Chapter 1. Literature Review

Transcription

1 Chapter 1 Literature Review Research question: What do student interviews reveal about the factors that create an inclusive learning experience for third level students with disabilities, while also enhancing the learning experience for all students? The medical model of disability The individual or medical model of disability is underpinned by what Mike Oliver describes as the personal tragedy theory of disability (Oliver, 1990, 1). This model of disability locates the problem within the individual and views the causes as having their basis in the physical and psychological limitations assumed to arise from disability. The experience of disability is therefore caused by what can be viewed as an unfortunate set of circumstances experienced by an individual. The medicalization of this model of disability occurs when the interventions of a set of professionals are viewed as the solution to the individual s problems. These professionals provide accommodations to ensure some quality of life for the individual within what is termed a normal environment. The individual or medical model of disability has been the traditional model for many years and has ensured that the life of the person with a disability is determined by professionals qualified to make decisions on the person s behalf. The model, therefore, leaves an individual completely disempowered (Oliver, 1990; Oliver, 1983). It also perceives the individual with a disability as a problem to be fixed and as one who by definition does not fall into the category of what is viewed as normal. This attitude does not accept difference as normal, but sees it only as something to be fixed and changed as far as possible to fit into the norm. Unfortunately decisions can often be made without the consent of the person with the disability.

2 The social model of disability The social model of disability does not look to the individual to explain the disabling experience, but places the cause squarely within society. It is not individual limitations that are the cause of the problem, but society s failure to provide appropriate services and adequately ensure the needs of disabled people are fully taken into account in its social organization (Oliver, 1990, 1). It is the interaction of the impairment with society and the environment that creates the disabling experience and not the impairment itself. The social model views social barriers as the primary cause of disability with examples being the design of buildings and modes of transport and communication. The social model therefore sees the discriminatory attitudes and actions of society as the cause of unnecessary impairment (Barnes and Mercer., 1996). From the 1960s onwards the social model of disability became a reality as a way forward for disability activists who began to mobilize in the hope of change. Disabled activists strongly criticised social scientists who up to now had focused on the medical model of disability and who viewed the actions of professionals as the solution to the problem. When the international classification of disability was taking place in the 70s the attitudes of social scientists was reflected in the WHO adopting the medical model of impairment as the determining factor in describing a disability. This was highly criticised by disability activists everywhere. Disability organizations argued for the social model and a definition of disability was drawn up by the Union of the Physically Impaired Against Segregation (UPIAS): The disadvantage or restriction of activity caused by a contemporary social organization which takes no or little account of people who have physical impairments and thus excludes them from participation in the mainstream of social activities UPIAS, 1976, 14). This definition was soon broadened to include other impairments including sensory and intellectual difficulties and was adopted by international organizations representing people with disabilities. Disability research continued to focus on the individual into the 1980s until disability organizations began to fund their own research to help fight against discriminatory legislation (Barnes and Mercer, 2004).

3 Emancipatory research In an effort by disability groups to direct social research to the advantage of people with disabilities research on disability became allied with the work of oppressed groups like the black civil rights movement, feminists and educationalists. Social research up to now was looked upon negatively by people with disabilities and seen as having no positive impact on their everyday lives. It had no role in informing badly needed progress in policy and practice in areas directly affecting the lives of people with disabilities (Oliver, 1992; Hunt, 1981). Critical research theory was set to become the way forward if social research was to be turned to the advantage of the disabled person rather than to the advantage of the researcher. Critical social research has therefore been adopted by disability researchers over the past two decades and researchers are setting emancipatory objectives. At the crux of emancipatory research is the need to approach disability by changing the relationship between researcher and those being researched and the links between the research projects and the objectives of those funding the research. By adopting a social model of disability the disabling factors of society are focused upon and not the individual s impairment; objectives that aim to change the world for the better and not just describe it are set (Barnes and Mercer 2004, 12-14; Barnes and Mercer, 1997, 4-6). However, it is not as simple as the researcher giving power to the researched, the social world is not separated into such neat blocks making it easy to identify those who are oppressed and those who are responsible for causing the oppression. Though emancipatory research should be empowering it is important that it is reflective and self critical. Having distinct objectives disability research must be rigorous in its approach, but not be reduced to propaganda (Barnes and Mercer, 1997, 7). Neither is it wise to base research theory upon the social model without acknowledging that there are areas of difficulty for the person with a disability that do not relate to the social environment (Thomas, 1999). Social research can be conducted within social model thinking, but accept that impairment has a direct affect on the life of a person with a disability. Sociologists have differed to what degree such a separation is possible (Thomas, 1999; Oliver, 1996; Mole, 2008, 13).

4 Inclusive education The social model of disability has informed a theoretical approach to education creating the term inclusive education (Mole, ). The term took hold in the 1990s when educationalists fighting for the rights of people with disabilities began to lobby governments to create an educational environment in which students with disabilities could enjoy a fair and equal education. These demands were not made as accommodations required to make it possible for students with disabilities to be integrated, but rather as basic issues of equity and human rights ensuring an inclusive educational experience for all. The UNESCO conference on special educational needs in 1994 at Salamanca produced a manifesto clearly placing inclusive education as an issue of discrimination and human rights. Ireland was one of 92 countries who signed up to the Salamanca statement, thereby agreeing to adopt an attitude of inclusion in policy and practice. Though it is true that segregated education for students with disabilities has never existed in third level education this does not mean that students have enjoyed an inclusive experience. To create an inclusive experience a college needs to be aware of the architectural, institutional, informational and attitudinal environment that people with disabilities encounter throughout the college. It must examine its disability services, policies, practices and activities to ensure that it incorporates this new definition into the institution culture (Mole, ; Kroeger and Schuck, 1993, 104) Legislation in Ireland supporting the rights of students with disabilities is the Education Act 1998, The Education for Special Educational Needs Act (EPSEN) 2004, the Equal Status Acts 2002/04, and the Disability Act As the EPSEN Act is specifically addressed to students under 18 years of age, the legislation most applicable to students in third level are the Equal Status Acts 2002/04 and the Disability Act These acts support a third level student s legal right to an inclusive experience in third level education in Ireland and inclusion is now recognized as an issue of human rights and equity of access. It must be a central issue in policy and practice and the availability of an inclusive educational experience in third level must be treated as a quality assurance issue.

5 For this to work we need to be willing to redesign the learning and assessment process to ensure that all students are included. Different students learn differently and a broader spectrum of teaching and assessment methods can help address difference in the classroom. The approach to supporting students with disabilities in third level education has been one of accommodations to help level the playing field, but it is important that this is looked at in an inclusive manner. If the disabling experience of an individual with a disability arises from a deficiency in attitude and practice within an institution then the approach needs to be one not of accommodation, but one that resolves the issue via creating an inclusive experience for the individual. This resolves the issue permanently and ensures that continuous accommodations need not be arranged for individual students. If disability is socially caused then changes in social organization can increase or decrease the number of disabled people in society (Oliver 1998, 64; Mole, ). If policy in environmental, teaching, learning and assessment issues is drawn up in an inclusive manner individual accommodations can be avoided in the future. However, there will always be problems that will not be resolved via the social model route and which will require personal accommodations and the case for these needs cannot be lost in the fight for an inclusive environment. This has been acknowledged in the literature (Mole, ). Each individual deals with their impairment in an individual way and will interact with the social environment differently. It is therefore important that each student is treated as an individual and that an understanding of the students needs comes from the individual concerned. Even when the ideal of a learning environment based upon social model thinking is achieved, and a student due to personal impairment still requires individual accommodations then these requirements need to be addressed. In providing individual accommodations it should remain the objective that independence is the goal. Universal design

6 The concept of Universal Design first surfaced in 1985 in the context of architecture (Mole, 2008, 24). Designing a building to accommodate the needs of all people whatever their impairment or background ensures that no alterations be required in hindsight. The goal is to create a product suitable for the widest use possible by the widest number of people at a marketable cost. By the mid 90s the approach was promoted in the area of product design and information access. The concept of universal design has now come to be employed by educationalists and educational institutions wishing to create an inclusive learning environment. Adopting universal design as an educational tool without the support of good social theory can, however, carry its own difficulties and situations can be created in which minority groups may sometimes be overlooked. It is therefore essential that the use of universal design as an educational tool be underpinned by the social model of disability. Universal design is now employed by many third level educational institutions in the US and elsewhere as a tool to help ensure social model thinking is adhered to in providing equity of access to education. In creating a learning environment, universally designed in terms of physical accessibility, information accessibility and promoting accessible curriculum design and delivery UD can be used as a tool to ensure considerable reduction in disability throughout college. Thus numbers of students registering with a college disability support service can be reduced and the many students with hidden disabilities not currently registered with such services will be accommodated also. It is necessary to stop thinking special because special means separate (Kroeger and Schuck 1993, 105-6; Mole, 2008, 22). University College Cork In accordance with the aims of the National Plan for Equity of Access , University College Cork s strategic plan has put in place procedures to increase the numbers of non traditional students entering the university. The Mature Students office, the UCC Plus+ scheme and the Special Admissions scheme for students with disabilities have endeavoured to increase these under-represented groups within the student population. The Direct Access Route to Education or DARE scheme allows students with disabilities enter the university with a

7 reduced points ratio and the Higher Education Access Route or HEAR scheme applies a similar system to prospective students from a low socio economic background. As a result the numbers of students with disabilities, students from lower socio-economic backgrounds and mature students are increasing each academic year. Numbers of international students also increase as the university works to draw in more students from both inside and outside the EU. The traditional university student in Ireland has for years been from a white middle-class background, but this traditional group is being forced to give way to a significant and growing non-traditional minority group within the student population. Though the diversity of the student body is changing, curriculum design and delivery has for the most part not altered to accommodate this growing diverse student body. This presents the challenge to promote inclusive curriculum, involving teaching practices that include teaching, learning and assessment methods that are proactive in responding to the diverse needs of the student population. There are approximately 700 students with disabilities currently registered with the Disability Support Service at University College Cork and this is expected to rise over the coming academic year. These include students with visual impairments, hearing impairments, physical disabilities, specific learning difficulty (dyslexia), development coordination disorder (dyspraxia), attention deficit disorder (ADD), mental health difficulties, asperger s syndrome and significant ongoing illness. All students are assessed for their needs and students apply to the European Social Fund to receive financial support to provide for needs such as assistive technology, IT training, alternative media, note takers, educational assistants, personal assistants, special exam arrangements etc. Though many of these supports are crucial, especially for students with severe disabilities, to be able to sustain this level of support for the growing number of students will become unrealistic in financial terms. The long term objective of the Disability Support Service has always been to make each student as independent as possible, but this will require a far greater awareness of inclusive curriculum throughout the college. This is vital if students are to gain full and equal independence in their studies and subsequently become as employable as their peers. Assistive technology skills have played a strong part in bringing this objective forward, but the role of the academic as teacher must be a key part of creating an independent and inclusive experience for the student.

8 The Disability Support Service has strived to create good relations with departmental staff from all college departments and has invited teaching and library staff to attend information sessions on how to address the needs of students with disabilities in their classes. All academics have also been provided with handbooks on how to provide for the needs of these students. This approach has had limited success and depends upon academics attending information sessions and on their studying the booklets provided. Even academics interested find it difficult to pencil in extra time in their busy calendar. The only approach available up to now for the Disability Support Service has been one which needs to draw people s interest to the disability issue as an important but none the less new and separate topic to be addressed in their work. It is a challenge to promote an institutional attitude that does not see inclusion as add ons and fix its. Inclusion can only be achieved in the design process if curriculum is to have the flexibility and variety to address the needs of all students. Current research In conjunction with research developments into teaching, learning and assessment in recent years developments have also been taking place in the area of best practice in teaching learning and assessment for students with disabilities. Much progress has taken place in identifying and promoting best practice in teaching students with disabilities at Strathclyde University. The Teachability Project was funded by the Scottish Higher Education Funding Council from 1999 to 2006 to create a series of publications of benefit to academics wishing to create an inclusive learning experience in their classrooms. The project has developed a web site providing many resources to teachers working in all areas of higher education to help them improve and evaluate the accessibility of their programs of study ( The resource has been of benefit to colleges all over the UK and beyond. The Disability Discrimination Act 2002 placed much pressure on third level institutions in the UK to make their courses accessible and explicitly criticised ad hoc reactive provision of inclusive curriculum. This legislative pressure was to ensure that the results of the project were put to good use.

9 A study conducted in the UK was prompted by a situation in which universities are realizing that many students with hidden disabilities choose not to disclose their presence by registering with a disability support service, while numbers registering with the service are also increasing (Fuller, Bradley and Healey, 2004). It is therefore becoming unrealistic to support students with disabilities in third level by providing accommodations employed to address difficulties through a disability support service. This awareness is causing institutions to wake up to the realization that the problems of students with disabilities are going to need to be addressed within the mainstream arena. The point is made that it is not until institutions consult their disabled students directly that they will become aware of the difficulties and barriers faced by disabled students. It was based upon this premise and a scarceness of student centred research that the study took place. During discussions with students they were inclined to focus on barriers and difficulties experienced in learning and assessment, but after a little encouragement they also revealed instances in which they experienced what they would see as good practice in teaching, learning and assessment. There were many difficulties surrounding communication and the receiving of information. Receiving notes handouts and other information vital to a positive academic experience were often nonexistent or late. The study found that some students were inclined to choose modules in which assessment methods best suited their disability. Students felt that modules with a variety of assessments were good. It was also discovered students differed in their willingness to seek support for their impairment, had experienced widely different levels of support from teaching staff and appeared to be very differently placed in terms of seeking support for what was on offer. A recent publication presents an in depth study of four academic institutions in Britain examining the extent to which these institutions have reacted to the Disability Discrimination Act (Fuller et.al., 2009). The enactment of this legislation addresses the moving away from a specialist service approach to individual needs of a student and focuses upon the implementation of mainstream teaching learning and assessment practices that address the needs of all students.

10 Apart from the legislation the book also highlights the role of the growing diversity in the student population as a force for change in teaching learning and assessment practices. This has caused institutions to begin to recognise widening access to teaching learning and assessment for disabled students as an essential part of their quality assurance agenda. The study also examined changes to curriculum design and delivery by specific teachers and how this had impacted on the students. Lecturers perspectives on making such adjustments were also reflected upon in the study. How students felt barriers existed or were being dismantled was of course an important feature of the study. This British study was a large study and interviewed nearly fifty students with a variety of disabilities throughout four institutions. For comparative purposes a sample of non-disabled students from one university was also included in the research. The study also examined the variety of needs of students studying in different departments and faculties. The TIC project A project promoting curriculum inclusion and funded by the Strategic Initiative Fund has been taking place at Trinity College Dublin ( The Trinity Inclusive Curriculum project or TIC project has been researching and investigating the experience of mature students, students from a low socio economic background, students with disabilities and students whose first language is not English who are studying at the college. The first phase of this project involved the planning of a survey questionnaire by means of consulting the relevant offices that support these categories of student while also consulting the Student Union office. The second phase of the study was the distribution, collection and analysis of the mostly quantitative data contained in the survey. Questions were asked in the following areas: general academic experiences, student information, teaching and assessment methods, academic facilities, academic support services and effects of non-traditional status on academic experiences. 493 students responded to the study with 85% completing it fully. This was a response rate of 25%-30%. Various examples of barriers to learning, as well as examples of good practice, were highlighted in the study and these are discussed in the research findings under 3

11 themes: 1. Effects of non-traditional status on academic experiences. 2. Teaching and assessment methods. 3. Student information. Of the 3 groups the results showed that students with disabilities were far more likely to feel that their status within the diverse group had a negative effect on their academic experience (Garvey, 2009). Regarding teaching and assessment, the study found that there was great variety in students preference and that preferences were purely individual and not based upon the non-traditional status of the student. With regard to the provision of information such as class handbooks, class notes and handouts etc., many respondents to the survey felt that timely distribution of this data in a clear format was crucial to a positive learning experience. This was especially important to students with disabilities for whom the provision of handouts and notes prior to a lecture was very important (Garvey, 2009). The results of the survey overall concluded that non-traditional students did not constitute a homogenous group. Non-traditional students come from a variety of backgrounds, face a variety of challenges and respond to these challenges in individual ways. Thus the study report concludes that it is important to use a range of teaching and assessment methods and resources in order to care for the assorted strengths and preferences of the diverse student population. The study did state, however, that communication was important and that clear, accurate and timely provision of information played a large role in eliminating many different barriers to learning. The project reacted to this phase of the study by creating a template for departments to follow in the designing of student course handbooks and also created an Internet tool to help academics to reflect on the design and delivery of programs of study in order to maximise inclusion. The goal is to incorporate the use of this tool into current college procedures including program/module design, quality review and teaching awards. The tool is supported by a website providing resources, guidelines and templates for all staff involved in teaching, learning and assessment.

12 The report finally concludes that an inclusive teaching and learning environment can only be accomplished by a co-operative effort by the whole college community. It is necessary to recognise that non-traditional students are a permanent addition to modern university classrooms and that it is becoming increasingly unsustainable to rely totally on specialist services to meet their needs. Furthermore, treating disability or widening participation in isolation will never achieve a holistic cultural approach to inclusive service provision (Ball, 2009, 3). This Trinity study also concludes by pointing out that no comparable study has been conducted with traditional students, but that work elsewhere indicates that there is considerable overlap in academic difficulty experienced by both traditional and non-traditional students (Gravestock, 2009; Healy et al., 2006). Any inclusive practices adopted to overcome these challenges will, therefore, be of great value to all students. The report closes with the suggestion that a study of the academic experience of all students within Irish academic institutions might provide results of great value to those interested in an inclusive higher education environment (Garvey, 2009). The Association for Higher Education Access and Disability (Ahead) have recently issued a Charter on inclusion for Irish third level institutions. This charter was drawn up after extensive input from the many bodies and individuals involved in teaching and learning in higher education. The charter states that inclusion is a quality assurance issue which should capture the voice of all minority groups. Teaching should be practiced in a manner that allows all students to fully take part in all activities and minimize the need for additional adjustments. Access to course materials is an important issue and creative and innovative teaching methods should be practiced. It also states that learning outcomes and assessment methods should be very clearly outlined to students from the beginning of a course if students are to receive a clear understanding of what is required from the outset. It is important that accessible formats are used for students and proper training is made available for staff. Active learning is important for all students to gain a full grasp of concepts being taught. The charter also states that formative assessment is a very good way to ensure that effective teaching methods are being employed. A teacher needs to always be aware that every individual learns in different ways. Assessment practices need always to be student centred, flexible, transparent and fair. A high quality learning experience for all students

13 is key to achieving equality and wider participation in higher education. The National Plan for Equity of Access to Higher Education states that good practice for access becomes good practice for all learners throughout the institution. SOTL The Scholarship of Teaching and Learning or SOTL has done much to establish teaching as a scholarship in its own right (Boyer 1990) and provides criteria for scholarship (Shulman1999; McCarthy 2011, 3). Much of the debate on teaching and learning has developed from the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching and subsequently from the Carnegie Academy for the Advancement of Teaching and Learning. Boyer challenged the current attitude of universities regarding the focus on research over teaching and asked instead what it means to be a scholar? Boyer established a whole new paradigm of scholarship comprising the dimensions of the scholarship of discovery, the scholarship of integration, the scholarship of application and the scholarship of teaching. This was a whole new approach to gathering, integrating applying and presenting knowledge of a discipline. It soon became obvious that each dimension of scholarship was embedded in the other and that they were each closely intertwined. Handling complex concepts in the classroom via methods requiring performance and interactive learning was important if each dimension was to be applied. Donald Schon (1995) highlighted that it was not possible to deal with difficult and complex teaching and learning classroom issues by depending on positivist methods alone, but that it was necessary to adopt an action research or reflective practice approach to study one s work in the classroom (McCarthy, 2011, 14-31). Lee Shulman further developed the scholarship of teaching by making clearer exactly how this can be done. He determined that to become scholarship the scholarship of teaching must contain the 3 attributes of being public, being open to critical review by one s peers and be available for generic use and development. He also suggests that this is best achieved among a community of scholars. The focus is to be taken off the teaching and placed upon the learning, that is the learning of both the student and the teacher. This brings the process of teaching and learning into the open where it can be seen, and benefited from rather than being lost forever to the benefit of

14 anyone. This approach distinguishes the difference between good teaching and scholarly teaching and highlights the importance of how all teachers can benefit their teaching and the teaching of others by taking a scholarly approach to their work (McCarthy, 2011, 32-40). As I am not currently teaching and am conducting research on behalf of the Disability Support Service I will focus on listening to the student voice and making implications for SOTL. The proposed study is a student centred study which by interviewing students will analyse and reflect upon the practice of teaching and learning as it unfolds in the classroom, thus having SOTL implications for how teaching and learning might be researched and made visible. The approach will provide qualitative data to help reflect upon the learning experiences of students and the research is intended to be of use to teachers as they in turn reflect upon their own teaching. No student centred study on inclusive practices in teaching, assessment and curriculum design has taken place at University College Cork and I am mapping the territory for the first time. My contribution, therefore, is to open up this field to possible further investigation. The proposed study is not a large study, but could play a vital role as a pilot for further work in this area at the university. The work will focus on students from the Arts and Social Sciences and collect and analyse rich qualitative data from both students with disabilities and non-disabled students by means of several case study type interviews. The advantages of adopting MI theory and TFU in one s teaching will be considered throughout the analysis of the data. This has implications for reflective practice and encourages teachers to take a scholarly approach to teaching.