A Study of Accreditation In Professional Educational Programs

Transcription

1 A Study of Accreditation In Professional Educational Programs By Derek Uram MPA Candidate, University of Victoria Commissioned by: Canadian Association of Programs in Public Administration, With the Support of the Canada School of Public Service March 28, 2005

2 Contents Introduction 4 Purpose of Accreditation 4 Definitions 5 Types of Accreditation 6 Institutional Specialized Mission-Based vs. Traditional Accreditation Accrediting Organizations and Jurisdictions 9 Categories of Accreditation 9 Period of Accreditation and Re-Accreditation 11 Common Features of Accreditation 12 Standards and Criteria for Accreditation 13 Mission and Vision Self-Evaluation Curriculum and Instruction Length of Program Admission Standards Assessment and Evaluation Faculty and Hiring Practices Facilities and Infrastructure Internships, Cooperative Education, and Professional Practice Process of Accreditation 22 Cost of Accreditation and Membership Fees 24 Principles and Ethics in Accreditation 25 Relationship With the Profession 26 Arguments For Accreditation 27 Arguments Against Accreditation 28 2

3 Choices and Options in Accreditation for Public Administration Education 29 Appendix: Profiles of Organizations 31 3

4 Accreditation of Professional Educational Programs Introduction Professional education normally entails a standard set of learned skills, knowledge, and competencies in any given discipline. Accreditation is a means by which schools offering professional education are assessed, evaluated, and subsequently granted (or denied) a specific type of status based on the program(s) offered by these schools. Public administration and other professionally related programs (e.g. public management, public policy, etc.) have been taught in Canadian universities for many years, although no specialized accreditation regime exists specifically for this type of higher education. Would an accreditation regime facilitate the development of public administration programs in Canada? Through an examination of broad practices in accreditation in other professions and jurisdictions, one can gain valuable insights into the benefits and drawbacks of accreditation as it really functions. The purpose of this paper is to present an overview and examination of the main issues, practices, and processes in accreditation of professional educational programs, and to present some of the models for accreditation which have been used in various professional disciplines. This study hopes to offer choices for potential models of accreditation which exist to better serve the goals of professional education, which may then be applied to programs of study in public administration and related studies. Many accrediting organizations have been referenced in this study. Frequently referenced organizations include the National Association of Schools of Public Affairs and Administration (NASPAA), the European Association for Public Administration Accreditation (EAPAA), and AACSB International (the International Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business). For further information on these organizations and others, please consult the Appendix at the end of this paper. Purposes of Accreditation Accreditation may have several goals. Although varied, most of these purposes are usually quite common to accrediting organizations. They can be worded in various ways, but often centre on specific commonalities. The Task Force on Accreditation of Health Professions Education (U.S.), for example, makes it clear that Òthe main purpose of institutional and specialized accreditation has been stated to be protection of the consumer and assurance of the quality of education.ó 1 The concept of quality assurance appears to be the most commonly cited purpose of 1 Task Force on Accreditation of Health Professions Education, Working Papers: June, 1998, p. 5, on the Center for the Health Professions website, accessed February 13, 2005: < 4

5 accreditation. Other purposes have been cited by different accrediting organizations. One U.S. institution outlines the following four criteria: Assuring Quality. Accreditation is the primary means by which colleges, universities and programs assure academic quality to students and the public. Access to Federal Funds. Accreditation of institutions and programs is required in order for students to gain access to federal funds such as student grants and loans and other federal support. Easing Transfer. Accreditation of institutions and programs is important to students for smooth transfer of courses and programs among colleges and universities. Engendering Employer Confidence. Accredited status of an institution or program is important to employers when evaluating credentials of job applicants and providing financial support to current employees seeking additional education. 2 The Certified Management Accountants (CMA) organization of Canada also states that Ò[a]ccreditation of university programs is designed to meet the expectations of stakeholders and enhance the competitive position of universities.ó 3 There is some debate over the benefits and costs of accreditation. Arguments both for and against accreditation are outlined towards the end of this study. Definitions of Accreditation Accreditation generally refers to the external review and assessment of an educational institution and/or its program of study, rather than the review and assessment of an individual (the latter involves licensing, certification, or credentialing). Institutes of higher learning such as colleges, universities, and technical institutes undergo this review and assessment in order to ensure high standards of quality. To cite one example, the American Psychological Association (APA) defines accreditation as a voluntary process which assures the educational community and the general public that an institution or program has clearly-defined and appropriate objectives and maintains conditions under which their achievement can reasonably be expected. 4 The professional school or program of study decides whether or not it wishes to undertake an accreditation process. The accreditation process involves review and 2 Central Georgia Technical College, Fact Sheet: Profile of Accreditation, on the CGTC website, accessed February 13, 2005: < Accreditation%20without%20background.doc> 3 CMA Canada, CMA Canada Accreditation of Select University Programs: Enhancing the quality of global business education, on the CMA Canada website, accessed February 19, 2005: < 4 American Psychological Association, ÒWhat Students Should Know About APA AccreditationÓ page, on the APA website, accessed February 13, 2005: < 5

6 assessment of a professional school or its program by an independent body of experts and related personnel from the professional and academic communities. Types of Accreditation Accreditation consists of two major types, based on the type of institution being accredited. These two common classifications include institutional and specialized accreditation. 5 Institutional Accreditation Institutional accreditation relates to the assessment and evaluation of a larger educational institution as a whole, such as a university, college, independent school, or technical/vocational institution of higher learning. These larger institutes are often known as ÒparentÓ institutes or organizations. Here, the programs of study offered by individual departments, faculties, institutes, or professional schools within each parent institute or organization such as a university will not be separately assessed and evaluated as a part of this accreditation process. Institutional accreditation is thus broad in its orientation and its approach. Specialized Accreditation Specialized accreditation relates to the assessment and evaluation of individual programs of study or schools within a larger educational institution, and is a process undertaken independent of institutional accreditation. Also commonly known as program, programmatic, or professional accreditation, it is often related to the requirements set forth by a professional body. Professional schools in such disciplines as medicine, social work, business, architecture, engineering, and law, for example, will often design their curricula to meet the standards necessary in that profession if they wish to receive this type of accreditation. Specialized accreditation may apply to a body as large as an entire faculty or professional school, or as small as the curriculum at a particular school or within a particular program of study. Given that professional schools usually exist to prepare graduates for practice in a particular profession, accreditation is a means of ensuring that all graduates attain a minimum standard of preparation for that profession. The practice of accreditation can also vary based on the needs of professional schools undergoing accreditation. In addition to the two types of accreditation described above, there exists the process of Òmission-based accreditationó which has evolved as an alternative to more traditional accreditation practices in order to address these varying needs. Mission-Based vs. Traditional Practices in Accreditation 5 Higher Learning Commission, Institutional Accreditation: An Overview, on the HLC website, accessed February 15, 2005: < Overview.pdf> 6

7 Mission-based accreditation is normally of the specialized type in that it pertains to professional schools and their programs of study, rather than to the parent institute. It has been designed as a more flexible process in accreditation, and to incorporate the unique characteristics of each professional school. Here, less emphasis is placed on formal procedures, and the criteria for evaluation in the accreditation process includes the mission of that particular professional school. With mission-based accreditation the professional schoolõs self-evaluation takes on a greater role. Traditional practices in accreditation of professional schools and their programs of study are usually based around conformity to a set of standards to which each school or program must strictly adhere. In this, all criteria must be met by that school or program before accreditation is granted by the accrediting organization. Accreditation regimes such as these have been designed to ensure universal minimum standards. The unique features of the schools and programs undergoing the accreditation process were not necessarily important to the final decision of the accrediting organization. Mission-based accreditation differs in that the individual characteristics, purposes, and diversities of each professional school or program of study are taken into consideration. In fact, the individual mission of that particular school or program forms the main criteria for evaluation in the accreditation process. Here, a school may be evaluated against its own goals and objectives, rather than those which may be set forth by the accrediting organization. Mission-based accreditation better incorporates this diversity. Diversity also includes the size of the professional school and/or its program of study. Smaller professional schools may not be able to compete on the same playing field as the larger schools in terms of resources, but mission-based accreditation allows all professional schools, regardless of size, to be evaluated on an individual basis. This permits smaller and/or more specialized programs of study to continue to deliver quality education under accredited status on their own terms, and with the goals set forth by their own missions and visions. A number of diversities support the practice of mission-based accreditation. These include geographical diversity, historical diversity, educational diversity, and professional diversity. Throughout Europe, for example, there has traditionally existed a great degree of diversity in the geographical, historical, and educational characteristics of professional schools and programs in higher education. Professional educators have had a wide variety of practices to pursue in establishing programs in public administration education, and this has led to a situation in which traditional practices in accreditation can become problematic. Mission-based accreditation is a process that has been adopted by the European Association for Public Administration Accreditation (EAPAA), which outlines its own accreditation process for programs in public administration. It de-emphasizes the pressure to conform to set standards, while at the same time advancing the flexibility of its accreditation process. 7

8 Based on a view of the discipline of public administration and on widely agreed features of a ÔgoodÕ study programme, a set of standards has been developed. But this set of standards is not absolute; deviation from these standards can be motivated, for example, with reference to the mission. 6 A set of fundamental standards does exist in EAPAAÕs accreditation process; however, it is flexible enough to take such factors as national differences into consideration. Professional diversity is also worth noting. For example, the disciplines which make up the broad gamut of healthcare professions present a wide variety of professional practices, including health administration, health services management, public health policy, health planning, and health evaluation. The term healthcare management is often used to describe all of these, and the U.S. based Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Management Education (CAHME) has the difficult task of dealing with accreditation at many different professional levels. The National Association of Schools of Public Affairs and Administration (NASPAA) in the United States is another accrediting organization which deals with some degree of academic and professional diversity, including public administration, management, public policy, public affairs, and non-profit management. Addressing the concerns and requirements of such diversity may be better addressed through practices in missionbased accreditation. NASPAA describes mission-based accreditation as Òa strategic planning exerciseó in which the professional school must develop a mission statement, set its own program objectives, assess these objectives, and take from this process that which has been learned in order to improve the program itself. 7 Mission-based accreditation is therefore applicable to all professional disciplines. AACSB International (the International Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business), for example, has adopted new standards that will Òallow business schools unparalleled flexibility in serving their chosen constituencies.ó 8 With mission-based accreditation, the individual professional schools have more responsibility in the reporting process than otherwise, with less of this burden on the peer review team and the accrediting organization. Accrediting Organizations and Accreditation Across Jurisdictions 6 European Association for Public Administration Accreditation, EAPAA: the Next Step in Internationalisation! p. 2, on the EAPAA website, accessed March 25, 2005: < 7 National Association of Schools of Public Affairs and Administration, ÒFAQÓ page, on the NASPAA website, accessed March 10, 2005: < 8 The DeanÕs AssociateÉSoftware for Business School Deans, website accessed March 19, 2005: < 8

9 In various jurisdictions throughout the world, the accreditation process is conducted by or through a central government which may be at the national or provincial/state level. In Canada and the United States it is the provincial or state level which normally has constitutional jurisdiction over affairs pertaining to education. The accrediting organizations, however, often exist at both national and provincial/state levels, and operate independent of direct government control. The organizations involved in accreditation of professional programs and schools are normally non-governmental, non-profit institutes, which may be described as quasipublic entities in that they operate for public benefit but not directly by government. Accreditation may aid in creating standards that become accepted across a variety of jurisdictions and boundaries. Standards of practice, competencies, and qualifications are generally more easily compared across jurisdictions whenever accreditation regimes are in place, regardless of the professional discipline. Accreditation can allow graduates to seek employment in their chosen fields in other provinces, states, and even nations than the one in which they studied. Professional educational programs with accredited status can therefore attract candidates from a much broader base than would otherwise be the case. Clients of professional services can better compare and utilize these services if they have the assurance that graduates have their credentials from professional programs of study whose accredited status is recognized in other jurisdictions. Categories in Accreditation Accreditation can take on multiple forms. The categorization of accreditation or membership within any accrediting organization will depend on the requirements of the individual organization, as well as the needs of the professional school. These vary somewhat. Also, membership within an accrediting organization does not of itself designate status of accreditation. In order for a professional school or its program of study to receive accredited status, it must undergo a rigorous process of assessment and evaluation. Different types of accreditation status may be given, and different types of professional programs may receive a different status of accreditation. For example, the European Association for Public Administration Accreditation (EAPAA) describes four categories of program which are eligible for accreditation. Professional programs in public administration have been classified into four types based on degree, length of program, and purpose of program. They are as follows: Bachelor programmes (3 or 4 years): normal undergraduate programs; Master programmes (1 to 2 years): graduate programs; 9

10 Combined programmes (4 or 5 years): combined undergraduate and graduate programs; and Executive master programmes (also part-time): especially designed for persons that already work in the field. 9 The accreditation status may be of several different types. EAPAAÕs accreditation process defines the following three types of accreditation, which can be viewed as the necessary steps taken towards accreditation: An EAPAA-Accredited programme is a programme that, at the time of the accreditation, was in operation at least x years (where x = the length of the programme to be accredited +2), so there were at least two cohorts of graduates to provide adequate data for evaluating programme policies, procedures, and placement of graduates. An EAPAA Pre-Accredited programme is a programme that, at the time of the accreditation, was only one year in operation. An EAPAA Peer-Approved programme is a programme that, at the time of the accreditation, was designed in detail, and the organisation and means to implement the programme were available, but was not in operation yet. 10 Not all accreditation regimes are alike, however, and in contrast to EAPAA, the American based NASPAA only accredits masters level programs, although other programs are welcome to become non-accredited members of NASPAA. In other disciplines, the categories of accreditation may be similar but not identical to those in public administration program accreditation regimes. The American Library Association (ALA) and its Council on Accreditation (COA) outline the following categories of accreditation: Precandidate for Accreditation: Precandidacy indicates the institution and programõs commitment to achieving ALA accreditation. Precandidacy also provides the program and the COA with a means to communicate formally about programmatic development. Programs in precandidacy status do not appear in the list of accredited programs. Candidate for Accreditation: Candidacy status indicates that the program is ready to begin the two-year process that culminates in the Program Presentation, comprehensive review of the program, and the COAÕs accreditation decision. Programs in candidacy status do not appear in the COAÕs list of accredited programs. 9 European Association for Public Administration Accreditation, ÒAccredited ProgrammesÓ page, on the EAPAA website, accessed March 9, 2005: < 10 European Association for Public Administration Accreditation, ÒAccredited ProgrammesÓ page, on the EAPAA website, accessed March 9, 2005: < 10

11 Initial Accreditation: This category indicates that a program has been accredited by the COA for the first time. This may be a new program, an existing program at a school with another accredited masterõs program, and/or an established unaccredited program. Continued Accreditation: A program that has continuously demonstrated evidence of conformity with the standards is referred to as accredited. Conditional Accreditation: This category is assigned to a program that must make changes to comply with the standards to enable accreditation beyond the date specified by the COA. Conditional accreditation is applied only to programs seeking continued accreditation. Withdrawn Accreditation: This category is assigned to a program that, effective on the date specified, is no longer accredited by the ALAÕs Committee on Accreditation. 11 As with EAPAAÕs three steps in accreditation, these can also be viewed as steps or stages taken by the professional school towards the goal of accreditation. Period of Accreditation and Periodic Re-Accreditation There is no one generally accepted period of time for which accredited status should last, given the diversity of professions and professional organizations involved in accreditation. This period may last for up to ten years, although seven years is more common. The accreditation period used by NASPAAÕs Commission on Peer Review and Accreditation (COPRA) is seven years, which includes submission of annual reports by the professional school during this period. Seven years is also the standard accreditation period for EAPAA. If the professional school undertakes any major changes in the program or curriculum during this time, it must notify the EAPAA secretariat every two years. AACSB International (the International Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business) grants accreditation for six year periods, the fifth of which must contain a maintenance visit. Accreditation is not a static but an ongoing process, and all accredited professional schools must undergo a rigorous re-accreditation process towards the end of their accreditation periods. Sometimes also called reaffirmation of accreditation, this process demands that every professional school or program meet a list of set criteria in order to 11 American Library Association, ÒAccreditation Process Policies & ProceduresÓ page, on the ALA website, accessed March 16, 2005: < 11

12 pass the re-accreditation process. The re-accreditation process is normally much like the original accreditation process, although some additional elements do aid in reaccreditation. One such element is ongoing peer review, which allows the professional school to receive critical assessment from its peer institutions and professional members on a regular basis. Another element is that of annual reporting, which allows the professional school to provide the accrediting body with regular updates on issues and developments pertaining to the accreditation process. In this, more emphasis can be placed on outcomes and output rather than on inputs of the professional school. Common Features in Accreditation Several key features appear to be common to the accreditation process and with regards to the organizations which perform accreditation. Each has been outlined below. Independent Organizations. Accreditation organizations are independent non-profit, nongovernmental entities, which exist not only to accredit but also to promote their respective professional disciplines to greater society at large. Accreditation is Voluntary. Accreditation is never mandatory. It is a voluntary process in which professional schools that seek accredited status go through a rigorous process in order to earn that status. Professional schools are not obligated to become accredited, but if they do they will gain certain tangible benefits. Self-Assessment. Accreditation involves some degree of self-assessment by the professional schools undergoing the accreditation process. Accrediting organizations usually demand self-assessment not only to minimize their own workloads but to instill the practice of ongoing improvement and review in the professional schools. Peer Review and On-Site Visits. Accreditation involves considerable peer review. From this, professional schools not only assess one another but also learn from each other and share ideas with respect to self-improvement and professional and scholarly cooperation. Peer review in accreditation is supported through a regular on-site visit by an independent team of assessors who undertake the assessment and evaluation of the professional school. Accreditation is Never Permanent. Accreditation, if granted, lasts for a limited period which is commonly around seven years (but can vary depending on the type of accreditation and the requirements of the accrediting organization). This practice of reaccreditation ensures a regular assessment and evaluation of the program of a professional school. An Ongoing Process. In addition to periodic re-accreditation, the accreditation process normally involves some degree of ongoing reporting, such as the submission of annual 12

13 reports (or other similar documents) from the professional school to the accrediting organization. This aids in ensuring the maintenance of high professional standards by the school on a shorter term basis than the periodic re-accreditation every several years. Links to the Profession. Accreditation standards are linked to the standards of a specific profession or discipline. The professional regulatory body of that profession will have some degree of input into the accreditation process and the standards of accreditation, but it is usually of itself not the accrediting organization. Broad Standards of Accreditation. Accreditation standards are not just about curriculum content in the professional schools. They also include characteristics of that schoolõs faculty, students, resources and facilities, professional development, and ethical considerations. Accreditation Costs. The costs of accreditation and the accreditation process are borne by the professional schools seeking accredited status. These costs are often considered a wise investment by the schools, which obtain benefit from accredited status. Standards and Criteria in Accreditation There exist numerous standards by which an accrediting organization can evaluate an institution or a professional school. At the broadest of levels, the accrediting organization should ensure that the school or institution under consideration for accreditation has clearly defined purposes appropriate to an institution of higher learning; has assembled and organized those resources necessary to achieve its purposes; is achieving its purposes; and has the ability to continue to achieve its purposes. 12 More specific criteria are certainly used in the accreditation process. The selection of these criteria by the accrediting organization will vary depending on the nature of the discipline involved. Some disciplines will require a great deal in the teaching and learning of technical knowledge and skills, while others demand a great deal of professional practice. The following is a list of some of the more commonly used criteria. This is a general list and is suitable to any professional discipline: Mission and Vision The mission or vision statement normally outlines the general educational philosophy of the professional school. In it, goals, objectives, and values are listed, as well as the 12 Commission on Institutions of Higher Education, New England Association of Schools and Colleges, Standards for Accreditation, on the NEASC website, accessed February 18, 2005: < 13

14 means by which goals and objectives are to be achieved by the school. All unique characteristics of the school should be listed here, such as specific areas of concentration of that educational program (e.g. a specialization in local government or a management vs. policy focus), specialized teaching and learning methods (e.g. a significant on-line learning component or a cooperative/internship component), as well as any other major feature that adds to the program of study offered by that professional school (e.g. fulltime vs. part-time curricula). All elements of the professional schoolõs mission should be consistent and described with clarity. In addition, the schoolõs program should promote an atmosphere that encourages learning, innovation, creativity, experimentation, and the pursuit of professionalism and scholarly knowledge within the respective discipline. It should also establish an adherence to ethical and professional standards, and strict enforcement of these standards. These should be noted in the schoolõs mission. Self-Evaluation Professional schools undergoing the accreditation process are normally required to undergo a self-evaluation or self-assessment and produce a report which summarizes and analyzes the criteria of their program that is important to accreditation. This report is usually submitted to a review team of the accrediting organization. Self-evaluations allow the professional schools to undertake their own assessments, which may take into consideration the criteria set forth by the accrediting organization as well as the schoolõs own unique characteristics. This not only minimizes the workloads of the accrediting organization, but also instills the practice of ongoing improvement and review in the professional schools. Self-evaluation reports also serve as a useful tool and essential information source for the site team that visits the professional school during the accreditation process. EAPAA, for example, deems the self-evaluation as the single most essential constituent of the accreditation process, and requires that its member schools submit self-evaluations in one of three accepted languages: English, French, or German. Self-evaluations may be submitted in any other language, but it must be accompanied by a translated version in one of these three accepted languages. During the actual site visit, however, EAPAA tries to ensure that at least one member of the site team is fluent in the language used in the program. Curriculum and Instruction The curriculum offered by the professional school should allow for the fulfillment of the mission as outlined in the schoolõs mission/vision statement. Course content should reflect the mission of the professional school, as well as maintaining the most recent developments within the professional discipline. Curriculum guidelines generally place emphasis on both knowledge and skills. Curriculum should be relevant, up-to-date, of high standards, and both specific yet broad 14

15 enough to encompass the necessary learning elements of the discipline. There should also be a process for the planning, monitoring, and ongoing refinement of curriculum; NASPAA, for example, describes that the professional schoolõs curriculum must Òprepare students for professional leadership in the public service,ó 13 and the school must explain exactly how such a goal is to be achieved through its curriculum. Relevant factors include mandatory courses, elective courses offered, general competencies, admission standards, and any other academically and professionally related criteria. Each professional school must provide sufficient background material regarding the specifics of its curriculum, and NASPAA has provided the following guidelines: 1. Credit System: Identify whether the institution uses the semester, quarter or other system. 2. Length of Term: Report the length of term (semester, etc.) from first class meeting to final examination. 3. Number of Terms: Report the number of terms (semester, etc.) per academic year and per calendar year. 4. Full-Time Status: Report the institutional definition of full-time graduate student in credits per term. What is the minimum number of credits which can be taken as a full-time graduate student and what is the normal maximum number of credits which can be taken? 5. Time Limitation: Report the time limitation in years within which the degree must be completed. 6. Class Contact Hours: Report the typical class contact hours per term (semester, etc.) for 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 credit graduate courses. 7. Numbering System: Describe the course number system used. List the course numbers for lower division, upper division, upper division and graduate, and exclusively graduate courses. 14 In addition, the professional schools should describe how course credits are distributed within the overall curriculum, how these components contribute towards the education of future public service professionals, how curriculum components are assessed (with regards to the mission statement), whether or not these courses are primarily for graduate students, and which course prerequisites are necessary in all cases. Curricula in public administration and related disciplines (including public policy and public affairs) must contain sufficient content in relevant subject matter. NASPAA has provided some guidelines towards curriculum content, but refrains from prescribing too specific a set of curricula for its accredited schools. Their guidelines for course content are as follows: 13 National Association of Schools of Public Affairs and Administration, ÒSelf Study TemplateÓ page, on the NASPAA website, accessed March 10, 2005: < 14 National Association of Schools of Public Affairs and Administration, ÒSelf Study TemplateÓ page, on the NASPAA website, accessed March 10, 2005: < 15

16 In the Management of Public Service Organizations, the components of which include: Human resources; Budgeting and financial processes; Information management, technology applications, and policy. In the Application of Quantitative and Qualitative Techniques of Analysis, the components of which include: Policy and program formulation, implementation and evaluation; Decision-making and problem-solving. With an Understanding of the Public Policy and Organizational Environment, the components of which include: Political and legal institutions and processes; Economic and social institutions and processes; Organization and management concepts and behavior. 15 All other curriculum components should also be described, including elective courses, program specializations, etc., and how each contributes towards the mission of the program. NASPAA also states that full-time faculty should teach a minimum of 50 percent of the courses offered in the curriculum and the same for courses covering the common curriculum components. In EAPAA, accreditation standards are designed to provide for a broad framework by which the professional schools may develop their own curricula for evaluation. EAPAAÕs definition of public administration incorporates a very wide range of related subject areas, particularly governance, management, and policy. Social and economic subject areas are also included. EAPAA recognizes diversity and multidisciplinarity, and points out that the core elements of such disciplines as law, economics, political science, and sociology should also be taught, but not necessarily as separate courses. There should exist some emphasis on the interrelationships between the disciplines. Analysis of instructional procedures and methods can include the use of course outlines, course instructor evaluations by students, interviews with students and faculty, and surveys. Any innovations in teaching and instruction, or plans for these, should be taken into consideration. In addition, classes should be analyzed in terms of instructor/student ratios, class sizes, as well as average workloads for both instructors and students. Length of Program The length of a professional program should be clear. NASPAA requires that degree lengths be described by how many full-time months are required to finish a program of study, that is, for students who have no background (i.e. education or work experience) in the discipline, for those with some background in the discipline, and for those with a strong background in the discipline. 15 National Association of Schools of Public Affairs and Administration, ÒSelf Study TemplateÓ page, on the NASPAA website, accessed March 10, 2005: < 16

17 For accreditation purposes, NASPAA requires that a program of study be in operation for at least four years in order to ensure that sufficient data are available. Data here will describe the program, its general procedures, as well as the professional directions of gradates upon graduation from that program. 16 EAPAA requires that a program be Òin operation at least x years (where x = the length of the programme to be accredited + 2), so that there are at least two cohorts of graduates to provide adequate data for evaluating programme policies, procedures, and placement of graduates.ó 17 Admission Standards All professional schools generally strive to achieve graduates of the highest qualifications and academic calibre. Admission requirements for prospective students are also usually desired to be inclusive and fair, as well as rigorous and thorough. NASPAA specifically identifies several key factors for determining admissions, which are as follows: Performance on the aptitude part of the Graduate Record Exam or the Graduate Management Admissions Test, or equivalent tests; Undergraduate grade point average and trend of grades; Rank in graduating class; Biographical and career interest data and essays; and Evaluation of the quality of professional experience. 18 The above criteria are meant to be viewed in order that the candidate can be judged in whole rather than in part, and admission should be based on a combination thereof rather than on just one or two factors. EAPAA stipulates that Ò[a]dmission goals, admission policy and admission standards, including academic prerequisites, should be clearly and publicly stated, specifying any differences for preservice, in-service or other categories of students.ó 19 Assessment and Evaluation 16 National Association of Schools of Public Affairs and Administration, ÒSelf Study TemplateÓ page, on the NASPAA website, accessed March 10, 2005: < 17 European Association for Public Administration Accreditation, Accreditation Criteria: Version 4, June 2003, p. 3, on the EAPAA website, accessed March 14, 2005: < 18 National Association of Schools of Public Affairs and Administration, ÒSelf Study TemplateÓ page, on the NASPAA website, accessed March 10, 2005: < 19 European Association for Public Administration Accreditation, Accreditation Criteria: Version 4, June 2003, p. 8, on the EAPAA website, accessed March 14, 2005: < 17

18 Professional schools engage in assessment and evaluation of two main factors: the performance of students, and the performance of the program itself. Grading systems used for assessment and evaluation of student performance, relevant to the mission of the professional school, should be incorporated into the accreditation criteria. The same can be said for assessment and evaluation of the professional program, thus a process for the assessing the effectiveness of the professional school and its academic program is also necessary. NASPAA provides some broad guidance as to how a professional school may develop its own procedures for these two tasks, but maintains a certain degree of flexibility for each professional school. Suggested methods include questionnaires (e.g. teacher evaluation surveys, alumni surveys), and internship or cooperative work term reports. Faculty and Hiring Practices The requirements for faculty and the hiring of faculty members will differ between the various accrediting organizations. Faculty are normally required to be qualified and appropriate to the mission of the professional school, sufficient in numbers to achieve the mission of the school, and in particular, sufficient in numbers of full-time faculty rather than an over-reliance on part-time instructors. Faculty members should be available to students in order to provide appropriate feedback, assessment, and evaluation of academic work. There should exist a structure and process for a fair, open, and merit-based system for the recruitment of faculty members. Faculty workloads should be appropriate to the mission of the professional school. NASPAA requires that a minimum of 75 percent of a professional schoolõs full-time faculty hold a Ph.D. degree (or equivalent) in their respective fields. It also stipulates that there must exist a faculty nucleus (of no less than five full-time individuals) at each professional school, each of whom is directly involved in teaching as well as the operations of the professional school. Faculty duties should be described, including teaching workloads and all other responsibilities. The role of professional practitioners within any professional school is vital to the success of that program of study. NASPAA requires that the professional schools outline practitioner participation in that school according to practitioner instruction (i.e. Òthe number and percent of required and elective courses for degree program students taught by part-time faculty during the past two years, including the self-study yearó), and practitioner involvement (i.e. Òthe ways that practitioners are involved with the program and its students beyond serving as part-time faculty.ó) National Association of Schools of Public Affairs and Administration, ÒSelf Study TemplateÓ page, accessed March 16, 2005: < 18

19 NASPAA also provides guidelines for faculty diversity and requires evidence from the professional school that there exists support for the employment of women, minorities, and people with disabilities. EAPAAÕs standards are not as detailed. EAPAA requires that a Òsubstantive percentage of the professional faculty nucleus actively involved in the programme should hold an earned doctorate or other equivalent terminal academic degree in their field,ó 21 although no specific percentage of faculty has been given. Faculty nucleus refers to a core group of identifiable faculty who accept responsibility for the program. EAPAA also states that programs should attempt to hire a percentage of female faculty which corresponds with percentage of females in the workforce. Faculty and hiring procedures in the non-public administration disciplines vary to some degree. The American Library Association (ALA) provides some broad guidelines for full-time and part-time faculty, without actually requiring specific percentages: Full-time faculty members are qualified for appointment to the graduate faculty within the parent institution and are sufficient in number and in diversity of specialties to carry out the major share of the teaching, research, and service activities required for a program, wherever and however delivered. Part-time faculty, when appointed, balance and complement the teaching competencies of the full-time faculty. Particularly in the teaching of specialties that are not represented in the expertise of the full-time faculty, part-time faculty enrich the quality and diversity of a program. 22 The research endeavours and professional experiences of all faculty (and prospective faculty) are also to be included. The involvement of professional practitioners is normally an important element of success in the program. All information regarding involvement of practicing members of the profession in the teaching or research activities within the program is necessary. The procedures used for faculty hiring, promotion, and tenure are also part of the criteria used in accrediting any professional school, and should be explicit. Facilities and Infrastructure The physical infrastructure of the professional school as well as the facilities that it offers must be suitable and sufficient to deliver a high quality of standards for the goals and objectives set forth in the mission statement. 21 European Association for Public Administration Accreditation, Accreditation Criteria: Version 4, June 2003, p. 8, on the EAPAA website, accessed March 14, 2005: < 22 American Library Association, ÒStandards for Accreditation of MasterÕs ProgramÕs in Library and Information Studies 1992Ó page, on the ALA website, accessed March 16, 2005: < > 19

20 More specifically, teaching and learning facilities should be appropriate to the mission of the professional school, which are up-to-date, safe, and readily available. Examples include the building which houses the professional school (including the classrooms, labs, and offices), the technology made available and utilized, the available library resources, and those resources which belong to the rest of the university or college (outside of the professional school) which are or can be made available to students within that professional program. In addition to physical facilities, there should be sufficient financial resources within the professional school which allows that school to achieve its mission. NASPAA outlines support services and facilities according to the following main categories: Budget: Includes budget process, budget sufficiency, and salary information on all faculty members; Library Services: Includes library support (e.g. services, library collection related to the professional discipline, electronic databases, etc.), and library program role (i.e. the amount of coordination between the library and the program of study); Support Personnel: e.g. secretarial, clerical, etc.; Instructional Equipment: computer support, audio-visual support; Faculty offices: adequacy of space for faculty and student counseling; Classrooms: for course lectures, seminars, simulation exercises, etc.: Meeting Area: for the purposes of students and faculty gathering in one area on campus for the purposes of discussion. 23 In addition, NASPAA outlines similar requirements, although modified, for the delivery of on-line instruction. EAPAAÕs requirements for facilities and services are similar to that of NASPAA, and are presented in the following manner: Budget. The programme should have financial resources sufficient to support its stated objectives. Library Services. All students and faculty should have reasonable access to library facilities and services that are recognised as adequate. This would normally include texts, monographs, periodicals, serials, pamphlets, and research reports. The programme faculty should have a major role in selecting library acquisitions for its programme. Support Staff. Adequate secretarial, technical and clerical personnel should be available to enable the programme to meet its educational objectives. Instructional Equipment. Programme faculty and students should have access to appropriate equipment for coursework and research, including computer facilities, visual aid devices, audio and videotapes and films. 23 National Association of Schools of Public Affairs and Administration, ÒSelf Study TemplateÓ page, on the NASPAA website, accessed March 16, 2005: < 20

21 Faculty Offices. The offices for faculty should provide adequate space and privacy for student counselling, course preparation, and other faculty responsibilities. Classrooms. Appropriate classrooms should be available for the courses being offered. This would normally include rooms suitable for seminars, case discussions, simulation exercises and lectures. 24 Internships, Cooperative Education, and Professional Practice Any professionally related work experiences that are built into the program, including internships, cooperative educational work placements, or other forms of professional practice, should be outlined and explained with reference to the mission statement. NASPAA requires that any internship be explained based on the following four criteria: Internship Design Ð Explain the purpose of the internship experience in terms of the programõs mission, including how it is integrated with other parts of the curriculum and when it is done. Describe the duration of involvement and the kind of activities in which the intern engages. Internship Status Ð Explain whether the internship is voluntary or required in the program. Are there any prerequisites for participation in an internship? Describe the basis (formula) for granting academic credits for the internship. How are grades determined when internship credit is given? Internship Supervision Ð Describe the supervision provided by the program faculty and by agency personnel. Are regular site visits by program personnel required? How is the internship program coordinated? What criteria are used for matching students with available locations and who does the matching? Explain any arrangements for remuneration of interns, including who makes the payments to the students. Internship Placement Ð Describe the general placement experience in internships. Indicate the number of intern placements over the last four years. List the placements of all interns during the self-study year, indicating length of placement, hours per week, and credit earned. 25 EAPAA stresses the importance of practical skills in the teaching of public administration as a profession, the type of which are imparted through internships and cooperative work experiences. Such practical skills do not necessarily have to be delivered through professional employment practices, however, and EAPAA suggests that a thesis research project, one which contains an ongoing academic supervision component, may also be utilized for these purposes. 24 European Association for Public Administration Accreditation, Accreditation Criteria: Version 4, June 2003, pp. 8-9, on the EAPAA website, accessed March 14, 2005: < 25 National Association of Schools of Public Affairs and Administration, ÒSelf Study TemplateÓ page, on the NASPAA website, accessed March 10, 2005: < 21