Film and video guidance

Transcription

1 Film and video guidance

2 Contents Introduction The filmmaking process Pre-production Structuring a story Writing your script Breaking it down Scheduling Equipment Roles Permissions and risks Pre-production checklist Production Technical tools: image Framing Light Movement Continuity Technical tools: sound Interview technique Standard interview methods How to interview effectively Post-production Editing Music and effects Graphics, titles and credits Distribution Annex 1: Template storyboard Annex 2: Template call sheet

3 Acknowledgements This guide has been produced by the International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED) in the framework of the Growing Forest Partnerships project. The document was authored by Leianne Rolington and benefited from the input of Grazia Piras. Growing Forest Partnerships is a collaborative project of IIED, the UN Food and Agricultural Organization and The International Union for the Conservation of Nature funded by the generous financial support of the World Bank. All omissions and inaccuracies in this document are the responsibility of the author. The views expressed do not necessarily represent those of the World Bank or the institutions involved. Image credits Cover photo: Old Style Alfonso Romero (StockXchng) Page 2 image: Retro TV Gerard79 (StockXchng) Page 6 image: Post-it 1 Post-it 4 Slavomir Ulicny (StockXchng) Page 6 image: Business clip on paper Ivan Prole (StockXchng) Page 8 image: House and Home Mac-Leod (StockXchng) Page 8 image: Face 1 Awad Alradi (Stock Xchng) Page 23 image RCA Wireless Headphones A. Carlos Herrera (StockXchng) International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED) 3 Endsleigh Street, London WC1H 0DD, United Kingdom Tel: +44 (0) Fax: +44 (0)

4 2 Introduction This guide has been produced to provide a simple overview of film or video-making with some elementary guidance on both the technical and practical side of the process. It is intended to be used as a starting point for those less familiar with filmmaking and is written in a way to encourage maximum understanding and participation from non-professionals. As a communication tool, film has the ability to transcend boundaries. The narrative techniques of storytelling can be used to communicate useful and practical information, and its entertainment potential means it can be a more accessible medium than any other. Without the need for literacy, your audience is considerably widened and thanks to the internet, your potential audience is both larger, more diverse and yet closer than ever before. This guide will take you through the four main stages of the filmmaking process, giving you hints and tips along the way. Although based on the formal industry process for the purposes of structure, you can take as much or as little from the guide as you find helpful and appropriate. Growing Forest Partnerships works to achieve collaboration and participation across sectors, groups and civil society to achieve poverty reduction and forest conservation. We hope that this guidance can help to achieve more effective communication of issues within forestry from the grassroots.

5 3 1. The filmmaking process Making a film, video or television programme consists of four distinct but interlinked stages: preproduction, production, post-production, and distribution. We will go through these in greater depth but here is an overview of what each stage contains: Pre-production This is the planning stage. Every aspect of the film needs to be prepared, from each individual shot to establishing a strategy for its final distribution. It also includes arranging all logistics, such as budgeting, location-scouting, and casting. Production This is the filming stage, where you are going to your locations and conducting your shoot or interviews. This includes everything that happens from the moment you start filming until the final scene. Post-Production At this stage you will edit your footage into the final sequence planned during pre-production. You will also make any final changes to the sound and picture, and put in music, graphics and titles. Distribution At the point of distribution, you will have a product ready in the format needed for your chosen broadcast medium and will be sending it out or putting it online, according to your plans.

6 4 2. Pre-production This first stage of the process is both creative and managerial. It involves establishing and developing every aspect of your story and how you plan to communicate it, but it also involves all the practical planning of each stage of the process Establish your objective Before you start planning your story or developing your idea, you first need to establish your objective in making a film. For example, are you making it to: - tell a story - provoke action - inform the public - inform policymakers, or - entertain people? You decision will affect how you approach your story structure and it will affect the style in which you film, the length of the end result and where you eventually distribute it. In terms of style, for the purposes of simplicity, this guide divides styles into documentary and narrative fiction. In reality, there are variations and combinations that can be used, as well as other styles not covered here. However, it is likely that a film will loosely fall into one of those categories, so your decision about your objective will determine which is the most appropriate for you. The type of story you choose to tell will also be affected by this decision. Will it be more useful to tell the tale of a personal journey or to concentrate on factual or scientific information? If your objective targets a specific group of people, perhaps it would be less important to tell a story of universal relevance. If you are planning on raising awareness more generally, however, you will need to develop a story that transcends geographic, social and cultural boundaries. Know your audience Part of establishing your objective is identifying the audience you are aiming at. If you are creating a film to inform people about climate change, how much background knowledge are you assuming? This will of course depend on whether it is going to the general public or a more specific group. It will decide the extent of context or background information you provide and will affect the duration of your film. It will affect your use of jargon and the level of technical sophistication communicated. If your objective is to provoke action, you will need to incorporate tools for further action into your film, which are appropriate for your identified audience. As you can see, many decisions need to be made before you even start thinking about the story itself. But don t forget, you do not have to stick rigidly to convention or a single style. For example, targeting policymakers at international meetings does not preclude an aspect of entertainment in your film. The most important thing is that whatever you are trying to achieve, you communicate that effectively.

7 Structuring a story Whether you are working towards a documentary or a narrative fiction, you will still need to establish your story. Whether fact or fiction, you will need a narrative structure to engage people and to give a logical coherence to what you are trying to say. What is a narrative structure? In simplest terms, it is a start, a middle and an end. However, to create a film which draws in your audience, you may wish to consider using the structure of a narrative arc 1 : Complication Climax Equilibrium Resolution Equilibrium This is quite simply the way things were the background situation, and what things were like before the event happened. It is the time of calm, before the storm of your story. In this stage, you establish your characters or key players. Complication This is the catalytic event that caused your story to happen, the beginning of and the reason for the storm. Climax This is also known as the point of no return where the deciding event happens the most dramatic moment of your story. Resolution This could be considered the new equilibrium, the resulting events and the calm or resolution that now exists. Once you have a story in mind for your film, it helps to write a brief synopsis, known as a treatment. The treatment should comprise an outline of your main characters or key actors, including their background and their aims in the story. It should then describe the locations in which your story takes place. Finally, it should provide a synopsis of the main events and timeline of the story, the areas of conflict and the eventual resolution. Each main event or stage of the film should be in a separate paragraph. As this is for your own purposes, this should be no more than a page long and will act as your framework for turning it into a script. 1 For an in-depth guide to structuring a story, one of the leading books in this field is: McKee, Robert (1999) Story: Substance, Structure, Style and the Principles of Screenwriting Methuen Publishing, UK

8 It is important that a treatment is written even when making a documentary. It serves to establish the key players in your story and whether you are documenting something that has already happened, or you are looking to establish answers to a question, it will act as a framework to keep your story structured and linear. It will help you keep in mind what your film should achieve in what it communicates to your audience Writing your script To prepare yourself for writing a script, you need to divide your film into scenes and choose the appropriate order. Some people find it helpful to write each scene or piece of information needed onto a piece of card, and move the order around until it makes sense as a story. 6 interview with Minister for Environment bartering in the market If you are making a documentary, even if you will be employing voiceover, you may not be in a position to write a final script at this stage, so instead simply flesh out your key scenes. Below is an example of a standard script layout. SCENE FIVE EXT. MARKET AFTERNOON MARTA is examining a bracelet on a market stall, while ALANA leans against the wall, looking bored. MARTA How much for this? STALL HOLDER Five. It s real silver, you won t get that anywhere else. MARTA (suspiciously) I doesn t look like it to me. And anyway MARTA looks over at ALANA, who is glaring. CUT TO: MARTA (CONT D) I think I d better get going.

9 7 Here are a few points to note on script style 2 : - Use Courier 12pt - Characters names are in CAPITALS - State whether it s inside (INT.) or outside (EXT.), the scene location, and the time of day this will also help with the planning process - Action line is in the present tense - Mention transitions (e.g. fade in or cut to ) but not camera angles, which are only on a director s script. As a rough guide, one page will equate to about one minute on screen. This will differ according to how much dialogue you include and the speed of any action sequences. Hints and tips Film is a versatile medium and you don t need to think of it as replacing the written word. Try to rely as little as possible on explanation through text or voiceover. Instead, choose events or actions you can film to illustrate them instead. For example: key interviews; sequences to show the location; illustrative scenes such as logging, farming, enterprises in practice, meetings and events Breaking it down We now turn to the more practical side of the scripting process. Once your script or key scenes are written, you need to break it down in two ways: the scenes and the shots. Scene breakdown Firstly, using your script, you need to break down your scenes by location and establish who needs to be there for each scene, this includes cast/participants and crew members. Scene Content Location Cast/Participants Crew Time 1 Wildlife shots Kakum National Park None All Morning 2 Meeting Ministry of Agric. Minister & 8 staff All Day 4 Interview Ministry of Agric. Minister and aide D, C 4pm 3 Interview Suhuma Forest Reserve Head, Green Trees D, C 10am 5 Replanting Suhuma Forest Reserve 4 shift workers All Day Putting in any precise times or just vague, if you only need daylight, for example and ordering the scenes according to location should help to plan your travel and crew needs. There may be some situations where you only want your director (D) and camera operator (C) to be present, such as an interview situation. Shot breakdown Once you have worked out your scenes, you need to establish how many shots you need to make those scenes work. This means envisaging how the final cut will look and making sure you have covered everything to get your message across. If you have assigned crew roles to your team (see 2.7), this is where the Director and the Director of Photography will be making creative decisions about how the film will look (accessed March 2011)

10 First, it would probably be useful to visit any locations you will be filming. Make a note of how long it takes to get there; any potential problems for filming (including health and safety); and particular angles or structures that will either help your narrative or look visually interesting. This will feed into your shot breakdown. Mark your script with your ideas and individually number every shot that you think you need. This is known as the Director s Script with each shot labelled within the script. When you are filming, this will act as an easy reference to check everything is covered. This should also help with scheduling, as you will need to set up each shot individually and factor in this time. SCENE 2: MEETING IN MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE Shot Type Content 1 Establishing Shot (ES) Outside Ministry 2 Extreme Close-up (ECU) Minister 3 Close-up (CU) All staff 4 Wide Shot (WS) Office 5 Close-up (CU) Objects on desk We will look at the types of shot and what they are called in the production section you may wish to refer to this section at this stage if you are unfamiliar with framing techniques. Whilst you are going through your script and planning your shots, this might also be a good time to think about sound and props. Anything you identify that you need can be added to your scene breakdown in a new column, to ensure you capture them during production. - Are there are any particular sounds you need to capture. Do you need a door to slam? The sound of a chainsaw? The call of a particular animal? - Are there any props a scene requires you to bring is someone eating or drinking, or wearing anything in particular? Is there something you need in the background? Storyboard At this stage, it can be useful to produce a storyboard. This is an illustrative technique to visualise your shots and view the film as though you have already shot and edited it. It will be a useful tool to refer to when you are on location filming, ensuring that you do not miss any key shots or angles that you need. It also serves as a useful reference when you come to edit, as you will often not be filming in the order your shots end up. When you are putting together your storyboard, consider what the audience will need to see in order to know what is happening and check that your shot breakdown has covered this. There is a template version in Annex 1 of this document and an example below of how it might look. 8

11 9 EXT: Establishing shot of Tariq s INT: CU of Tariq at table house 2.5. Scheduling Look over your script breakdown and work out how long you need for each scene. - Keep all scenes in the same location scheduled together - Factor in time for travel, setting up equipment, breaks and meals - Do you need to be somewhere for a particular time, e.g. an event, a scheduled interview, or a time of day to fit the script? If there are more than just one or two people involved, it can be useful to complete a call sheet (see the template in Annex 2). This is to tell everyone involved exactly where to be and when, and who to contact with queries. Everyone should be given a copy of this in advance of each production day. Your Production Manager should have a tight handle on the timing at all stages of the process. This is particularly because they are often in charge of the budget and if you are hiring equipment or crew, you will not want to overrun on the day. Part of this process means keeping a check that everything needed for the production has been covered by someone. This will be managed by the Production Coordinator, who assumes responsibility for getting all relevant information to the cast and crew. Main tasks are: - Booking or hiring equipment and crew - Booking locations for the appropriate times - Organising transportation, including between locations - Arranging any necessary accommodation - Ensuring food and drink is available with full catering where necessary - Delegating responsibility to bring all equipment and props to the shoot - Completing and updating the budget, factoring in contingency - Disseminating call sheets and other necessary information Even if you are a one-person crew, you ll still need a checklist for everything you need for each shoot the correct interview questions, appropriate equipment, transport information and so on.

12 Equipment You may already have equipment to hand, or you may be hiring it for the purposes of your film. Below is information about some basic equipment you might be looking at, but you can of course make a film with a simple hand-held camera and nothing more. Cameras Different types of cameras will produce both a different level of quality and type of image mm cameras: If you use these old-style cameras that use physical film stock, you will achieve the filmic look of a feature, characteristic of fictional narrative. However, this method is by far the most expensive option and you will be limited in terms of the amount you can film and how you can edit. You would also need to record your audio separately on a DAT recorder (see below). 2. Digital cameras: These use a variety of digital tape formats, most commonly a Digi Beta tape for professional cameras to a Mini DV tape for the more compact varieties. Sound is recorded onto the tape and you camera will connect directly to your computer to edit. They are light and portable, making them the standard choice for documentary-making. You can achieve different looks to your image when you edit, depending on your software. 3. Hard drive cameras: Some cameras record directly to hard drive, eliminating the need for tape stock. Some but not all of these are High Definition cameras. If you choose a hard drive camera, you must ensure that your editing software can read the encoding. This is called a codec and it is the description of how the file is compressed. If you choose an HD camera your picture quality will be greatly improved; you can also select on your camera whether to film progressive or interlaced, which effectively means that you can choose whether your image has a more documentary or filmic feel. There are a few other tools useful for the camera: 1. Tripod: A tripod acts to steady your camera and to provide fluid motion for tilting and panning. The more flexible your tripod, the more options for movement you will have. 2. Dolly: A dolly is effectively a moveable tripod, securing your camera and allowing for steady, flowing motion. They can be either on wheels, or on a fixed track that the camera moves along. Bear in mind that you do not need to use professional equipment to achieve some measure of these effects. For a static shot, any solid surface will serve as a tripod. Should you wish to do a tracking shot but have no access to a dolly, you can improvise with your camera operator sitting in a wheelie chair, or the camera being placed on a moveable table, for example. 3. Monitor: This television screen is connected directly to the camera to enable to Director and Director of Photography to see exactly what is being recorded, and ensure the framing is as planned. Sound As you will see in the production section, your sound is an integral part of your film and the clarity will make a substantial difference to the end result. When you are shooting a fictional narrative, you will be restricted in terms of what you can allow the camera to see. There are options however, to get the best possible sound quality even with this restriction.

13 11 1. Microphones: Your camera will be equipped with some sort of microphone, either integrated with smaller cameras or mounted on the top. Should you wish to use an external microphone for a better quality of sound, there are several options. You microphone can be unidirectional, which will pick up sound where it is pointed but cut out much of the surrounding noise (also called a shotgun microphone); or it can be omnidirectional, which will pick up sound from all directions. 3 You can also use a lapel microphone, which is clipped to the person speaking and should give the greatest quality of sound from the speaker. This is often used in interviews but can also be used in fiction film, though you need to ensure it is out of sight. 2. Boom: A boom is a long pole which holds your microphone aloft and your Boom Operator will be in charge of ensuring it is pointing in the correct direction. It is the most common choice for fiction films, as it can be held just above the sight line of the camera. 3. Blimp: A blimp is a fluffy sock covering your microphone. If you are filming outside, particularly if it is windy, it will eliminate this noise, which can obscure any speech. 4. Audio mixer: An audio mixer will have any external microphones plugged into it, and the Production Sound Mixer will be checking and adjusting the levels. 5. DAT recorder: This records your sound separately, it can be used as a back-up even when you are recording directly to camera but is most often used when shooting to 35mm. Lighting Lighting for documentaries is most often ambient, partly for stylistic reasons, to give the authenticity feel, and partly for practical reasons that you will not be on a set and unlikely to have a great deal of control over the lighting. If you are able to control the lighting, you can influence the tone of the scene and ensure that your participants or actors are properly lit Spotlight: This is a harsh light source, strongly illuminating the relatively small area it is pointing at. The hard shadows created can be used to create dramatic effects. 2. Softlight: A softlight has a cover over the light, to minimise harsh shadowing and create a softer tone to the lighting. This is often used to light people s features. 3. Diffuser: A diffuser is a reflective surface, which spreads the light source over a greater area and also softens a harsh light source. 4. Gel: Gels are sheets of colour, placed over lights. These can be used for atmospheric effect, to maintain a particular colour style, or to warm or cool a room. Editing equipment The type of editing equipment you use will depend on whether you are editing on a laptop or home computer, or if you have access to an editing studio. The main industry software is Avid or Final Cut Pro (for Apple), and most post-production facilities will work with one or both of these. You can however find lower-end editing software, based on these formats but with simpler controls, for a very low cost. If you are editing your film yourself, your computer and instruction manual are all you will need. If you are going to a studio, you will either need to hire a professional editor, or use a staff editor for the process. 3 (accessed March 2011) 4 Rabiger, Michael (1992) Directing the documentary (2nd ed.), Focal Press. This book is an excellent reference for indepth guidance on all aspects of documentary filmmaking; there is a 2009 version available.

14 Roles A professional film set can incorporate dozens of staff members, and yet many documentaries are made with just a one-person crew. Essentially, all of the work of the roles listed below needs to be covered, but it is up to you how you choose to distribute that load and how many people you decide you need to make it work. Generally speaking, a documentary will require a far smaller crew than a fiction film, as you are less likely to be controlling the environment and may not use any sets or lighting at all. Here is a breakdown of the standard crew members for a small production and what they are in charge of 5 : Crew member Producer Director Director of Photography Production Manager Script Supervisor Production Coordinator Camera Operator Production Sound Mixer Boom Operator Grip Location Manager Gaffer Runner Art Department Casting Director Film Editor Sound Designer Colourist Role and responsibilities In charge of the overall process from pre-production to distribution Creative control over content of film; a 1 st and 2 nd Assistant Director and Production Assistant manage smaller scenes and support Director In charge of camera and lighting, chooses framing along with Director Plans and manages all logistics and finance of the production process In charge of continuity and logging scenes shot ready for the edit Responsible to the PM, organises all logistics, hiring and information Operates the camera under guidance of DoP or Director Head of sound department, choosing microphones and mixing audio Operates boom pole with mounted mic, assistant to Sound Mixer Technician for electrical rigging, works with sound, light and set dept. Sources and secures (clears rights to) locations, reports to PM Head of the lighting department, designs and sets up lighting plan Non-technical role helping any member of crew for any necessary task The Production Designer within this department oversees all the visual aspects including multiple roles of set, props, costume and make-up Auditions and hires cast members Edits final version of film, works with Director in creative process Supervises the final sound during edit, creative process with Director Uniforms final colour after edit and creates atmosphere with colour 5 (accessed March 2011)

15 Permissions and risks Whenever you are filming a person, either as an interviewee, an actor or just someone in the background, you need their permission. Everyone involved will need to sign a release form these will differ according to local laws. If you are filming on a location, it could be useful to prepare a sign, informing the public that there is filming in progress. If you are near local residents, you may need to inform them in advance that you will be filming in the area. You may also need to acquire permission for the location you are using. At this stage, ensure that you have comprehensive insurance for your project, which may be a part of your organisation s insurance policy. Many insurance companies will require you to complete a risk assessment; examples of which can be found online Pre-production checklist Item Treatment Script Scene list Shot list Storyboard Production schedule Budget Equipment Roles assigned Locations booked and cleared Transport arranged Refreshments arranged Cast / participant list Signed release forms Call sheets Check 6 For a UK-based risk assessment, see: - you will need to establish the requirements under local laws

16 14 3. Production The majority of what takes place in this stage will have been carefully planned during preproduction, particularly if you are making a narrative fiction film. If you are making a documentary, however, you may be doing quite a bit of thinking on your feet. In this section, we will be looking at the different ways to frame a shot, the types of conventions or film language that can quickly convey a message to an audience, how to make the best use of your light and sound, and some technique guidance for interviewing. But first, when you start shooting, there is one paramount thing to bear in mind: a film is 50% image and 50% sound However well shot your images, without strong audio, your message will not be easily conveyed. There is one further practical element to bear in mind before starting to shoot. You should assign one person to log your timecodes for every version of every scene you shoot. This is the exact time on the tape where each scene can be found, and will appear on the screen of the camera, e.g. 00:04:32:08. The reason for this is that when you come to edit, you do not want to have to scroll through hours of footage to find the scene you need. It also means that when there was an error such a mistake in a line, or a problem with the sound this can be marked on the log. With every shot you film, allow five seconds at the beginning and the end before you start. This gives you much more freedom when you are editing to pause, fade or dissolve. Now, let s get started Technical tools: image Conventions When you re choosing the way you frame and style your shots, you may like to consider using some conventions that can act as a shorthand to your audience to signal meaning. This can be particularly helpful when you are making a short film, as they allow you to convey meaning quickly. All types of film use conventions. They can relate to the way in which you film or edit, or the content of your scene. Using these conventions can give your film context or authority, and prevents you from needed to state this is a true story or this is a work of fiction. Here are a few documentary conventions you may consider using: - Handheld camera: A handheld camera has often been a practical tool for documentarymaking, allowing the filmmaker a freedom of movement for changing circumstances. As a result, the slightly jerky camera movements have come to be associated with this form. - Voiceover: Documentaries can generally be divided into two types: the fly-on-the-wall style, where the audience is allowed to watch events unfold without interference; or the more constructed style where the film is shaped into an argument. In both techniques voiceover can be employed but it is often criticised for providing only one perspective. If

17 15 you do need explanatory material, the quality of your interviewees will likely decide whether or not you need a narrative voiceover. It is a technique also used in the fiction form, demonstrating this slight blurring of information-giving and perspective-giving. - Talking heads: These are your interviewees and as the name suggests, are most commonly on camera alone giving an opinion on a subject. These can include any individual involved in some way with your story, but an expected convention in documentary is the inclusion of experts in a particular field. - Archive footage: Documentaries will often make use of archive footage either to support an argument or provide historical information. As a result, the mixing of film quality that this brings will give a documentary feel to a film. - Ambient lighting and sound: as previously suggested, for practical reasons, documentaries often make use of ambient lighting and sound. As a result, the harsher, less stylised lighting you get from reality and background noise is associated with the form. - Reconstruction: Particular to a certain kind of documentary, usually an historical narrative, reconstruction of events in a highly stylised way to distinguish from the main feature is often employed. - Long scenes: As documentaries are filmed in real time, it is often necessary to wait for events to unfold. Although these scenes can of course be edited, the long, uninterrupted scene is associated with realism and used as a sign of authenticity in a documentary. - Personal journeys: Whether a scientist discovering a subject with their audience or a personal event being told, the personal journey is a technique that in many ways mirrors narrative fiction yet is employed to hold an audience s attention throughout a film. Alternatively, here are a few conventions often employed in narrative fiction: - Multiple angles: If you are watching a film which, stylistically, is moving between multiple angles, you are likely to subconsciously assume that this is a fiction film. - Filters and soft lighting: In keeping with the use of a filmic look of particular cameras or film, the softening of imagery through filters and soft lighting is a stylistic choice associated with feature films. Commonly, you will see soft edges around actors features. - Central character or protagonist : Although, as mentioned above, the personal journey is employed by documentary-makers, the central protagonist is a key factor in most fiction films. - Point of View (POV) shots: As an audience commonly sees a film through the perspective of a certain character, the DoP will often use POV shots to show the audience where the character is looking, which subconsciously allows the audience to associate themselves with the character. - Montage sequences: Used as a timesaving device, montage sequences are accepted by audiences to mean that a much greater amount of time is passing, as you flick between multiple scenes that show some kind of progression. - Imagery: Hollywood films in particular use specific images to convey certain information, such as a white picket fence to signify suburbia, or a sunset to signify a (usually happy) conclusion. Equally, colour and music are often employed to manipulate mood and atmosphere. There are some conventions that span across documentary and fiction, which are a shorthand way of telling an audience something:

18 16 - Cut: A scene cutting directly from one to anther suggests no time has passed between them. When scenes cut back and forth between two or more scenes, this indicates that they are happening simultaneously. - Fade or dissolve: Fading out and then back in, or dissolving between scenes, suggests that a certain amount of time has passed between the scenes. For example, if you are showing a public meeting, and you fade out then back in, the audience will understand that this is now a later point in that meeting. Conventions have developed over time and rely on audiences recognising them for what they are. You do not have to employ all or any of these techniques but they help an audience to understand and place in context what they are watching Cutaways A type of shot that may not have featured on your storyboard is the cutaway. A cutaway is a short shot of a related image, which can be either of something where you are filming or an external illustrative image. It serves three main purposes: - Breaking up long shots to maintain audience interest. - Providing contextual images to illustrate what is being said. This is particularly important if you are making substantial use of interview material, as you will need to show, not just tell your audience what is being referred to. - Covering up a problematic image: if you are making a documentary, perhaps someone walks in the way of the camera or you lost focus, but you want to use the shot a cutaway will allow you to maintain the seamless appearance of the scene. Watching interviews, you commonly see cutaways of people s gesturing hands this can serve to emphasise their point, as well as to cut between different stages of conversation seamlessly. If you have a single camera, ensure that you take such cutaways either at the beginning or end of the interview, when you are not engaged in intense discussion. These types of images are also employed in fictional films; frequently, they will be of something a character is either referring to or looking at Framing The way you choose to frame your image is your means of controlling how much or what type of information your audience sees. You choices in framing, i.e. what actually appears within the frame of the shot, can make the finished film appear naturalistic, a more documentary style, or highly stylised.

19 The first thing you need to take a decision on is your aspect ratio 7. An aspect ratio refers to the shape of the frame. This will likely have been decided during pre-production and will depend on where and how you intend to distribute your film. There are three main aspect ratios to choose from, which you should be able to select on your camera menu: 17 4:3 16:9 2.35:1 The final option (2.35:1) is a cinema screen size. Due to the size of the final image on a television, it should really only be used if you intend to screen at a cinema. The first and second (4:3 and 16:9) are television formats. 16:9 is the most recent standard and many cameras will now default to this setting. Although it is the most recent format, not all televisions will be able to display the full width. If your film may be viewed on a television screen, and is not just for internet usage, the standard method to get around this issue is to shoot in 16:9 but keep everything 4:3 safe. Types of shot This means avoiding any key action in the far sides of the screen and keeping subtitles, titles and credits within this smaller frame when you come to edit. Not you have decided how you are going to shoot in practical terms, we can look at the creative part of arranging a shot. There are an infinite number of ways your can set up a shot, being as creative and imaginative as you like but there are a few key types of shot to bear in mind whilst you are planning your film and creating your storyboard. This applies just as much to documentary, as you will need to have considered whether you have provided enough visual context, for example, and how close you would like your camera to be on your interview subjects. You also need to consider whether the shots that you are using are conveying enough information moving from close-up to close-up, for example, does not give your audience any understanding of the position or relationship between the two individuals or their context, unless this has already been established. However, such a series of shots may often be used in fictional narrative to convey the idea of a conversation between two people. Decisions over the tightness of your shot will help to create mood, convey information and establish your film s style. Establishing shot One of the key shots you will almost always want to consider is your establishing shot. This is the image which tells your audience where you are, without having to explain it. It can be one shot or a series of shots. 7 (accessed April 2011)

20 18 If you are conducting an interview, for example, it would be important for you to have taken an establishing shot of the building to give that person context. When you move onto the next shot of a person or a scene, your audience now already knows we are inside this building. Wide shot This shot can refer to a landscape image or to one with people. It generally means to incorporate much of the background into the frame. It allows the audience to see the context of the action and place the characters in their surroundings. Long shot The long shot differs slightly from the wide shot, as it puts the person or people in the distance. In this case, it is the person or character, rather than the context, that is the central focus of the shot. There can often be quite a degree of crossover between a wide shot and a long shot 8. Medium shot The medium shot will generally incorporate a person to about their waist and will give some visual context as to their surroundings. Close-up The close-up image will generally feature the head and part of a person s shoulders and is a standard frame for a sit-down interview. In terms of fiction, it is generally shown to concentrate the audience on the emotions of one particular character. Extreme close-up Often used during emotionally-charged interviews or poignant moments in a fiction narrative, this shot is a close and intimate portrait of a person. It can also be a close image of an object, with little or no background visible. 8 (accessed April 2011)

21 19 Point of View As mentioned during the conventions section, a point of view (POV) shot is illustrative of what the person or character is witnessing directly. Although most commonly used in fiction films, it can be employed in a documentary, where the person operating the camera is known to or communicating with the audience and then carries the camera at shoulder height. Hopefully you will already have a plan for framing your shots and a storyboard to ensure none of your chosen shots are missed. Here are a few more ideas and pointers to think about while you re filming: Focus and depth of field The depth of field refers to the amount of light you are letting in through the lens and how it affects the focus. A deep depth of field allows in a small amount of light, meaning that everything in your shot will be in focus. This is used where you want the background of your shot to be clear. A shallow depth of field is letting in the maximum amount of light, and so your foreground is sharp and your background is out of focus. If you do not want your audience to be distracted by what is happening in the background you can choose to focus only on closer objects. This is a spectrum and the larger you make your depth of field, the more of the shot will be in focus. You may also choose to change your focus during a shot, for example, focusing on an object in the foreground and then pulling focus to the background, or to keep everything in focus. The decisions you make here are stylistic and they allow you to direct your audience s attention. Although focusing closely on a person will concentrate attention on them, if you are looking for the realism feel of a documentary, you may wish to keep this to a minimum. Eyelines If you are creating a fictional narrative, it is important to ensure that eyelines are matched within your shots. This means that when you focus on one person looking at an object, if you then widen that shot, the object needs to sit in the eyeline where you character looked. It also means that if you are filming people holding a conversation, and are shooting from more than one angle, they need to be looking at one another at the correct level in each shot. Hints and tips When you are focusing close-up on a person, always ensure the finest point of clarity in your focus is fixed on their eye, as this is where the eye of your audience will be instinctively drawn.

22 20 The 180º rule Again, particularly relevant for fictional filmmaking, but this is a simple rule that prevents the audience from becoming disorientated in what they are watching. Essentially, if you are filming from one angle and you want to show the scene from another perspective, you never jump around more than 180 degrees 9. This maintains the audience understanding of the set-up of the scene. Zooming Your camera will likely be equipped with a zoom in the lens. There are two types of zoom: optical and digital. Optical zooms are part of the function of the lens and can be used to stylistic effect, or for when you are simply not close enough to the object you are filming. A digital zoom should be completely avoided, as it is simply zooming into the picture you are filming, which will be greatly to the detriment of your picture quality. There are two main reasons why the use of your zoom should be kept to a minimum: - Using your zoom restricts the amount of light that your camera can let in. As we will see below, the amount of light you have is integral to the quality and nature of your shot. It is generally preferable to get closer to your subject wherever you can, rather than zooming. - The zoom will also exacerbate camera shake, as each move you make will become exaggerated by the zoom. This is particularly relevant if you are not using a tripod. Angles The framing looked at above considered standard types of camera angles and shots. It can be useful to conform to these types of shot as visual conventions for your audience but there is no reason not to look for more visually interesting shots, whether you are shooting a documentary or a fictional narrative. Consider your foreground and your background and make use of your surroundings. Can you shoot through a doorway or window? Can you change the height of the shot by standing on a table or crouching on the floor? Is there grass or foliage that could make an out-of-focus frame to your shot? Is there an opportunity to watch events at a distance, or from a different building? Is there a clear enough reflection in glass or water that you could film, instead of the person or event directly? You need to ensure that the angle is not distracting your audience from the focus of the shot or confusing the action, but creating interesting angles can keep a film from feeling static and can build interest within your audience Light There are two ways of lighting a film, either using ambient light or creating artificial lighting. You may well use a combination of the two, as even when making documentaries, it can become a 9 (accessed April 2011) See reference for fuller description and diagram

23 21 technical necessity to use an additional light source. Either way, the first thing to ensure is that as you move locations, your image maintains the same colour quality. You do this with a white balance. White balance A white balance is a simple tool that most cameras will be equipped with. It is necessary because different types of interior lighting and natural daylight all hold different colour properties. If you do not do a white balance at the beginning of each scene, you may end up with substantially different colour qualities, which likely looked fine while you were filming. For example, interior lighting can give an artificial, yellow quality to a film, whereas bright sunlight can give your image a blue tinge. The simple method to correct for this is to point your camera at something completely white and either hold down your white balance button... or follow your camera s instructions. You may wish to create certain colour effects for atmosphere or mood. You can use lighting gels to either compensate for certain colours or to build a tone throughout your scenes. Exposure The amount of light available when you are filming can determine a number of things. You need to ensure that your image is correctly exposed, which means making sure there is enough light to see all the key features, but not so much that some are too bright to be seen. If your image is overexposed, the image will appear very bright to your audience and anything light will not be visible but simply appear as a bright white glow. If your image is underexposed, you may lose some of the definition of your images. If you try to brighten the image when you are editing, you will not reach the clarity of definition as those shots correctly exposed. This is where it is important to ensure you have enough light to film. As changing your depth of field is widening and restricting the amount of light being taken in, you will have less control over

24 22 your focus area if you do not have enough light. You would need to use a shallow depth of field to allow in the maximum light and may not be able to allow the camera to focus on anything in the background. If you are filming somewhere with a single light source, be sure not to place the person or object you are framing directly in front of the light source. This would put your focus into silhouette and you would lose any definition of features. The final thing to bear in mind is the continuity of your light source. If you are filming a fictional narrative and your scene is taking place over ten minutes one afternoon, ensure that your schedule allows you to maintain that illusion, without light visibly changing colour or angle, or shadows becoming darker or longer if you are filming an exterior scene Movement Whatever your style of film, you are unlikely to be filming only static shots. One stylistic choice you will have made is whether you use handheld camera techniques or a tripod. These styles extend to your use of movement. There are several main types of movement that a camera might make: - Panning: When a camera pans, it remains in one spot but rotates from left to right, or right to left. This can be used to show a person s point of view, or to pan across a landscape, for example. This would normally be done on a tripod. If you are using a handheld camera, ensure that your movement is fluid and not too fast. A film has a certain number of frames per second and fast movement can be difficult for your audience to see. - Tilting: A tilting motion moves upwards or downwards and is also done with the camera remaining in one spot. The same techniques for panning are applicable here. - Tracking: A tracking shot moves either from one side to another, or forward or back. It differs from a pan because the camera itself moves from one position to the other. To create fluidity of motion, a dolly is often used for this type of shot. You can always improvise with a moveable object, but documentaries will often make use of the movement of walking or a moving vehicle to add to the documentary feel. - Zooming: For reasons of light, it is generally preferable to zoom only when it is for purposes of motion. Zooming in or out differs from tracking because again the camera itself remains static. This time the movement is entirely through the lens. In narrative fiction, you will not commonly see the zoom being used in this way; in documentaries, it is often employed out of necessity or, for example, to move closer to an interviewee at a poignant moment. Although camera movement is important, much of your film s pace will be built up when editing. Unless you are filming a fast-paced action sequence, there is not much need for swift or continuous camera movement. In documentary-making, if you are on location this may be largely unavoidable. To prevent continuous movement from becoming a problem for your audience, try to keep the motion as smooth as possible, for example by carrying a camera on your shoulder. When you are moving with your camera, there are still opportunities to look for interesting angles or framing techniques. Your choices may be more limited than in a static shot, but consider looking upwards to treetops or downwards at moving feet; or lower your camera to the ground and walk with it tilted upwards.