Authentic leadership of preceptors: predictor of new graduate nurses' work engagement and job satisfaction

Transcription

1 Journal of Nursing Management, 2010, 18, Authentic leadership of preceptors: predictor of new graduate nurses' work engagement and job satisfaction LISA M. GIALLONARDO RN, MScN 1, CAROL A. WONG RN, PhD 2 and CARROLL L. IWASIW RN, EdD 3 1 Faculty, Sheridan College, Brampton, Ontario, Canada, 2 Assistant Professor, University of Western Ontario and 3 Professor, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada Correspondence Lisa Giallonardo School of Community and Liberal Studies Sheridan College Brampton, Ontario Canada lisa.giallonardo@sherdianc. on.ca GIALLONARDO L.M., WONG C.A. &IWASIWC.L. (2010) Journal of Nursing Management 18, Authentic leadership of preceptors: predictor of new graduate nurses' work engagement and job satisfaction Aim To examine the relationships between new graduate nursesõ perceptions of preceptor authentic leadership, work engagement and job satisfaction. Background During a time when the retention of new graduate nurses is of the upmost importance, the reliance on preceptors to facilitate the transition of new graduate nurses is paramount. Methods A predictive non-experimental survey design was used to examine the relationships between study variables. The final sample consisted of 170 randomly selected Registered Nurses (RNs) with <3 years experience and who worked in an acute care setting. Results Hierarchical multiple regression demonstrated that 20% of the variance in job satisfaction was explained by authentic leadership and work engagement. Furthermore, work engagement was found to partially mediate the relationship between authentic leadership of preceptors and engagement of new graduate nurses. Conclusions New graduate nurses paired with preceptors who demonstrate high levels of authentic leadership feel more engaged and are more satisfied. Engagement is an important mechanism by which authentic leadership affects job satisfaction. Implications for nursing management Managers must be aware of the role preceptorsõ authentic leadership plays in promoting work engagement and job satisfaction of new nurses. Keywords: authentic leadership, job satisfaction, new graduate nurses, preceptors, work engagement Accepted for publication: 7 April 2010 Introduction The retention of new graduate nurses in the workplace is essential for healthcare systems to deliver quality patient care. TodayÕs new graduates enter a chaotic workplace characterized by nursing shortages, advanced medical technology, high patient acuity and scarce resources (Scott et al. 2008). The inability to handle intense working environments has resulted in new graduate nurse turnover rates of 35 65% within the first year of employment (Beecroft et al. 2008). DOI: /j x ª 2010 The Authors. Journal compilation ª 2010 Blackwell Publishing Ltd 993

2 L. M. Giallonardo et al. The role work engagement and job satisfaction play in staff retention has received considerable attention in both nursing and management literature. Researchers have found job satisfaction to be a predictor of absenteeism, burnout, turnover and intent to quit (Shields & Ward 2001, Lu et al. 2005). Furthermore, significant relationships have been found between work engagement, job satisfaction, job performance and retention (Harter et al. 2002, Schaufeli & Bakker 2004, Laschinger & Leiter 2006, Simpson 2009). Subsequently, nurse educators and administrators have been challenged to facilitate the transition of new graduates to the workplace in a way that develops engagement and fosters satisfaction, thus improving retention. The term ÔtransitionÕ refers to the period of time when a new graduate nurse undergoes a process of learning and adjustment in order to acquire the skills, knowledge and values required to become a functioning member of the healthcare team (Delaney 2003). The transition from student to practicing nurse is widely recognized as a difficult Ôright of passageõ (Tradewell 1996 p. 184) in which new nurses undergo a process of socialization to their working environment. In order to facilitate the transition of new graduate nurses to the workplace, a preceptor model of orientation, termed the ÔNew Graduate InitiativeÕ (NGI), has been implemented in hospitals in Ontario, Canada. Preceptorship involves a one-to-one pairing of a practitioner with a less experienced learner who is striving to achieve a set of mutually defined learning objectives (Bourbonnais & Kerr 2007). The NGI is characterized by a nurse preceptor providing individualized supervision, support and teaching to a new graduate nurse, for a minimum of 12 weeks (Government of Ontario 2006). Preceptorship has been found to help new graduate nurses identify with the positive professional attitudes and behaviours needed for professional socialization (Speers et al. 2004, Hayes & Sexton Scott 2007) and bridge the gap between practice and education (Myrick & Young 2005). Furthermore, there is an overwhelming body of literature that reports improved retention of new graduate nurses resulting from preceptored work experience (Janiszewski Goodin 2003, Almada et al. 2004, Halfer & Graf 2006, Tanna 2006, Newhouse et al. 2007). Despite the positive new graduate nurse outcomes that have been attributed to preceptorship, there is limited data regarding the relationship between the leadership behaviours of preceptors and the professional attitudes and behaviours of new graduate nurses. Of the limited body of research that has focused on preceptor leadership, leadership is often restricted to autocratic, democratic, laissez-faire or bureaucratic leadership styles (Lockwood-Rayermann 2003) and is descriptive in nature (Delaney 2003, Fox et al. 2005). Applying the concept of authentic leadership to preceptors may provide insight into the ways in which preceptor leadership influences the professional attitudes and behaviours of new graduate nurses. Authentic leadership is a process that Ôdraws from both positive psychological capacities and a highly developed organizational context, which results in both greater self-awareness and self-regulated positive behaviours on the part of leaders and associates, fostering positive self-developmentõ (Luthans & Avolio 2003, p. 243). In their theory of authentic leadership, Avolio et al. (2004) suggest that authentic leaders are able to enhance the engagement and satisfaction of followers by strengthening their identification with the leader and organization and promoting hope, trust, optimism and positive emotions. The appropriateness of conceptualizing preceptors as authentic leaders is evident in the parallels between the authentic leader follower relationship and the preceptor preceptee relationship. As discussed by Myrick and Young (2005), the cornerstone of effective preceptorship is the Ôauthentic connectionõ, which characterizes the preceptor preceptee relationship. In order to achieve authenticity, a preceptor embarks on an open and transparent relationship in which he/she is Ôa positive role model even during adverse, critical or frustrating situationsõ and Ôdemonstrates leadership skills in terms of setting priorities, making sound decisions, and being a role modelõ (Speers et al p. 129). These interactions allow for a richer understanding of the nursing culture (Schumacher 2007), and a smoother transition for new graduates from student to practicing nurse. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the relationships between new graduate nursesõ perceptions of preceptor authentic leadership and their work engagement and job satisfaction. Theoretical framework The theoretical framework guiding this study integrates Avolio et al.õs (2004) model of authentic leadership with Schaufeli and BakkerÕs (2004) concept of work engagement. As depicted in Figure 1, it is proposed that authentic leadership creates the authentic connection that fosters employee engagement, which in turn, results in job satisfaction. Thus, work engagement is conceptualized as the mechanism through which authentic leadership of preceptors predicts new graduatesõ job satisfaction. 994 ª 2010 The Authors. Journal compilation ª 2010 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Journal of Nursing Management, 18,

3 Authentic leadership of preceptors Self-awareness Relational transparency Internalized moral perspective Balanced processing Figure 1 Theoretical framework. Authentic leadership Vigor Work engagement Absorption Dedication Job satisfaction Avolio et al. (2004) conceptualize authentic leaders as those who act in accordance with what they believe and who interact in an open and transparent manner with others. Authentic leadership involves the ongoing processes whereby leaders and followers gain selfawareness and establish open, transparent, trusting and genuine relationships with others (Luthans & Avolio 2003). The core components of authentic leadership are self-awareness, relational transparency, internalized moral perspective and balanced processing (Walumbwa et al. 2008a). Self-awareness is the process of Ôhaving awareness of, and trust in, oneõs motives, feelings, desires, and selfrelevant cognitionsõ (Kernis 2003, p. 13). It is an ongoing process whereby authentic leaders come to understand their unique talents, strengths, values and purpose (Avolio et al. 2004). Gardner et al. (2005) assert that authentic leaders will be relationally transparent in expressing their true emotions and feelings to followers. Such behaviour promotes trust through disclosures that involve openly sharing information while trying to minimize displays of inappropriate emotions and expressions (Kernis 2003). The inherent ethical/ moral competent of authentic leaders, termed internalized moral perspective (Avolio & Gardner 2005), is a form of self-regulation that is guided by internal moral standards and values rather than group, organization and societal pressures (Walumbwa et al. 2008a). Balanced processing refers to the process of objectively analysing all relevant data and soliciting othersõ views before coming to a decision (Luthans & Avolio 2003). Work engagement refers to a persistent and pervasive positive work-related state of mind (Schaufeli & Bakker 2004). It is characterized by feelings of vigour, dedication and absorption (Schaufeli et al. 2006). Vigour is characterized by high levels of energy and mental resilience while working, the willingness to invest effort in oneõs work and persistence even in the face of difficulties. Dedication refers to being strongly involved in oneõs work and experiencing a sense of significance, enthusiasm, inspiration, pride and challenge. Absorption is characterized by being fully concentrated and happily engrossed in oneõs work, whereby time passes quickly and one has difficulties with detaching oneself from work. According to Schaufeli and Bakker (2004), engagement results from job resources (feedback, support and supervisory coaching), and serves as the impetus for increased job satisfaction and decreased turnover. Related research Leadership of preceptors Preceptors are widely accepted as clinical leaders (Billay & Myrick 2007). They are expected to be role models, nurturing, compassionate and experts in clinical knowledge (Speers et al. 2004); however, there are no explicit expectations of leadership abilities. Consequently, very few researchers have explored the leadership of preceptors. In a study of 23 undergraduate nursing students, Zilembo and Monterosso (2008) found preceptees require leadership from their preceptors to develop psychomotor skill competencies. Within this study, the characteristics of purposefulness, clinical competence, support and motivation were identified as the most important leadership qualities in preceptors. In addition, Lockwood-Rayermann (2003) suggested preceptor leadership style and preceptee personality must be appropriately matched for new graduate nurses to successfully transition from student to professional nurse. This research, although seminal in the field, classifies leadership in terms of autocratic, democratic, laissezfaire and bureaucratic styles resulting in a narrow representation of preceptor leadership. Work engagement The study of work engagement, as conceptualized by Schaufeli and Bakker (2004), is minimally noted within the nursing literature. Laschinger et al. (2009) found work engagement to be a significant mediator between empowerment and perceived effectiveness for both new graduate and experienced nurses. In a study of medical surgical nurses, Simpson (2009) found large significant positive correlations between employee engagement and turnover intentions and job satisfaction. In addition, hierarchical multiple regression revealed 46% of the variability in work engagement was accounted for by registered nursesõ satisfaction with their professional status, interaction at work and intention to quit. ª 2010 The Authors. Journal compilation ª 2010 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Journal of Nursing Management, 18,

4 L. M. Giallonardo et al. Although there is limited nursing research utilizing Schaufeli and Bakker s (2004) conceptualization of work engagement, its focus of study continues to evolve within psychology and business literature. Walumbwa et al. (2008b), found a positive relationship between authentic leadership and work engagement. Schaufeli and Bakker (2004) found a particularly strong and consistent relationship between availability of job resources and work engagement. There was also a somewhat weaker, but still significant negative relationship between engagement and turnover intentions. Similarly, Harter et al. (2002) demonstrated that employee engagement is negatively associated with turnover and positively associated with job satisfaction. Job satisfaction Job satisfaction is conceptually defined as Ôthe extent to which employees like their jobsõ (Stamps 1997, p. 13). The concept of job satisfaction has been consistently present in nursing research for decades; however, emphasis on job satisfaction of new graduate nurses has recently increased in response to the current and anticipated nursing shortage (Craft Morgan & Lynn 2009). The positive relationship between authentic leadership and job satisfaction was reported by Walumbwa et al. (2008a). Although there is no published nursing research reporting the effect of authentic leadership on the job satisfaction of new graduate nurse, several studies identified leadership as a strong contributing factor to the level of job satisfaction new graduate nurses experience. McNeese-Smith (1995) found significant relationships between leadership behaviours of managers and job satisfaction of nurses in two correlational studies. Utilizing the Leadership Practices Inventory (Kouzes & Posner 1995), Loke (2001) found 29% of Singaporean staff nursesõ job satisfaction was explained by their managersõ leadership behaviour. Furthermore, in a study involving over 2000 nurses from 19 Canadian teaching hospitals, hierarchical linear modelling determined that nurse managersõ leadership had significant positive influence on nursesõ perceptions of job satisfaction (Doran 2003). Job satisfaction as a predictor of new graduate turnover has been reported in several studies. FangÕs (2001) study of Singaporean nurses demonstrated that job satisfaction was significantly negatively related to turnover intention and intention to quit with approximately 41% of the variance in turnover cognition explained by job satisfaction. In addition, Lu et al. (2007) found there was a negative relationship between new graduate nursesõ job satisfaction and intention to leave their place of employment. Hypotheses Based on Avolio et al.õs (2004) theory of authentic leadership and a review of the literature, we hypothesized that: New graduate nursesõ perceptions of preceptor authentic leadership positively predict work engagement and job satisfaction. New graduate nursesõ work engagement mediates the relationship between their perceptions of preceptor authentic leadership and job satisfaction. Methods Design and sample A non-experimental, predictive survey design was used to test the model. Ethical approval for this study was received from the University of Western Ontario Ethics Review Board. The sample of nurses used in this study was randomly selected from the College of Nurses of Ontario (CNO) registry list. Initially, nurses working in acute care settings, with <2 years nursing experience were sought. The inclusion criteria were later modified to include new graduate nurses with less than or equal to 3 years of nursing experience because the timing of sample collection coincided with the timing of annual membership renewal, resulting in the majority of the sample having more than 2 years working experience. In order to determine the appropriate sample size for this study, a power analysis was conducted. Based on an alpha of 0.05 and a power level of 0.80 (Faul et al. 2007), the calculation revealed that 68 participants were required to detect a moderate effect size (0.15). However, 500 participants were sought to participate in this study to account for lower response rates typically found with mailed surveys (Polit & Beck 2008), movement of new graduate nurses from employers and the potential loss of participants from errors on the registry list. The final sample consisted of 170 questionnaires (response rate = 39%). Complete demographic characteristics are presented in Table 1. Consistent with the demographic profile of new nurses in Ontario (CNO 2008), the majority of nurses in the sample were female (91.8%), attended a 4-year BScN programme (92.4%) and were employed full-time (75.3%). New graduate nurses averaged 28 years of age, 22 months experience in nursing and 2.45 years since graduation. Medical surgical was the 996 ª 2010 The Authors. Journal compilation ª 2010 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Journal of Nursing Management, 18,

5 Authentic leadership of preceptors Table 1 Demographic characteristics of the sample (n = 170) Demographic Frequency (n) Per cent % Gender Female Male Employment status Full-time Part-time Casual Type of program 4 year BScN Accelerated BScN Specialty area Medicine-surgery Critical care Emergency Maternal-child Paediatrics Mental health Peri-operative Undefined N Mean SD Age Months of experience in work setting Years since graduation Table 2 Reliability analysis, means and standard deviations for instrument scales and subscales Instrument Number of items Alpha coefficient Mean Authentic leadership questionnaire Subscales Relational transparency Balanced processing Self awareness Internalized moral perspective Utrecht work engagement scale Ubscales Vigor Absorption Dedication Index of work satisfaction Subscales Pay Autonomy Task requirements Organizational policies Professional status Nurse nurse interactions Nurse physician interactions SD most common area of practice (45.9%), followed by critical care (15.3%) and emergency (14.7%). Data collection Data were collected by mailed survey. Consistent with the strategies advocated by Dillman (1978) to maximize survey return rate, each participant was mailed a package that included the questionnaire, letter of information, a self-addressed stamped envelope and a gift certificate for a local coffee shop. Two weeks after the initial mailing, a reminder letter was sent to all nonrespondents. Then, 3 weeks after the second mailing, a final package consisting of a follow-up letter, replacement questionnaire and a self-addressed stamped envelope was sent to all non-respondents. The response rate in this study was lower than anticipated (39%), albeit still acceptable. Instrumentation Three standardized self-report instruments were used to measure study variables. The Authentic Leadership Questionnaire (ALQ) (Avolio et al. 2007) was used to measure new graduate nursesõ perception of preceptor authentic leadership. The ALQ consists of 16 items, divided into the four authentic leadership subscales: relational transparency, balanced processing, self awareness and internalized moral perspective. Confirmatory factor analysis has supported the validity of the fours dimensions of authentic leadership (Walumbwa et al. 2008a). Items are rated on a five-point Likert scale ranging from 0 = not at all to 4 = frequently, if not always. Each subscale was averaged to produce a total scale score between 0 and 4 with higher scores representative of higher levels of authenticity. Acceptable internal consistency has been consistently reported, as evident by CronbachÕs alphas ranging from 0.70 to 0.90 (Walumbwa et al. 2008a) (see Table 2 for the alphas obtained in this study). The Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES) (Schaufeli & Bakker 2003) is a self-report questionnaire and was used to measure the work engagement of new graduate nurses in this study. The instrument consists of 17 items based on the components of work engagement: vigor, dedication and absorption. Confirmatory factor analyses have supported the three-dimensional structure of the instrument (Schaufeli & Bakker 2006). Items are rated on a seven-point Likert scale ranging from 0 = never to 6 = always, everyday. Each subscale was averaged to produce a total scale score between 0 and 6 with higher scores representative of greater work engagement. The internal consistency of the UWES has ª 2010 The Authors. Journal compilation ª 2010 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Journal of Nursing Management, 18,

6 L. M. Giallonardo et al. been consistently reported be 0.70 or greater (Schaufeli et al. 2006) and in the present study, the alphas were acceptable expect for the absorption subscale which was Job satisfaction among study participants was assessed using Part B of the Index of Work Satisfaction scale (IWS) (Stamps 1997). This instrument consists of 44 items divided into six subscales: pay, autonomy, task requirements, organizational policies, professional status and interaction. Items are rated on a seven-point Likert scale ranging from ranging from 1 = strongly agree to 7 = strongly disagree. The responses to each item were summed to obtain the Total Scale Score (TSS), which represented the participantsõ current level of job satisfaction. Possible scores range from 44 to 308, with higher scores indicating higher job satisfaction. Acceptable internal consistencies of have been consistently reported (Stamps 1997, Zangaro & Soeken 2005). In the present study, CronbachÕs reliability coefficient for the IWS was 0.89; subscales ranged from 0.60 to 0.89, with the subscale of professional status resulting in an alpha of <0.70. A researcher-developed demographic questionnaire was included to elicit descriptive information about participantsõ age, gender, year of graduation, type of nursing programme attended, academic institution attended, length of employment in the current work setting, employment status, speciality area and preceptorship experience. Data analysis Statistical analyses were conducted using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS), version 16.0 (SPSS Inc. 2007). Descriptive statistics were computed on all study variables. PearsonÕs correlations, hierarchical multiple regression and mediation analysis (Baron & Kenny 1986) were used to test the study hypotheses. Consistent with the assumptions outlined by Polit and Beck (2008), data were normally distributed and a linear relationship existed between the independent variable (authentic leadership) and dependent variables (work engagement and job satisfaction). The means and standard deviations for the major study variables are summarized in Table 2. New graduate nurses perceived their preceptors to have a moderate level of authentic leadership (M = 3.05, SD = 0.62). As these groups have not been studied in authentic leadership research, no direct comparisons could be made with other like groups. New graduate nurses in this study were found to be moderately engaged (M = 3.98, SD = 0.61). Of the three subscales contributing to work engagement, new graduate nurses in this study reported dedication (M = 4.53, SD = 0.79) the highest engagement factor, followed by absorption (M = 3.85, SD = 0.71) and vigour (M = 3.77, SD = 0.70). These findings are supported by Laschinger et al. (2009) and Simpson (2009) who reported similar findings in their study of new graduate nurses. Similar to findings from related research (Ea et al. 2008, Simpson 2009), the level of job satisfaction, or TSS for this sample, was in the third quartile (between the 50th and 75 th percentile) (M = , SD = 27.12) of the highest possible score of 308, indicating a moderate level of job satisfaction (Stamps 1997). In the present study, new graduate nurses reported professional status (M = 38.38, SD = 5.00) to be the most satisfying aspect of their work, followed by autonomy (M = 37.77, SD = 6.37), nurse nurse interaction (M = 25.72, SD = 6.02) and nurse physician interaction (M = 24.24, SD = 6.04). Conversely, new graduate nurse in this study found task requirements (M = 19.76, SD = 5.58), organizational policies (M = 23.01, SD = 7.29) and pay (M = 23.36, SD = 6.62) to be the most dissatisfying. No significant relationships were found between the demographic variables (age, gender, type of nursing programme attended, employment status, speciality area, number of preceptors and participation in the NGI) and the major study variables (authentic leadership, work engagement and job satisfaction). Tests of hypotheses In the first hypothesis, preceptor authentic leadership and work engagement were posited to positively predict job satisfaction in new graduate nurses. Hierarchical multiple regression revealed 15% of the variance in job satisfaction was explained by work engagement (R 2 = 0.15, F = 29.01, P < 0.01). When authentic leadership was entered into the regression, work engagement and authentic leadership accounted for 20% of the variance in job satisfaction (R 2 = 0.20, F = 20.24, P < 0.01). Furthermore, work engagement and preceptor authentic leadership were both significant independent predictors of job satisfaction (ß = 0.34, t = 4.80, P < 0.01 and ß = 0.22, t = 3.02, P < 0.01). Further analysis of the correlations among major study variables showed that new graduate nursesõ perceptions of preceptor authenticity were positively related to new graduate nursesõ work engagement (r = 0.21, P < 0.01) (see Table 3). Authentic leadership was most strongly related to dedication (r = 0.29, P < 0.01) followed by vigour (r = 0.19, P < 0.05). 998 ª 2010 The Authors. Journal compilation ª 2010 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Journal of Nursing Management, 18,

7 Authentic leadership of preceptors Table 3 Correlations between authentic leadership and work engagement Work engagement Vigor Absorption Dedication Authentic leadership 0.21** 0.19** ** Relational transparency 0.19** 0.13* ** Balanced processing 0.18** 0.15* ** Self awareness 0.14** 0.16* ** Internalized moral perspective 0.24** 0.21** ** *P < 0.05, one-tailed. **P < 0.01, one-tailed. However, no significant relationships were found between authentic leadership and the absorption subscale of work engagement. Overall, small yet significant positive relationships were found between work engagement and the authentic leadership variables of relational transparency, balanced processing, selfawareness and internalized moral perspective (r = 0.19, P < 0.01; r = 0.18, P < 0.01; r = 0.14, P < 0.01; r = 0.24, P < 0.01, respectively). Relationships between authentic leadership and job satisfaction and work engagement and job satisfaction were also examined (see Table 4). The highest positive correlations were found between work engagement and professional status of new graduate nurses (r = 0.47, P < 0.01) and authentic leadership and nurse nurse interaction (r = 0.41, P < 0.01). No significant relationships were found between authentic leadership and pay, authentic leadership and organizational policies, work engagement and pay, and work engagement and organizational policies (P > 0.05). In the second hypothesis, it was proposed that work engagement mediates the relationship between authentic leadership and job satisfaction. According to Baron and Kenny (1986), four conditions are necessary to establish mediation: (1) the independent and mediating variables must be significantly related, (2) the independent and dependent variables must be significantly related, (3) the mediator and dependent variable must be significantly related and (4) the relationship between the independent variable and dependent variable should be non-significant or weaker when the mediator is added. In the present study, authentic leadership was positively related to work engagement (b = 0.21, P<0.01), thus, condition (1) was supported. Authentic leadership was positively and significantly related to job satisfaction (b = 0.29, P<0.01) and, thus, supported condition (2) for mediation. Work engagement was positively related to job satisfaction (b = 0.34, P<0.01) and, thus, supported condition (3). Furthermore, results show that, after work engagement was taken into account, the effects of authentic leadership (b = 0.22, P<0.01) became weaker, albeit still significant, which suggests partial mediation (Figure 2). To further assess the significance of the mediation, a Sobel (1982) for indirect effects was applied (Sobel test statistic = 2.44, P = 0.01) (MacKinnon et al. 2002). Results show that the mediating effect of work engagement for authentic leadership and job satisfaction was significant. Thus, Hypothesis two was partially supported. Discussion The purpose of the present study was to examine the relationships between new graduate nursesõ perceptions of preceptor authentic leadership and their work engagement and job satisfaction. Empirical support was gained for Avolio et al.õs (2004) contention that authentic leadership impacts the work attitudes and behaviours of employees. Specifically, new graduate nurses who reported higher preceptor authentic leadership reported greater work engagement. Increased work engagement resulted in greater job satisfaction. The findings also support the argument that work Table 4 Correlations between authentic leadership and work engagement with job satisfaction Job satisfaction Pay Autonomy Task requirements Organizational policies Professional status Nurse-nurse interaction Nurse-physician interaction Authentic leadership 0.29** ** 0.15* ** 0.41** 0.07 Relational transparency 0.26** ** ** 0.31** 0.08 Balanced processing 0.17** * 0.31** 0.01 Self awareness 0.25** ** 0.16* ** 0.39** 0.12 Internalized moral perspective 0.31** ** 0.17* ** 0.40** 0.12 Work engagement 0.39** ** 0.24** ** 0.23** 0.21** Vigor 0.42** ** 0.29** 0.19* 0.24** 0.26** 0.27** Dedication 0.49** ** 0.33** 0.17* 0.62** 0.32** 0.26** Absorption 0.16** ** * *P < 0.05, one-tailed. **P < 0.01, one-tailed. ª 2010 The Authors. Journal compilation ª 2010 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Journal of Nursing Management, 18,

8 L. M. Giallonardo et al. (β = 0.21, P < 0.01) Work (β = 0.34, P < 0.01) engagement Authentic leadership Figure 2 Final model. (β = 0.22, P < 0.01) Job satisfaction engagement partially mediates the relationship between authentic leadership and job satisfaction. As predicted in the first hypothesis, new graduate nursesõ perceptions of preceptor authentic leadership and work engagement positively predicted job satisfaction. In particular, when new graduate nurses in this study perceived higher preceptor authentic leadership and work engagement, they reported increased job satisfaction. However, there was no significant difference in the work engagement and job satisfaction of new nurses who took part in the NGI and those who did not. This suggests that the quality of the preceptorship relationship, as opposed to the length of time, may play a greater role in predicting work-related attitudes of new graduate nurses. New graduate nursesõ perceptions of preceptor authentic leadership were positively related to their perceptions of work engagement. Of the authentic leadership dimensions, internalized moral perspective had the highest correlation with work engagement. It is expected that preceptors who acted consistently with their moral principles, honesty and integrity, were able to identify with new graduate nurses and keep them engaged over time. Additionally, the relative importance of internalized moral perspective may speak to the behavioural integrity of effective preceptors (Billay & Myrick 2007) and the heightened level of personal morality that resides within all nurses (Trailer 2004). When compared with other dimensions of authentic leadership, new graduate nursesõ perceptions of preceptor self-awareness had the weakest correlation with work engagement. Furthermore, the relatively low rating of preceptor self-awareness is problematic. As discussed by Avolio and Gardner (2005), perceptions of self-awareness results from open positive exchanges between leaders and followers. This suggests that although new graduate nurses rated their preceptors to be moderately authentic, their relationship may not be marked by the authentic connection which characterizes effective preceptorship experiences (Myrick & Young 2005). Consequently, preceptor preparatory programmes which focus on self-reflection and appraisal may help preceptors develop their self-awareness and more effectively communicate in the preceptorship relationship. No significant relationships were found between authentic leadership and the absorption dimension of work engagement. Absorption items on the UWES related to the ability of new graduate nurses to detach from their work. Traditionally, nurses tend to score low on the absorption dimension of the UWES (Schaufeli & Bakker 2003). This finding likely stems from the fact that absorption behaviours are not nurtured, but rather, new graduate nurses are encouraged to separate their personal feelings and professional duties using active thinking and problem solving (Chestnutt & Everhart 2007). It is important to note the low alpha coefficient obtained for the absorption subscale, reflecting lower reliability. Dedication was the work engagement dimension most strongly related to job satisfaction, supporting Schaufeli and BakkerÕs (2003) assertion that those who identify with their work are able to find meaning, are inspired and are challenged. However, the high level of dedication among new nurses in this study is particularly interesting given the high turnover rate of new graduate nurses. This suggests that although new graduates feel dedicated to their role, there is a discrepancy between their desired experience and the actuality of practice, resulting in turnover. Preceptors who demonstrate authentic leadership, will assist new graduate nurses to identify their strengths and limitations and formulate appropriate short- and long-term goals, potentially mitigating this effect. Interestingly, absorption was weakly but positively correlated with job satisfaction in this study. A possible explanation for this may be related to the uncertainty new graduate nursesõ feel as novices in the profession (Benner 1984) and the limited experience which may render them ill prepared to handle the rapid paced, highly acute hospital setting. The open supportive interactions which characterize effective preceptorship relationships (Myrick & Young 2005) and contribute to work engagement (Simpson 2009) may provide the context for an authentic connection and high levels of job satisfaction among new graduate nurses. In the present study, new graduate nurses were most satisfied with their professional status, autonomy, nurse nurse interaction and nurse physician interaction. Professional status (Simpson 2009) and autonomy (Lu et al. 2005, Craft Morgan & Lynn 2008) have consistently been ranked by new nurses as important components of job satisfaction. New graduate nurses satisfaction with nurse and physician interactions is supported by Adams and Bond (2000) who found the 1000 ª 2010 The Authors. Journal compilation ª 2010 Blackwell Publishing Ltd, Journal of Nursing Management, 18,

9 Authentic leadership of preceptors most important contributors to nursesõ satisfaction were the degree of cohesion existing among ward nurses and the degree of collaboration with medical staff. Shifts in education preparation to include interprofessional education programmes will likely increase new graduate nursesõ satisfaction with nurse and physician relationships in the workplace. Students in such programmes are encouraged to communicate openly with all members of the healthcare team while valuing each memberõs unique contribution to developing the most effective plan of care for patients. One can deduce that an authentic preceptorship experience, which reinforces transparent interactions, will continue to lead to the dissolution of traditional hierarchical structures within healthcare. Although new graduate nurses in this study were most dissatisfied with task requirements, organizational policies and pay, these findings must be considered with caution as insignificant (P 0.05) relationships were found between authentic leadership and pay and authentic leadership and organizational policies. This finding probably stems from the fact that the leadership of preceptors has little to do with the organizational constraints of pay and organizational policies. The second hypothesis in this study was partially supported. Higher levels of authentic leadership resulted in higher levels of work engagement. In turn, this led to higher levels of job satisfaction for new graduate nurses. However, the effect of authentic leadership on job satisfaction was partially mediated through work engagement indicating authentic leadership has both a direct and indirect effect on job satisfaction. The results of the final model lend support to previous knowledge about the positive effects of authentic leadership on work engagement and job satisfaction. The indirect effect of authentic leadership on job satisfaction through work engagement supports Avolio et al.õs (2004) theoretical model. It furthers our understanding of different ways through which new graduate nurse job satisfaction is influenced. Given the direct and indirect influences of authentic leadership on job satisfaction, strategies aimed at increasing the authentic leadership of preceptors can be an effective approach to improving the job satisfaction, and ultimately retention, of new graduate nurses. Overall, the results of this study provide support for Avolio et al.õs (2004) theory in the new graduate nurse population. Consistent with theoretical expectations, authentic leadership had a positive direct effect on work engagement, as well as an indirect effect on job satisfaction through the mediating variable of work engagement. Limitations The limitations of this study are related to the methodology used to gather data and select the sample. While self-report questionnaires are cost effective and less timeconsuming than other methods, there is the potential for response bias (Polit & Beck 2008). In addition, the CNO data are only as current as the previous yearõs registration; leading to the possibility that some new gradate nurses may have been missed. There is also the possibility that there are new graduates who were not listed because they indicated on their registration form that they did not want to participate in any research. Given the relative homogeneity of the sample, the findings can be cautiously generalized to new graduate nurses working in an acute care setting in the province of Ontario. It is necessary to survey a national sample of new graduate nurses to generalize the findings further. Conclusion Results of the present study provide support for Avolio et al.õs (2004) model of authentic leadership in the new graduate nurse population. In addition, this study helps advance the theoretical link between authentic leadership, work engagement and job satisfaction. The findings suggest that when new graduate nurses are paired with preceptors who demonstrate high levels of authenticity, they feel more engaged and are more satisfied. Given the importance of preceptorship in facilitating a smooth transition of new graduate nurses to the workplace, it is necessary to invest in the development of preceptor authenticity. 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