Introduction. Date and Historical Setting

Transcription

1 Introduction The book of Isaiah begins the Hebrew canon and is central to that canon as a great poetic narrative and as a wellspring of theology. No doubt Isaiah ranks as one of the most remarkable figures of the OT. Particularly fascinating about this pious man is his call experience narrated in the 13 verses of Isaiah 6. Scholars have paid considerable attention to this short chapter because it is filled with a diversity of elements including: sin, judgment, bizarre scenes in the heavenly court, and direct dialogue between the divine and human. It is important to examine Isaiah 6 in lieu of its message, but it is equally important to understand its purpose in the greater context of the book as a literary whole. The purpose of this paper is to describe the nature and structure of Isaiah's call/commission in 6:5-9 in an attempt to show that Isaiah volunteers for what he thinks will be some kind of reform, but in actuality is a verdict of guilt sentenced by Yahweh to the people of Judah. Date and Historical Setting The book of Isaiah is very difficult to date with any precision. However, there is plenty of evidence within the text to give an approximation of its historical time period. The text says that Isaiah son of Amoz began his prophetic ministry in the year that king Uzziah died (740 B.C.--6:1), and continued through the reigns of Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah (1:1); and possibly into the reign of Manasseh ( ) since he mentions the death of Sennacherib (681) in 37:38. Extra-Biblical evidence that helps to support extending Isaiah into Manasseh's reign is found in the apocryphal book, Assumption of Isaiah, where a reference relates him being sawn in two during the reign of Manasseh. According to this information, Isaiah must have written chapter 6 by 740 B.C., which leaves a seven year gap until chapter 7 describing the Syro-Ephraimitic crisis in 733, and some scholars (notably Hayes and Irvine) have concluded that chapters 1-5 must have been written a few years before Uzziah's death (ca ). However, this is only a suggestion and cannot be supported by the text. Isaiah lived in troublesome times. He lived during the ascendancy of the Assyrian Empire under Tiglath-Pilesar III ( B.C.) who marched through Aram, reduced king Ahaz of Judah to vassalage, and later rulers (Shalmaneser and Sargon) conquered Samaria in 722 leaving Judah alone as representative of Yahweh's people. Assyria and its devastating war machine was indeed an unprecedented phenomenon that struck fear in all the nations of the Near East from Egypt to Persia. At no better time could one of the greatest of the OT prophets emerge in the drama of world history. Having surveyed the historical setting of Isaiah, it would be an imbalance not to briefly examine the religious situation in Judah during Isaiah's lifetime. Though it is true that Judah was economically stable and even somewhat prosperous under Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Manasseh; the social environment became the object of Yahweh's displeasure and (as we shall see later) His condemnation. Brueggemann adequately captures the essence of Isaiah's modus operandi where he describes the prophet's motives as "not driven simply by anger or even anguish, but by a cold intellectual assessment of the social processes around him." What Brueggemann means is that the world of the Judaens was a "contrived world" of false "positivism" instituted by the monarchic regime based

2 on political interests. The contrived world was the fantasy that Yahweh would never allow His people to be overrun by great enemies like Assyria, and that worshipping Baal along with other Canaanite deities was normal because of the long tradition of doing so since the days of Solomon. They believed that if Yahweh was angry with them, He would have done something to change things long ago; however, they failed to consider it was His long-suffering mercy that had been sustaining them all along. Even as this is true, judgment still loomed on the distant horizon until the final Babylonian invasion of 587 B.C. Literary Form The literary form of Isaiah 6 is generally understood by most scholars as a call narrative. Though we are primarily interested in 6:5-9, the whole chapter relates the "call" of Isaiah and his dialogue with Yahweh. Otto Kaiser, in his commentary on Isaiah, says that the book of Isaiah is a collection of prophetic sayings that coincide with the "Deuteronomistic" theology of history which highlights the faithlessness and ingratitude of the people towards their God; which then manifested itself into a faithless form of politics--a result of the personal behavior of the upper classes eventually deciding the fate of the people. Chapter 6 thus becomes Yahweh's response to the ingratitude and faithlessness of the people into a judgment Kaiser calls the "call to harden hearts." In understanding chapter 6 as a response (to what is reported in chapters1-5) Brueggemann is again helpful. He explains the unity of Isaiah throughout based on a dynamic interaction within the text. Brueggemann offers a thematic division (that neglects separate authors) beginning with chapters 1-39 as what he calls a radical sustained critique of the dominant ideology of the culture. What is meant here is that Isaiah reacts passionately at what is going on in the socio-political environment of Judah. Brueggemann then theologically links chapters as an embrace of pain, which is a time of lament that is both redemptive and leading to future hope. Finally, Isaiah ends with the release of what Brueggemann calls the social imagination or the final solution of a new ideal world that is no longer a polemical fiction, but unmistakable reality. Isaiah 6 thus falls into the critique of ideology category where judgment is sent out by a commissioned messenger whose message reveals Yahweh's hardened resolve to judge. One way scholars have of explaining why these thematic linkages occur can be found in C.F. Whitley's thesis which states that it is doubtful that the material in Isaiah is a correct estimate of the historical Isaiah. Through a linguistic study, Whitley argues that much of the material attributed to Isaiah son of Amoz is the result of a compilation of material from post-exilic times (probably, Whitley argues, by Deutero-Isaiah). Of course, Whitley argues from a traditional historical criticism that presupposes Isaiah son of Amoz could not have foreseen so far into the future since he did not live as long as the prophecies contained in the book span. Thus, the presupposition of multiple authors explains the differences of the Hebrew in the text. The logical conclusion then is that Deutero-Isaiah, who lived in the post-exilic times, edited and added to his predecessor to make Isaiah speak to the returning exiles in terms they could identify with. Brueggemann's thematic linkages are thus developed from Deutero-Isaiah's redactional efforts.

3 No doubt Whitley is correct in his linguistic observations, but there are other possibilities that may explain them. One possiblility is that Isaiah was an oral tradition that a later redactor compiled as the superscriptions that label various chapters suggest. The redactor wished to publish Isaiah's ministry and attribute the prophecies to him, but in the process used the language of his time. Another possibility is that Isaiah was a poet who never organized his prophecies into a book. A later redactor placed his prophecies into a kind of anthology to commemorate his legacy as like the evangelists did in their gospels for the ministry of Jesus. It is highly probable that a redaction process was undertaken. But in any event, pursuing the historical Isaiah is fruitless because the text has forever been preserved as it is. It was meant to be both a thematic and literary whole, and that is the way it should be read. This aside, we must return to the text. Structurally, Isaiah 6 serves as an introduction to chapters 7-8. Chapter 6 seems to suggest that more visions and prophecies are forthcoming. This is the only way to individually connect it with the following chapters. Chapter 6, similarly, is not connected with chapters 1-5 directly. However, if one subscribes to the interpretation that chapters 1-5 are a flashback to the early ministry of Isaiah, they can be considered a type of prologue leading to Isaiah's call. It is difficult though, to perceive chapters 1-5 as flashbacks to an earlier ministry given the lack of linear progression. By linear progression it is meant that they do not seemingly intend to recount Isaiah's career as it unfolded. Nor do these chapters attempt to summarize the rest of the book as like a flashback. Rather, they do unveil a pattern of a call to repentance, then judgments, and finally restoration. Basically chapters 1-5 serve to show why Isaiah was called in the first place. Judah is called to repentance (1:16), but fails to heed the warnings of Yahweh, and so Yahweh forces His hand and sends a prophet to reveal their sentence; yet still with a promise of a remnant. In concluding this section on literary form, we must mention the literary effects that are present in chapter 6. Kaiser relates well that "the reader is seized by the largescale imagery and scenery that fills one with reverence before the holiness of God. Isaiah sees the train of Yahweh's robe fill the temple and is knocked on his heels, so to speak, at Yahweh's holiness where he confesses his own worthlessness. Isaiah literally feels he is about to be annihilated by Yahweh's brilliance at any moment. The descriptions of Yahweh and His court have the effect of piling on one aspect of awesome power over another to impress upon the reader that Yahweh is beyond all comprehension. By Isaiah's descriptions of what he sees, the reader gets the feeling that what the prophet is experiencing is more than a mere vision. Isaiah has been "raptured" or caught up into heaven (perhaps in or out of body) and thrown into an experience that is all together real and life altering. All of the attempts at describing Yahweh's majesty and his own worthlessness before the great King, is strong evidence that Isaiah is trying to let the reader share in the total envelopment of the divine presence in what insufficient manner he can utter. Verse by Verse Exposition We now shall begin a verse by verse exposition starting at 6:5 and work through verse 9. The reason for dividing the text this way is because the crux of the "call" of Isaiah is

4 filled in these verses along with the nature of the message he is to deliver for Yahweh. Verse 11 picks up on the message itself which goes beyond the scope of this paper. All we are concerned with here is the call itself. Verse 5 "And I said: Woe! is me, for I am destroyed, for a man of unclean speech am I, and in the midst of people of unclean speech I dwell; for the King Lord of Hosts I see." Here Isaiah stands before Yahweh in all of His splendor. Page Kelley, in his commentary, demonstrates the mood of the scene like a trial that has just adjourned; where God is viewed as king eternal and His kingship is exalted above all thrones, and the heavenly council is assembled to sit in judgment upon the sinful nation of Judah. Isaiah sees only the final moments; the verdict is in, and he has been called in to deliver it. Isaiah's cry is out of extreme desperation. He is totally enveloped by the divine presence. There is no escape. Isaiah feels like Yahweh's brilliance will destroy him at any second. In effect, all he can do is submit and await his annihilation. Isaiah is consequently forced to see his own worthlessness in comparison to those around him in the heavenly court. But all of this extremity and magnificence deeply suggests that Isaiah is conscious in all of his faculties and not just experiencing some vision. The text itself plainly says Isaiah saw these things (6:1). In any event, this theophany is real enough to him that he expects death just like in a very bad nightmare. Isaiah's "nightmare come true" carries with it a parallelism to Judah. House offers up Isaiah's personal cry of "woe!" as parallel to Judah's "woe" with the difference being that Isaiah was wise enough to "sense his own 'woe', unlike Israel, which forces Yahweh to pronounce 'woe' on it." Isaiah's admission of his own personal wretchedness is what protects him from judgment as we shall see depicted in verse 7 with the prophet's purification--a scenario that should happen to Judah if it would only repent. Verse 6 "Then one of the Seraphim went up to me, and in his hand was a glowing stone taken from the altar with tongs." In this verse Isaiah is about to be rescued from his wretchedness by the Seraphim who is either sent by Yahweh or takes mercy upon himself for Isaiah's sake. Isaiah has just commented that he was of unclean speech (6:5) or generally speaking, unclean. Unclean is a ceremonial term from the Levitical legislation describing one tainted with a sin or sins yet to be atoned for. House quotes F. Delitzsch who suggests that Isaiah mentions his lips (here translated speech) because he cannot match the praise of the Seraphim. The Seraphim thus are preparing a rite of purification for Isaiah so that he can participate in the heavenly council on equal terms with them. Verse 7 "Then he touched me upon my mouth and said: 'Behold! this has touched upon your lips and made you free from unrighteousness and your sin cleansed.'" Kelley notes

5 that Isaiah's purification comes not without pain as the glowing stone (or burning coal) is symbolic of the price of forgiveness that is often accompanied by suffering and even death. The purity represented by the stone is seared onto Isaiah's lips as like being branded by Yahweh's mark of holiness. Also, as Kaiser comments, even though Isaiah admits his impurity, his purification shows that Yahweh is free to use a fallen guilty one as an instrument. Isaiah's purification is an important element in 6:5-9, but it is not the climax, nor is the theophany of Yahweh on His throne the most heavily emphasized part of chapter 6. The theophany serves as an attention grabber to show the reader that something very important is about to take place. Isaiah's purification is also just a formality. Kaiser says the purification can be perceived as an initiation into the prophethood--enabling Isaiah to take part in the council of Yahweh. Of course this must be qualified since we do not know if Isaiah was already a prophet with a previous ministry that might have been reflected in chapters 1-5. It stands to reason that no matter what Isaiah's status was prior to his summoning in heaven, he would had to have been cleansed of his sins to commune with Yahweh. It is entirely possible that Isaiah is transformed temporarily into an incorruptible body just so that he can communicate with Yahweh since it is unlikely that anything of flesh can function in the heavenly environment. Either of these two possibilities are possible, but not necessary to interpret the text's message. Verse 8 "And then I heard the voice of the Lord say: 'Who shall I send, and who shall bear for us?' Then I said, 'Here I am, send me.'" Here we have a very peculiar response on the part of Isaiah. Why is the response peculiar? Isaiah volunteers into Yahweh's service, but many other great prophets in the OT try everything they can think of to avoid serving Yahweh. When Moses was called, he offered many excuses including a speech impediment. Jonah tried to run from Yahweh, but he did not get very far before he was cornered. Elijah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel all had their complaints too. Why is Isaiah so quick to respond in the affirmative? Watts believes that this volunteerism by Isaiah is proof that he was not called in the first place. According to this interpretation, Isaiah was already prepared to do the work of Yahweh, but this is speculative at best since we just do not know enough about how and when Isaiah was taken to heaven or his relationship with Yahweh prior to this event. But if we look at the text, we might infer that Isaiah was extremely grateful for being spared by Yahweh and indebted to Him. This is logical and probably part of his motives. Yet, he might just as well have been thinking he might become the instrument through which Yahweh will cleanse his people. If Yahweh was willing to cleanse him, might He not do the same for the people of Judah? We shall come back to this point shortly in the exposition of verse 9. Verse 9 'Then He said, 'Go and say to this people': 'Keep on hearing but do not understand, and keep on seeing but do not perceive.'" Isaiah now receives the verdict he

6 must sentence his own people with. In the words of Watts, Isaiah is sent to warn of impending disaster much like Abraham (Sodom and Gomorrah), Noah (the deluge), Moses (the golden calf incident), and Samuel concerning Eli's house. The fate of Judah ranks equally with all of these events in importance. Judah's failure is just one more added to a long history of rebellion. Yahweh's proclamation to hear and not understand, and see but not perceive, is a statement of alienation--that is Judah must continue on without Him. Judah is to become God forsaken and cut off from any further divine counsel. Her sins must run their course before Yahweh can procure a remnant from which to start anew. This punishment is so severe to Isaiah that he asks "how long?" in (6:11). In verse 11 we see a deflated and dejected Isaiah in contrast to his earlier volunteering self in (6:8). Isaiah seems taken aback in some way. What happened? Here is where he finds out that Judah is not going to be cleansed after all. Does this explain why he was so quick to volunteer in the first place? It is highly possible that he thought that Yahweh planned to enact a reform just like He offered Ninevah in Jonah's day. If Isaiah felt he was just as unclean as his people, and Yahweh cleansed him, why would He not cleanse Judah as well? Though the evidence of the text is silent on this suggestion, Isaiah's reaction does fit this line of reasoning fairly well. What then is significant in Yahweh's call to harden hearts? Kaiser feels that the reasoning behind hardening men's hearts is to dispel the notion that God was impotent at the time of the disaster, but actually resolved it to happen as His judgment. This point is well made in light of the fact that in the ancient world, it was believed that the people with the stronger god always gained victory. Of course the ancients did not believe they were under a covenant with their gods in the same manner as the Hebrews. Their relationship with Zeus, Marduk, Baal, Dagon, or Isis was more mutual and even symbiotic (i.e. without worshippers to sacrifice to them, the gods and goddesses might wither away; conversely the human worshippers will not receive rain, harvests, or victory in war if they fail to please their gods). For the Hebrews, they offered nothing to Yahweh that He needed, but He supplied everything they had to have. If they failed in their covenant with Him, Yahweh was released of his part of the bargain. Yahweh, thus, can never be held accountable (except it be His judgment) if the Hebrews suffer affliction. Simply put, Yahweh's name does not depend on the success of the Hebrews; He is more than able to vindicate Himself when the need arises. This last part of our discussion has a post-exilic ring to it. But it does not have to be post-exilic. By Isaiah's time, Assyria had already destroyed Samaria in 722 B.C. Samaria was as much a part of Israel as Judah was. The need to dispel the impotence of Yahweh was just as necessary then as when the Babylonians destroyed Judah. Isaiah of the 8th-century could just as easily have written with this in mind as a later redactor. Summary Theological Motifs As we have examined Isaiah's experience with Yahweh in Isaiah 6:5-9, we must consider the overarching theological theme found in its contents. Kaiser reminds us that the theophany of the vision is subordinate to the message. However, the theophany is

7 more than just a mere setting for symbolic and dramatic effect as Watts believes. Can the message be conveyed without the inclusion of the one who sent it? Nevertheless, Isaiah 6 is a narrative that is a call to decision. Isaiah is the example for Judah to follow. He confesses his impurity and is saved. This, too, could be Judah's fate, but Yahweh knows Judah will not confess. As Brueggemann would argue, Judah is no different than the everyday person who embodies success, prosperity and self-sufficiency--it cannot entertain any alternatives until they are taken away. Yahweh will thus allow our selfsufficiency to run its course until it leads to ruin and a re-dependence upon Him once again. Of course, this can only be applied as far as Yahweh's mercy will suffer. We also see from the text that confession carries with it a certain measure of redemptive pain. Isaiah's purification is symbolic that the purity of Yahweh must in some way be "burned" into our hearts as well as on our mouth. After all, the mouth is only an extension of the heart. How else can confession be redemptive if it is not felt? Confession is self conviction that shatters the falseness of one's imagined reality. As anyone can fathom, this is very painful even more so than physical pain. Isaiah is, therefore, not special because he stands before Yahweh or volunteers to serve Him. Isaiah gains significance because he realizes the pitiful reality of himself and his rebellious people. Isaiah 6 is thus a "wake-up call" to "know thy self" and let Yahweh come in and cleanse the impurity within. Until this is done, the ideal world cannot be fashioned where Yahweh is reconciled to His people. Bibliography Walter Brueggemann, "Unity and Dynamic in the Isaiah Tradition," Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, V.29, ed. David J. A. Clines, Sheffield, England: Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Press, Raymond B. Dillard and Tremper Longman III, An Introduction to the Old Testament, Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan Publishing House, Paul House, "Isaiah's Call and its Context in Isaiah 1-6," Criswell Theological Review, V.6.2, Otto Kaiser, "Isaiah 1-12: A Commentary," Old Testament Library, V.20, ed. James L. Mays, Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, Page Kelley, "Isaiah," The Broadman Bible Commentary, V.5, ed. Clifton J. Allen, Nashville, Tennessee: Broadman Press, John D.W. Watts, "Isaiah 1-33," Word Biblical Commentary, V.24, ed. David A. Hubbard, Waco, Texas: Word Books, C. F. Whitley, "The Call and Mission of Isaiah," Journal of Near Eastern Studies, V.18,

8 ed. Keith C. Seele, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, We shall limit our study to these four verses because they describe the attitude of the prophet, God's acceptance of him as a suitable messenger, and the nature of the message he is to give. Dillard and Longman, An Introduction to the Old Testament, (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan Publishing House, 1994), p Including the death of Sennacherib in the dating for Isaiah son of Amoz is a presupposition for the unity of the book according to the traditional critical assignment of chapters 1-39 to him. We shall not delve into the authorship debate here because this paper has not the parameters to adequately deal with it. Dillard and Longman would argue for the single authorship of Isaiah son of Amoz (as I would also argue for), but the traditional critical scholarship trend has attributed only the chapters mentioned above. Chapters are given to the so-called Deutero-Isaiah or Second Isaiah, and attributed to Trito-Isaiah or Third Isaiah based on the emphases on Assyria, Babylon, and Restoration (i.e. end of exile) respectively. Ibid., p Paul House, "Isaiah's Call and its Context in Isaiah 1-6," Criswell Theological Review, 1993, p Dillard and Longman, An Introduction to the Old Testament, p Walter Brueggemann, " Unity and Dynamic in the Isaiah Tradition," Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, vol. 29, 1984, p. 93. Ibid., p. 93. John D.W. Watts, in his commentary, does not subscribe to the "call" intepretation. Watts says that there is no indication that this is Isaiah's first vision or experience with God. I feel this is correct, however, for the sake of convention we shall label Isaiah's experience a call since debating this point is insignificant to the main emphasis of the chapter which is its message. John D.W. Watts, "Isaiah 1-33," Word Biblical Commentary, V.24, ed. David A. Hubbard, (Waco, Texas: Word Books, 1985), p. 70. Otto Kaiser, "Isaiah 1-12: A Commentary," Old Testament Library, ed. James L. Mays, (Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, 1983), pp Note, that Kaiser here correlates well with Brueggemann. Ibid., p. 117 Walter Brueggemann, "Unity and Dynamic in the Isaiah Tradition," p. 91. Ibid., p. 92. Ibid., p. 96. Ibid., p. 99. C.F. Whitley, "The Call and Mission of Isaiah," Journal of Near Eastern Studies, V. 18, ed. Keith C. Seele, (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1959), p. 38. Ibid., p. 47. Otto Kaiser, "Isaiah 1-12: A Commentary," p. 121 Ibid., p. 119 Translation for the verses are taken from Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia. Translations are left in as wooden a form as possible to avoid the biases that a polished English translation can have on a text. Polishing a text is often a way of imposing upon the scriptures a personality not their own. Page Kelley, "Isaiah," The Broadman Bible Commentary, V. 5, ed. Clifton J. Allen, (Nashville: Broadman Press, 1971), p Ibid., p Paul House, "Isaiah's Call and its Context in Isaiah 1-6," p Often translated as "burning coal." Paul House, "Isaiah's Call and its Context in Isaiah 1-6," p House, however, prefers Clements' view that Isaiah realizes how unfit he is to be Yahweh's spokesman. He states further that it is also a reflection of Israel's "unclean lips" as a poor elect nation. The problem with this is that we do not have any proof in the text that suggests Isaiah even knew why he was summoned to heaven. For all Isaiah knew, he was being judged himself as his initial reaction to Yahweh's magnificence suggests. Page Kelley, "Isaiah," p Otto Kaiser, "Isaiah 1-12: A Commentary," p Ibid., p John D.W. Watts, "Isaiah 1-33," p. 75. John D.W. Watts, "Isaiah 1-33," p. 72. Otto Kaiser, "Isaiah 1-12: A Commentary," p Ibid., p John D.W. Watts, "Isaiah 1-33," p. 76. Walter Brueggemann, "Unity and Dynamic in the Isaiah Tradition," p. 101.