authorities are more concerned with taking wastewater away from their cities than by treatment of it, thus it may endanger downstream users and aquatic resources. Therefore, it is relevant to implement water resource management entities (river basin agencies) tasked with enforcing the IWRM principles based on institutional and governance arrangements, e.g. the discharge of untreated wastewater may be forbidden and reprimanded. Better still, enabling a participatory approach and encouraging mechanism (institutional and financial) in order to involve all of the stakeholders at the catchment level and set up an effective IWRM and create a catchment solidarity among different user groups spread all over the river basin (both up and down stream). 8.2 Reuse of treated wastewater (REUSE) Reuse of treated wastewater (REUSE) is inevitably an issue of the IWRM approach and is emerging as an important issue because it relates to both concerns: pollution prevention and the minimization of treatment costs. In addition, REUSE may be an alternative option to conventional and even the nonconventional water resources (such as desalination). This is particularly true for arid and semi-arid areas. REUSE poses a number of trade-offs that have to be carefully managed. Specific guidelines are provided by, for example, WHO, the Food and Agricultural Organization and the International Water Management Institute Sludge management Two types of sludge can generally be distinguished: faecal sludge that derives from onsite sanitation facilities such as pits or septic tanks and sludge deriving from the centralized wastewater treatment facilities. More than two billion urban dwellers in developing countries use onsite sanitation facilities such as pit latrines, septic tanks and aqua privies for excreta and wastewater disposal. Because of water scarcity and unreliability of water supply services and for financial-economic reasons, area-wide sewered sanitation is not suitable in the majority of places. Hence, increasing the coverage with safe excreta disposal facilities for the per cent of urban dwellers in developing countries who do not yet have access to such facilities, will mainly be provided by onsite systems. As a consequence, growing quantities of faecal sludge will have to be collected and treated. Worldwide, great efforts have been made in recent decades to increase sanitation coverage, notably through onsite sanitation systems. In the majority of programmes or schemes, though, the need to cater for the management of the faecal matter accumulating in these installations has been left unattended. Hence, while the excreta disposal and hygiene situation may have improved in families homes, serious health risks and environmental pollution continue to 25/37

26 threaten urban livelihood due to the uncontrolled disposal of the untreated contents of onsite sanitation systems into the urban and peri-urban environment. The poor are at the highest risk as dumping sites are often situated in or near low-income areas and squatter settlements. There has been, to date, limited awareness or attention by urban planners, administrators and politicians of the fact that onsite sanitation (usually coupled with offsite disposal or use) constitutes the predominant path of excreta generated within urban and peri-urban areas. As a consequence, the need to devise adequate management of faecal sludge and to make it an integral component of urban development and sanitation upgrading has been widely lacking. Emptying, collection, transport and treatment of faecal sludge are of key importance where large proportions of the cities or peri-urban areas rely on onsite sanitation facilities. Indiscriminately disposed sludge, which contains high levels of pathogens, is a serious health threat to the population. Sludge, however, also contains significant nutrients, food value and biomass. Thus, correct handling may be beneficial and profitable as fertilizers, for example. Sludge from wastewater treatment (also called sewage sludge) can contain high levels of pathogens and chemical contaminants that are hazardous to human health and the environment. UNEP recommends the following sound practices for reducing and handling sewage sludge: prevent large volumes of sludge through separation of sewage and stormwater systems; minimize reliance on centralized sewage systems by installation of onsite treatment and separation of household washwater for reuse; land application requires regular monitoring of the sludge to show that the metal content is kept very low; use treatment such as drying, liming and composting, or co-composting with yard waste followed by land application levels of metal contaminants also need to be monitored; drying and disposal on landfills it is important that it is dried to avoid generation of large quantities of leachate. Source: Directory of Environmentally Sound Technologies for Waste Management in Pacific SIDS. Geneva, July Stormwater management In addition to climate change, inadequate land planning and increasing urbanization make soil impermeable, which generate an increasing quantity and flow of stormwater after rains or storms. However, most of the cities in developing countries, in particular, are not equipped with sewers that are designed, where do they exist, for absorbing this flooding. Therefore, flooding is increasingly becoming a huge problem because it generates human, environmental and economic disasters. Referring to the International Flood Initiative (part of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization and the World Meteorological Organization, for example), floods affect an estimated 520 million people across the world yearly, resulting in up to 25,000 deaths per year. Flood disasters cost the world economy some $50 60 billion a year. From the sanitation angle, the management of the stormwater requires a close and precise coordination with land planning (or urban planning) services. Moreover, many alternative techniques exist to considerably reduce the costs compared to the conventional sewerage network (combined or separate). 26/37

27 In general, these alternative techniques consist of reducing the stormwater flow by storing it at an onsite plot, and thus minimizing stormwater pollution at its source Advocacy and awareness for sanitation improvement As mentioned in section 6, among the obstacles to sanitation improvement are two major ones: the weakness of the political will and the unwillingness of people to pay for sanitation and hygiene services due essentially to the ignorance of the benefits of these services. Therefore, it seems inevitable to set up a plan of communication for both of these issues: politicians and decision-makers (advocacy*); population: e.g. users, beneficiaries (social mobilization** and awareness). * Advocacy is a process of gathering, organizing and formulating information into an argument to be communicated through various interpersonal and media channels to political and social leaders with a view to gaining their commitment to and active support of a development programme. ** Social mobilization is a process of bringing together all feasible intersectoral social partners to determine felt-need, raise demand for and sustain progress towards a particular development objective. Figure 6 illustrates the interaction between advocacy and awareness processes in the framework of a global communication strategy model. Figure 6. Communication for development model Source: United Nations Children s Fund (UNICEF). A Manual on Communication for Water Supply and Environmental Sanitation Programmes. Water, Environment and Sanitation Technical Guidelines, Series No.7. New York, /37

28 9. Annexes Annex 1: The 10 Keys of SAP for local and national action on municipal wastewater 1. Secure political commitment and domestic financial resources A political climate has to be created in which high priority is assigned to all of the aspects of sustainable municipal wastewater management, including the allocation of sufficient domestic resources. 2. Create an enabling environment at national and local levels Public authorities remain responsible for water and wastewater services. The subsidiarity principle, i.e. the delegation of responsibilities to the appropriate level of governance, applies to the entire water sector. National authorities should create the policy, legal, regulatory, institutional and financial frameworks to support the delivery of services at the municipal level in a transparent, participatory and decentralized manner. 3. Do not restrict water supply and sanitation to taps and toilets A holistic approach to water supply and sanitation should be adopted. This incorporates not only the provision of household services, but also various other components of water resource management, including protection of the resource that provides the water, wastewater collection, treatment, reuse and reallocation to the natural environment. Addressing the environmental dimensions mitigates direct and indirect impacts on human and ecosystem health. 4. Develop integrated urban water supply and sanitation management systems that also address environmental impacts Municipal wastewater management is part of a wider set of urban water services. The wastewater component is usually positioned at the end of a water resource management chain. Integration of relevant institutional, technical, sectoral and costing issues of all major components of the chain is required. Consideration should be given to the joint development, management and/or delivery of the drinking water supply and sanitation services. 5. Adopt a long-term perspective, taking action step by step, starting now The high costs of wastewater systems necessitate a long-term, step-by-step approach, minimizing current and future environmental and human health damage as much as possible within existing budgetary limits. Non-action imposes great costs on current and future generations and misses out on the potential of reusing valuable resources. A step-by-step approach allows for the implementation of feasible, tailor-made and cost-effective measures that will help to attain long-term management objectives. 6. Use well-defined timelines, and time-bound targets and indicators Properly quantified thresholds, time-bound targets and indicators are indispensable instruments for priority setting, resource allocation, progress reporting and evaluation. 7. Select appropriate technology for efficient and cost-effective use of water resources and consider Ecosan alternatives Sound water management relies on the preservation and efficient utilization of water resources. Pollution prevention at the source, efficient use and reuse of water and application of appropriate low-cost treatment technologies will result in a reduction in wastewater 28/37

29 quantity and in investment savings related to construction, operation and maintenance of sewerage systems and treatment facilities. Depending on the local physical and socioeconomic situation, different technologies will be appropriate. Eco-technology is a valid alternative to traditional engineering and technical solutions. 8. Apply demand-driven approaches In selecting appropriate technology and management options, attention must be given to users preferences and their ability and willingness to pay. Comprehensive analyses of present and future societal demands are required, and strong support and acceptance from local communities should be secured. With such analyses, realistic choices can be made from a wide range of technological, financial and management options. Different systems can be selected for different zones in urban areas. 9. Involve all stakeholders from the beginning and ensure transparency in management and decision-making processes Efforts and actions on domestic sewage issues must involve proactive participation and contributions of both governmental and non-governmental stakeholders. Actors stem from household and neighbourhood levels to regional, national and even international levels, and possibly the private sector. Early, continuous, targeted and transparent communication between all parties is required to establish firm partnerships. The private sector can act as a partner in building and improving infrastructure, in operating and maintaining of facilities or in providing administrative services. 10. Ensure financial stability and sustainability Link the municipal wastewater sector to other economic sectors Sound and appropriate wastewater management may require substantial construction and operational investments in wastewater infrastructure and treatment facilities. Relative to the water supply sector, cost recovery in the wastewater sector is traditionally a long process. Developments in other (socio-) economic sectors, for instance, water supply or tourism, may create opportunities to address sanitation at the same time. Linking wastewater management with other sectors can ensure faster cost recovery, risk reduction, financial stability and sustainable implementation Introduce innovative financial mechanisms, including private sector involvement and public public partnerships Traditionally, public authorities provide sanitation services. Costs for investments, operation and maintenance, however, often outstrip their capacities, as do present and future requirements for serving the un-served. Therefore, innovative, more flexible and effective financial management mechanisms have to be considered, e.g. microfinancing, revolving funds, risk-sharing alternatives and municipal bonds. Public private partnerships, as well as public public partnerships, are important tools to assist local governments in initial financing and operating the infrastructure for wastewater management Consider social equity and solidarity to attain cost recovery The use of principles such as "the water user pays and the polluter pays is required to achieve stable and sustainable wastewater management with efficient cost-recovery systems. These principles should be applied in a socially acceptable way, considering solidarity and equitable sharing of costs by all citizens and facilities. 29/37

30 Various user groups should be made aware of and be able to identify with concepts such as water and catchment solidarity. All users will benefit from environmental improvement. 30/37

31 Annex 2: Glossary ACTIVATED SLUDGE A wastewater treatment process by which bacteria that feed on organic wastes are continuously circulated and put in contact with organic waste in the presence of oxygen to increase the rate of decomposition. AEROBIC TREATMENT A wastewater treatment process in which bacteria and other organisms are used that feed on waste products and break them down, taking oxygen from their surroundings. ANAEROBIC TREATMENT A wastewater treatment process that relies on anaerobic digestion processes in which bacteria are used that feed on the substrate on which they grow in the absence of oxygen. BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND A measure of the organic pollutant strength of wastewater measured in milligrams per litre. This is equal to the mass of oxygen consumed by organic matter during aerobic decomposition under standard conditions during a fixed period (usually five days). BLACKWATER (see greywater) Waste from the toilet. CATCHMENT (BASIN) Area of land from which stormwater runoff flows to a common stream or river. CATCHMENT SOLIDARITY Solidarity among different user groups spread all over the river catchment (both up and down stream). COAGULATION Destabilization of colloidal particles used in water and wastewater clarification processes. COMBINED SEWER SYSTEM A sewer receiving intercepted surface (dry- and wet-weather) runoff, municipal (sanitary and industrial) wastewater and subsurface waters from infiltration. Normally, its entire flow goes to a WWTP or discharge point but, during a heavy storm, the volume of water may be so great as to cause overflows of untreated mixtures of stormwater and wastewater into receiving waters. Stormwater runoff may also carry toxic chemicals from industrial areas or streets into the sewer system. COMBINED SEWER OVERFLOW Discharge of a mixture of stormwater and domestic waste when the flow capacity of a sewer system is exceeded during rainstorms. DIGESTION (WASTEWATER) The reduction in volume and the decomposition of highly putrescible organic matter to relatively stable or inert organic and inorganic compounds. Sludge digestion is usually done by aerobic organisms in the absence of free oxygen. DOMESTIC WASTEWATER 31/37

32 Wastewater principally derived from households, business buildings, institutions, etc., which may or may not contain surface runoff, groundwater or stormwater. DRY WASTEWATER SLUDGE A sludge from a WWTP that has been digested and dewatered and does not require liquid handling equipment. GREYWATER (see blackwater) Wastewater from bathroom, laundry and kitchen. EUTROPHICATION The process of an aquatic body becoming enriched with nutrients that stimulate aquatic plant growth, such as algae, resulting in depletion of dissolved oxygen. FLOCCULATION The formation of macroflocs and agglomerations of microflocs as a result of coagulation processes (see coagulation). INDUSTRIAL WASTEWATER Wastewater that results from industrial processes and manufacturing. It may either be disposed of separately or become part of the sanitary or combined wastewater. LATRINE An installation used for defecation and urination. MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER A mixture of domestic wastewater, effluents from commercial and industrial establishments and urban runoff. ONSITE FACILITIES Sanitation facilities that are located on a householder s plot. May be an on-plot system or the on-plot components of a more extensive system. ONSITE SANITATION A sanitation system that is contained within a householder s plot occupied by the dwelling and its immediate surroundings. ORGANIC MATERIAL In wastewater treatment, material that can be biologically consumed in the secondary treatment process. A food source for various micro-organisms. PACKAGE PLANT Small-scale, compact water/wastewater treatment unit; compound of one or more different units/processes. PATHOGEN A disease-causing micro-organism such as bacteria, viruses and protozoa. PIT LATRINE Latrine with a pit for the accumulation and decomposition of excreta and from which liquid infiltrates into the surrounding soil. 32/37

33 POUR-FLUSH LATRINE A latrine that depends on small quantities of water, poured from a container by hand, to flush faeces away from the point of defecation. The term is normally used for a latrine incorporating a water seal. PRIMARY TREATMENT The first stage of contaminant removal in a WWTP through screening and settling processes, which can remove per cent of contaminants. SECONDARY TREATMENT Second stage of wastewater treatment to reduce suspended solids through biological cleansing to remove per cent of contaminants. SEPARATE SEWER Sewer system having distinct drain pipes for collecting superficial water and separate sewers for wastewater. SEPTIC TANK A tank or container, normally with one inlet and one outlet, which retains wastewater and reduces its strength by settlement and anaerobic digestion of excreta. SEWER A channel or conduit that carries wastewater and stormwater runoff from the source to a WWTP or receiving stream. Sanitary sewers carry household, industrial and commercial waste. Storm sewers carry runoff from rain. Combined sewers handle both. SEWERAGE (SYSTEM) System of pipes, usually underground, for carrying wastewater and human waste away from houses and other buildings to treatment and/or discharge. SLUDGE STABILIZATION Usually anaerobic sludge digestion, a treatment that stabilizes raw sludge. Fully digested sludge has little readily biodegradable organic matter. It is not smelly and about 50 per cent of the solids are inorganic. Sludge can also be digested aerobically. SLUDGE TREATMENT The processing of wastewater sludge to render it innocuous. This may be done by aerobic or anaerobic digestion followed by drying in sand beds, filtering and incineration; filtering and drying; or wet air oxidation. SOAK AWAY A soak pit or drainage trench for the subsoil percolation of liquid waste. SOAKPIT A hole dug in the ground serving as a soakaway. SOCIAL MOBILIZATION The process of bringing together all feasible and practical intersectoral social allies to raise people s awareness of and demand for a particular development programme. 33/37