Scott Gutentag, Ph.D. Licensed Educational Psychologist Nationally Certified School Psychologist

Scott Gutentag, Ph.D. Licensed Educational Psychologist Nationally Certified School Psychologist 1

Northern, Central, Southern California Training, Consultation, Projects Diagnostic Centers Department of Education Special Schools Division Center based Transdiscipinary Assessment Field based Assessment Who s Eligible? Who Refers? Who Pays? Identified special education students or those for whom eligibility is an issue Ages 3 through 22 years Referral applications accepted from local education agencies School district County office SELPA No cost to family or LEA 2

Purpose 1. Review the Larry P Ruling. 2. Review the basic tenets of the scientific method, psychological terminology, and psychometrics, which many times are misunderstood, misinterpreted, and misused when assessing African American students in the context of Larry P and its extrapolations. 3. Emphasize best practice assessment that is theoretically sound, scientifically validated, and consistent with IDEA and CA Ed Code. 4. Review different approaches to conducting nondiscriminatory assessments. The Problem 3

Facts Based on CA Reported Data (CDE, Data as of 2015) African American students are overrepresented as ID, ED, and SLD compared to the other ethnic groups African American and American Indian/Alaska Native students drop out of school at a much higher rate compared to the state average American Indian/Alaska Native, Hispanic, and African American students continue in special education longer than the state average American Indian/Alaska Native complete GED at a higher rate than the state average. The other race/ethnic groups complete GED at a similar rate to each other and the state average. One Solution to the Racial Divide and Overrepresentation in Special Education Specific to African American Students= Banning IQ tests 4

Larry P: 1979 The Larry P. v. Riles case was filed against the state of California on behalf of African American parents who argued that the administration of culturally biased standardized IQ tests resulted in disproportionate numbers of African American children identified and inappropriately placed in special education classes for the Educable Mentally Retarded (EMR). An additional concern was that, once placed in such classrooms, the children did not have access to the core curriculum taught in regular classes. Larry P Ruling in 1979 Judge Peckham prohibited the use of IQ tests for placing African American students in classes for EMR or their substantial equivalent after concluding that IQ tests were racially and culturally biased, and were responsible for the disproportionate placement of African American students in dead end classes. 5

Subsequent Rulings and CDE Guidance Even with parental consent, IQ tests may not be given to African American students. Instead of IQ tests, districts should use alternative means (e.g., pupil s personal history and development, adaptive behavior, classroom performance, academic achievement, etc.). Prohibits any use of an IQ test as part of an assessment, which could lead to special education placement or services, even if the test is only part of a comprehensive assessment plan. IQ tests are inherently biased against African American children Any standardized assessment that generates cognitive, mental ability or aptitude scores are prohibited. 36 Years Have Passed Since The Ban On IQ Testing With African American Students, Yet... Disability Overrepresentation Continues 6

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15 Three Other Trials in the U.S. Determined Intelligence Testing was Not Biased for African American Students If... Certain crucial standards were met (despite overrepresentation of minority students in special education) including: A) Rigorous implementation of procedural safeguards in the referral, classification and placement process B) Implementation of a multifactored assessment designed to identify specific educational needs by a group of professionals, C) Classification, placement, and programming decisions made by a team that included professionals and parents Source: Reschly & Grimes, 2002 8

Misuse and Misinterpretation Was/Is the Problem Not the Particular Measure If misuse and misinterpretation were not problematic, there would be no need for task forces and standards to hold educators accountable (see works by Association of Black Psychologists, and the joint testing standards of APA, American Educational Research Association, and National Council in Measurement in Education, 1999). Reference: AERA, APA, NCME (1999). Standards for educational and psychological testing. Washington, DC: AERA Where Does the Fault Lie? With the TOOL or TECHNICIAN? SITUATION 1. Michael Jackson died from Propofol following injection of sedative drugs 2. Giving IQ test to child arriving from China to U.S. for first time 18 FAULT LIE WITH TOOL OR TECHNICIAN? 1. An effective drug intended for ER use to sedate patients for several seconds undergoing painful procedure given by Drs trained in critical care: TOOL OR TECHNICIAN problem? 2. Child has no U.S. experience and is being given a U.S. culturally loaded test, despite it s excellent psychometric properties: TOOL OR TECHNICIAN problem? 9

Therefore It s About Understanding What We re Doing and Correct Implementation Court Ruling and CDE 1979 Larry P Case: Judge Peckham prohibited the use of IQ tests for placing African American students in classes for EMR or their substantial equivalent after concluding that IQ tests were racially and culturally biased 1986 CDE Directive: IQ tests shall not be used to determine whether an African American student is learning disabled, because it is possible that the resulting score could subsequently result in the pupil being identified as mentally retarded Intended Use of IQ Scores test score calculation is only the first step in the interpretive process. Goodenough, 1949 intelligence tests are completely relative and, moreover, do not assess absolute quantities. Wechsler, 1958 IQ tests measure only a portion of the competencies involved with human intelligence. Reschly, 1979 Live in the Past Or Live in the Present Kaufman, 1979: Argued that intelligence tests lack of theoretical clarity and support constituted a critical issue of validity. Kamphaus, 2001: Address intelligence test validity through the development of contemporary instruments founded in theory, and through integration of information hypothesis validation as well as testing rival hypotheses 10

Live in the Medical Past or Present? What We New Then: 1982 NY Times Thomas Deerinck/Visuals Unlimited, Inc. 21 What Research, Learning, and Living in the Present Offers Us A push toward a more neuropsychological and alternative methodology of intelligence occurring in the late 1990 s with a focus on profile analysis of student with comparative sample Cognitive measures (quantitative and qualitative) continue to be researched and improved Education is placing an increased emphasis on providing students the intensive and evidence based interventions they need as soon as they need them (The Consortium for Evidence Based Early Intervention Practices, 2010) Shall we live by what was happening in the 1970 s or move with the times in the 2000 s? 11

Best Practice Assessment Involves a Scientific Approach and Understanding What it is Assessment is a way of gaining some understanding of the child in order to make informed decisions. Sattler, 2001 A general term that includes an array of procedures to gather information about student learning and making judgments about learning progress. Sattler, 2001 A test is a component of an assessment. Consists of a set of questions administered during a set period of time under reasonably comparable conditions for all students Linn & Gronlund, 2000 Best Practice Assessment Includes Measures that are Theory Based 1. A set of interrelated constructs, definitions, and propositions that present a systematic view of phenomena by specifying relations among variables, with the purpose of explaining or predicting phenomena Kerlinger, 1986 2. A set of related ideas that has the potential to explain or predict human experience in an orderly fashion, and it is based on data DePoy & Gitlin, 2015 3. Failure to put theory first is unacceptable because such practice runs counter to all notions of good science and the scientific method (referring intellectual assessment but applies to all). Flanagan & Ortiz, 2002 12

Best Practice Assessment Includes Measures that are Theory Based All assessment measures and approaches must be based on some theory, otherwise the assessment is based on nothing but supposition, assumption, and intuition?? Question to Ask When Choosing a Measure?? Are the measures you are using based on some theory or are they pieced together with borrowed terms from the literature because it feels right, sounds right, appears to makes sense? Best Practice Assessment Involves Multiple Sources of Information No one procedure, assessment, approach is better than another as long as it satisfies the criteria related to theory, principles of assessment, reliability, and validity Never use a test as a sole indicator of the test taker s functioning AERA, APA, NCME (1999). Standards for educational and psychological testing. Washington, DC: AERA Data collected from a variety of sources should be analyzed and evaluated within the context of the examinee s complete learning evaluation (Flanagan & Mascolo, 2005) Take Home Points It is up to the professional to determine the procedures and approaches based on the above knowledge and individual student If the measure (test, observation, components of informal interaction, rating scale, questions in an interview, etc.) isn t appropriate for the student, DON T use it 13

Best Practice Assessment Involves All Measures Having Established Reliability and Validity Reliability Consistency of measurements so that results are dependable, reproducible, and stable (Sattler, 2001) Degree of consistency range from.00 (no reliability) to 1.00 (perfect reliability) Validity The extent to which a test measures what it is supposed to measure (Sattler, 2001) Reliability of measurements is needed to obtain valid results We can have consistent measures that provide wrong information or are interpreted inappropriately (Linn and Gronlund, 2000) Example: Get the same weight on a scale when step on it 3x in a row Verification and Clarification Checks of Frequently Made Statements FMS Just use clinical judgment in interpreting intelligence V s and C s Clinical judgment is very important in interpretation but the danger occurs when.... Like was practiced prior to the 1990 s, clinicians sometimes applied relatively subjective clinical acumen in the absence of empirically supported theoretical bases to interpret scores for their consumers (Kamphaus et al., 2005) Clinical judgment is subjective, based on personal experience and training, and can vary among individuals; thus, it must be supported by other sources of information Confirmatory bias exists 14

Best Practice Assessment Involves Evidence Supporting Your Decision Make sure you have the evidence to support the how s and why s of whatever assessment process you use to measure the components of an SLD In Review It must include: Multiple sources of information Sound theoretical orientation Established reliability and validity Individualized to the student and NOT the group to which the student belongs Culture fairness (involving acculturation) IDEA Regulations for Identifying Specific Learning Disability A State must adopt, consistent with 34 CFR 300.309, criteria for determining whether a child has a specific learning disability as defined in 34 CFR 300.8(c)(10). In addition, the criteria adopted by the State: Must not require the use of a severe discrepancy between intellectual ability and achievement for determining whether a child has a specific learning disability, as defined in 34 CFR 300.8(c)(10); Must permit the use of a process based on the child s response to scientific, research based intervention; and May permit the use of other alternative research based procedures for determining whether a child has a specific learning disability, as defined in 34 CFR 300.8(c)(10). 15

Application of Best Practice Assessment to CA Education Code Legal Criteria for SLD Assessment The report shall contain information considered by the team which shall include, but not be limited to: (i) Data obtained from standardized assessment instruments; (ii) Information provided by the parent; (iii) Information provided by the pupilʹs present teacher; (iv) Evidence of the pupilʹs performance in the regular and/or special education classroom obtained from observations, work samples, and group test scores; (v) Consideration of the pupilʹs age, particularly for young children; and (vi) Any additional relevant information. The Learning Disabilities Association of America s Position on Evaluation, Identification, and Eligibility Criteria for Students with Specific Learning Disabilities (2010) 1. Maintain the SLD definition and strengthen statutory requirements in SLD identification procedures; 2. Neither ability achievement discrepancy analyses nor failure to respond to intervention (RTI) alone is insufficient for SLD identification; 3. To meet SLD statutory and regulatory requirements, a third method approach that identifies a pattern of psychological processing strengths and deficits, and achievement deficits consistent with this pattern of processing deficits, makes the most empirical and clinical sense; 4. An empirically validated RTI model could be used to prevent learning problems in children, but comprehensive evaluations should occur whenever necessary for SLD identification purposes, and children with SLD need individualized interventions based on specific learning needs, not merely more intense interventions designed for children in general education; and 5. Assessment of cognitive and neuropsychological processes should be used not only for identification, but for intervention purposes as well, and these assessment intervention relationships need further empirical investigation. 16

The Consortium for Evidence Based Early Intervention Practices: A Response to the Learning Disabilities Assoc of America Position on SLD Identification (2010) 1. RtI is a service delivery model best conceptualized as a multi tier system of services and supports (MTSS). SLD eligibility for some students is a part of MTSS, but is secondary to the primary focus on prevention and promotion of positive outcomes for all students and early intervention for students who need it through evidence based practices. 2. There is no such thing as a standalone RtI model of identification; to suggest such is a straw person argument. Identification of SLD, requires attention to multiple criteria and a comprehensive evaluation that attends to (a) inclusionary and exclusionary components, and (b) determinant factors. 3. A comprehensive assessment does not mean, nor has ever been equated with, cognitive assessment in general or PSW in particular. IDEA 2004 regulations (IDEA 300.304(c)(4)) are clear in this regard. 4. There is no requirement to adhere to the statutory definition of SLD. IDEA defines SLD according to ʺmanifestationsʺ of the disorder of psychological processes. The Regulations require an identification model to identify the manifestations (i.e., the eight domains in which SLD can occur) and there is no route to compliance other than the Regulations. 5. The LDA position statement argues that PSW improves treatment outcomes because this knowledge helps teachers match specific interventions to specific patterns of student test results. More than 30 years of research has failed to support this argument. Moreover, there are no data that teachers successfully use any type of cognitive assessment data to develop interventions or evidence that they should attempt to do so. In contrast, there are proven interventions that can be provided that work regardless of students pattern of cognitive strengths and weaknesses. Venturing Down the Rabbit Hole of Confusion, Illusion, & Contradiction 17

Circular Reasoning Fallacy Cognition= Intelligence Thus, standardized intelligence testing is being performed No Standardized Intelligence Tests Cognition=acquiring knowledge, making plans, and solving problem Can use standardized tests measuring child s acquired knowledge, making plans, solving problems Clearing Up the Confusion: What s in a Name? Ability The quality or state of being able; natural aptitude or acquired proficiency Merriam Webster Dictionary, 2015 Mental Of or relating to the mind Merriam Webster Dictionary, 2015 Intelligence the ability to learn or understand things or to deal with new or difficult situations Merriam Webster Dictionary, 2015 Cognitive Mental processes, including perception, memory, and reasoning, by which children acquire knowledge, make plans, and solve problems Sattler, 2001 18

Verification and Clarification Checks on Frequently Made Statement FMS Cognition=IQ, therefore, no standardized cognitive measures may be given V & C Origin: Middle English cognicion, from Anglo French, from Latin cognition, cognitio, from cognoscere to become acquainted with, know, from co + gnoscere to come to know Definition: conscious mental activities : the activities of thinking, understanding, learning, and remembering Reference: Merriam Webster Dictionary, 2015 Definition Verification and Clarification Checks on Frequently Made Statement FMS We can t measure intelligence using standardized tests V & C Origin: From Latin Intelligere understand Merriam Webster, 2015 Definition: the ability to learn or understand things or to deal with new or difficult situations Anne Anastasi, 1992: ʺIntelligence is not a single, unitary ability, but rather a composite of several functions. The term denotes that combination of abilities required for survival and advancement within a particular culture 19

Verification and Clarification Checks on a Frequently Made Statement FMS We can use parts of standardized tests that are not IQ/cognitive tests such as the NEPSY or TAPS V & C Those tests measure activities of thinking, understanding, learning, and remembering DEFINITION = Those tests measure one s understanding of things or dealing with new or difficult situations; the ability to learn or understand things DEFINITION = The Reality: The Need to Understand Cognitive Processes Objectively The cognitive processes related to academic skill acquisition need to be clearly understood if the connect between a child s cognitive processing competence and academic performance can be understood Peverly, 1994 20

Verification and Clarification Checks on a Frequently Made Statement FMS Districts should use alternative means of assessment (CDE, 1986): pupil s personal history and development adaptive behavior classroom performance academic achievement personality characteristics C & V Adaptive behavior Performance of daily activities required for personal and social sufficiency Is modifiable, cognition is not Defined by typical performance, and NOT ability (Sparrow, Cicchetti, Balla, 2005) Personality The set of emotional qualities, ways of behaving (Merriam Webster Dictionary, 2015) Academics (reading, writing, and math) Personal History and Development Based on perception and reporting. Important part of an assessment, but does not replace scientific based cognitive assessment And Therein Lies the Confusion, Illusion, and Contradiction Adaptive Behavior Intelligence, cognition, or mental ability They describe different things and are different constructs Personality Characteristics Intelligence, cognition, or mental ability They describe different things and are different constructs We need to know how a child uses his/her mind to acquire knowledge, make plans, and solve problems for diagnostic and programming planning purposes, which is determining cognition We need to objectively know how the child uses his/her mind to be able to do something, which is mental ability 21

The Confusion and Contradictions for Ca Ed Code When Eliminating Anything that Looks like Intelligence Emotional Disturbance An inability to learn that cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or health factors Intellectual Disability Significantly subaverage general intellectual functioning Specific learning Disability Adisorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes (attention, visual processing, auditory processing, sensory motor skills, cognitive abilities including association, conceptualization and expression) do not include learning problems that are primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motor disabilities, of intellectual disability Verification and Clarification Check on a Frequently Made Statement FMS IQ tests show group differences among race V s & C s Less of a difference with more current tests Cautious and knowledgeable consumer MUST determine how much of the difference is actually due to ethnicity... You may be surprised. 22

Clearing Up the Confusion on How Much a Group Difference is Actually Due to Culture/Race On the KABC 2, mother s educational Level explains score differences more than ethnicity alone, BUT, the differences are due to 86.8% to 90.6% of something else This Means We must consider variables other than ethnicity and race when analyzing differences in scores Clearing Up the Confusion by Being Consumers of Scientific Research and Data, Rather than Assumptions KABC 2 scores across the different ethnic groups reveal minimal score differences, and ALL groups scored in the average range after controlling for certain variables Ethnicity explains only 3.7% to 5.0% of the differences in scores. This means the score differences across ethnic groups are due to 95% to 96.3% of something else 23

Verification and Clarification Check on a Frequently Made Statement FMS Can t give tests that correlate with IQ tests V & C Correlations= Relationships between variables (Gay & Airasian, 2000 ) Just because variables are related (correlated) to each other does not mean they measure the exact same thing Many factors that make up a human being correlate with each other, so nothing is truly independent of each other No correlation is perfect, as the variables can be related to other variables as well Squaring the correlation provides information on how much of a difference/change in one variable is accounted for by another variable Examples to follow... Clearing Up the Confusion with the Correlational Argument Rabbit Hole Logic If standardized cognitive/mental ability/iq measures = IQ Test; then we can t use other tests that correlate well with the IQ tests maybe use parts of it. Using this logic, many language and achievement tests cannot be used with African American students Reality Check These tests do not measure the exact same thing despite correlations Remember the definition and nature of correlations A correlation is a statistic and was never intended to be used as the end all be all in decision making Dissecting a test based solely on race and correlations is not suggested best practice or psychometrically sound 24

Clearing Up the Confusion on the Correlational Argument...Let s Look at a Medical Example The Brain has Individual Specializations They Interact and Correlate with Each Other Verification and Clarification Checks on a Frequently Made Statement FMS The student of one race received a lower score than a student of another race; therefore, the test is biased and unfair V & C That is not the definition of bias; and in determining bias one must use statistics adequately, which means... To use statistics adequately, one must understand the principles involved and be able to judge whether obtained results are statistically significant and whether they are meaningful in the particular research context. (Kerlinger, 1979) 25

Clearing Up the Confusion about Bias and Fairness Test data have no inherent meaning as scores don t think or decide.people do If the individual s whose experiential backgrounds (not race, ethnicity, or even culture per se) differ from the mainstream, then bias may be involved Bias in traditional testing occurs primarily when a student s backgrounds and experiences differ significantly from those on whom the test was normed Tests fall along a continuum of culture influence (e.g., reduced, culture specific, culture loaded) It s about predictive and item biases Resource: Ortiz, 2002 Verification and Clarification Checks on a Frequently Made Statement FMS Determine child s cognitive functioning based on his/her relative strengths and weaknesses (AKA, ipsative analysis) Verification and Clarification Poor reliability of the difference score between two subtests (Kamphaus, 2005) Standard error of the difference between two scores is larger than the standard error of measurement of the two scores being compared (Anastasi, 1985) Correlations among subtests are positive and high, suggesting little differential information about a child s cognitive skills (Anastasi, 1985) Relative strengths in some abilities may actually be much lower compared to same age peers, suggesting child will have great difficulties compared to same age peers 26

Verification and Clarification Checks on A Frequently Made Statement FMS Don t use national norms, but we can rely on local norms (district wide or classroom based) only V & C Any norms involve comparisons to others When there is no matched group, may be comparing apples to oranges Students may leave the classroom/school so the comparative sample is always changing, which means assessment results have low reliability and thus low validity AND target child s functioning may NOW by higher or lower because comparative sample is always changing. Verification and Clarification Checks on Frequently Made Statement FMS Standardized measures don t adequately represent all minority groups V s & C s Standardization sample is a proportional representation across states, gender, parent education level, and ethnicity based on national census. Numbers for EACH ethnic group in the sample is the same proportion as those in the U.S. population This is how research is conducted in ALL professional fields including medicine Think about the normal value ranges in blood tests: Does it represent every single iota of ethnicity in its sample? 27

Best Practices in Nondiscriminatory Assessment Nondiscriminatory assessment is not defined as a single procedure or test... Nondiscriminatory assessment should be applicable to everyone, not just those from a particular group Reference: Ortiz (2005) Best Practice in Nondiscriminatory Assessment Don t Profile The Student Remember The I In The IEP Remember FAPE and that Services are Based on Individual Needs and not Group Needs Thus, no single approach, tool, procedure, or method can be recommended as best practice 28

Best Practices for Nondiscriminatory Assessment No entire race, culture, gender, religion, height range, weight range respond in the exact same manner otherwise, one procedure or assessment approach may be assigned based on their particular group assignment. Same Race, Different Cultures = Different Experiences 29

Take Home Tools for Best Practice in Assessing ANYONE Including African American Students Conducting Nondiscriminatory Assessment 1) Assess and evaluate the learning ecology 2) Assess and evaluate language proficiency 3) Assess and evaluate opportunity for learning 4) Assess and evaluate educationally relevant cultural and linguistic factors 5) Evaluate, revise, and re test hypotheses 6) Determine the need for and language of assessment 7) EVALUATOR reduces bias in traditional testing practices 8) Utilize authentic and alternative assessment procedures 9) Evaluate and interpret all data within the context of learning ecology 10) Link assessment to intervention Reference: Ortiz, 2002 30

Assess And Evaluate the Learning Ecology 1. What s going on in child s environments that could be affecting learning 2. Problems may not only be due to intrinsic factors of child Examples Newly arrived to U.S. Lack of teaching materials in school Assess And Evaluate Language Proficiency Determine student s level of understanding and expression of English 31

Assess And Evaluate Opportunity For Learning Some important issues to look at: Regularity of school attendance Experience with the school environment and setting Match between student s native language and language of instruction Parent s ability to support language of instruction Years of instruction in the native language and English Quality of native language and English instruction in ESL, or bilingual programs Cultural relevance of the curriculum Number of school changes Assess And Evaluate Educationally Relevant Cultural And Linguistic Factors Look at how specific cultural and linguistic experiences outside of school influence schoolbased learning, language development, and educational progress Examples Current language in the home Fluency in native language and English Individual s and parent s level of acculturation Parent s level of education 32

Evaluate, Revise, And Re test Hypotheses When external factors that could influence learning problems have been ruled out, learning problems due to intrinsic factors of child can be considered Determine The Need For And Language Of Assessment 1. Assess in child s native language or native mode of communication 2. Individuals proficient in English is assessed in their native language/communication in addition to English testing as appropriate 3. Individuals with histories or backgrounds different from U.S. mainstream should be evaluated by assessor who is knowledgeable of individual s unique experiences and their effects on learning and development 33

EVALUATOR Reduces Bias In Traditional Testing Practices Options: 1. Maintain standardization using existing or local norms (that may provide more appropriate comparison groups) Refer to CLIM 2. Modify and adapt tests to accommodate for acculturative and linguistic issues Violates standardization, so interpret qualitatively Utilize Authentic And Alternative Assessment Procedures These procedures are geared toward instructional needs and intervention Examples: Informal analysis of work Portfolio assessment Curriculum based measurement 34

Evaluate And Interpret All Data Within The Context Of Learning Ecology All information should be evaluated in an integrated manner and related to how the child is functioning in the real world Don t rely on one source of information, data, score Link Assessment To Intervention Information from evaluation should connect, relate, contribute to interventions Example From the PSW model, determining those specific areas of reading deficits can inform what reading intervention should focus on (morphological, lexical, fluency, speed, etc.) 35

Choosing Tests Based On The Degree Of Linguistic Demand And Cultural Loading introducing Culturelanguage Interpretive Matrix (CLIM) CLIM Reference, Flanagan et al., 2013 A Few Words about the C LIM It is not diagnostic It provides information on the culture/linguistic influence of tests if scores follow a predicted pattern CLIM results must be corroborated by other sources of data Examples follow... 36

Developing Your Cognitive Assessment Plan 1. Better to use as few measures as possible in order to assess the areas of cognition that you hypothesize to be strengths and weaknesses 2. Select a comprehensive measure and determine the cognitive domains that it measures 3. Identify the areas of cognition that are not included on that comprehensive test 4. Identify additional measures to assess those areas 5. Be flexible, no standard/fixed batteries Triangulating Assessment Results Records Review Observation & Interview (including Developmental History) Standardized & Non Standardized Assessment 37

Take Home Messages Ensure that entire assessment process is theoretically sound and grounded in science and NOT based solely on what seems/feels right Ensure that the entire assessment process is consistent with IDEA and Ca Ed Code Don t be misled by misuse of statistics Test the definition of bias Humans make analyses and decisions, tests DO NOT The right decision is that which can be backed by sound best practice and scientific based evidence. References Anastasi, A. (1992). What counselors should know about the use and interpretation of psychological tests. Journal of Counseling and Development, 70 (5), 610 615. Anastasi, A. (1982). Psychological Testing. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company Brown, R. T., Reynolds, C. R., and Whitaker, J. S (1999). Bias in Mental Testing, School Psychology Quarterly, Vol 14 (3), 208 238. California Department of Education. Sacramento, CA. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Atlanta, GA. The Consortium for Evidence Based Early Intervention Practices (2010). A Response to the Learning Disabilities Association of America (LDA) White Paper on Specific Learning Disabilities (SLD) Identification DePoy, E. & Gitlin, L., N. (2015). Introduction to Research: Understanding and Applying Multiple Strategies, 5 th Edition, Elsevier: Missouri 38

Flanagan, D. P., Ortiz, S. O., & Alfonso, V. C. (2013). Essentials of Cross Battery Assessment: Third Edition. New Jersey: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Flanagan, D.P., & Ortiz, S.O. (2002). Best practices in intellectual assessment: future directions. In A. Thomas, & J. Grimes (Eds.) Best Practices in School Psychology:IV, Bethesda: NASP (p. 1337 1350. Flanagan, D.P., & Mascolo, J. T. (2005). Psychoeducational assessment and learning disability diagnosis, In D.P. Flanagan & P. L. Harrison (Eds.), Contemporary Intellectual Assessment: Theories, Tests, and Issues, (pp.521 544) New York: Guilford. Gay, L.R., & Airasian, P. (2000), Educational Research: Competencies for analysis and application 6 th Edition, Prentice Hall: New Jersey Goodenough, F.L. (1949). Mental Testing: Its history, principles, and applications. New York: Rinehart Hopkins, W. G. (2002). A scale of magnitudes for effect statistics. In A new view of statistics. Available at http://www.sportsci.org/resource/stats/effectmag.html Kamphaus, R. W., Winsor Pierce, A., Rowe, E.W., & Kim, S. (2005). A history of intelligence test interpretation. In D. P. Flanagan & P.L. Harrison (Eds.) Contemporary Intellectual Assessment: Theories, Tests, and Issues 2 nd Edition (pp. 23 38). New York: Guilford Kamphaus, R. W. (2001). Clinical assessment of child and adolescent intelligence. Needham Heights, M.A.: Allyn and Bacon. Kaufman, A. S. (1979). Intelligent testing with the WISC R. New York: Wiley Interscience. Kerlinger, (1986) Foundations of Behavioral Research 3 rd Edition, Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Learning Disabilities Association of America (2010). The Learning Disabilities Association of America s White Paper on Evaluation, Identification, and Eligibility Criteria for Students with Specific Learning Disabilities. Pittsburgh, PA: Author. Linn, R.L., & Gronlund, N. E. (2000). Measurement and Assessment in Teaching: Eighth Edition. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. 39

Merriam Webster.com (2015). http://www.merriam webster.com Naglieri, J. A. (2010). The discrepancy/consistency approach to SLD identification using the PASS theory, In D.P. Flanagan, & V. C. Alfonso (Eds.), Essentials of Specific Learning Disability Identification, New Jersey: Wiley (pp. 145 172). Ortiz, S. O. (2002). Best practices in nondiscriminatory assessment. In A. Thomas & J. Grimes (Eds.), Best Practices in School Psychology IV (pp. 1321 1336). Washington, DC: NASP Ortiz, S. O. Reschly, D. J., Grimes, J. P. (2002). Best practices in intellectual assessment. In A. Thomas & J. Grimes (Eds.), Best Practices in School Psychology IV (pp. 1337 1350). Washington, DC: NASP Peverly, S. T., 1994, An overview of the potential impact of cognitive psychology on school psychology. School Psychology Review, 23, 292 309. Reschly, D. J., & Grimes, J. P. (2002). Best practices in intellectual assessment, In A. Thomas, & J. Grimes (Eds), Best Practices in School Psychology IV: Volume 2 (pp. 1337 1350). Bethesda MD:NASP Reschly, D. (1979). Nonbiased assessment. In G. Phye & D. Reschly (Eds.), School Psychology: Perspectives and Issues (pp. 215 253). New York: Academic. Sattler, J. (2001). Assessment of Children: Cognitive Approaches Fourth Edition. San Diego: Jerome M. Sparrow, S. S., Cicchetti, D. V., & Balla, D. A. (2005). Vineland II: Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales: Second Edition. MN: AGS. Ventura County Office of Education. www.vcoe.org Wechsler, D. (1958). The measurement and appraisal of adult intelligence (4th ed.). Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins. 40