file:///f /Courses/2010-11/CGA/FA2/06course/m07intro.htm Module 7: Inventory measurement, inventory valuation, and cost of goods sold Overview In this module, you learn about inventory, including its characteristics and its relationship to cost of goods sold. You also learn how to determine what goods and costs should be included in inventory and the differences in accounting for perpetual and periodic inventory systems. Finally, you have an opportunity to apply what you have learned by using a spreadsheet program to keep track of serialized inventory. Test your knowledge Begin your work on this module with a set of test-your-knowledge questions designed to help you gauge the depth of study required. Topic outline and learning objectives 7.1 Nature of inventory Describe the nature of inventory and what goods and costs are included in this asset category. (Level 1) 7.2 Perpetual and periodic inventory systems Compare and contrast the perpetual inventory system to the periodic inventory system. (Level 1) 7.3 Inventory cost formulas Contrast specific cost identification with the FIFO and weighted-average cost formulas and determine when each is appropriate. (Level 1) 7.4 Computer illustration 7.4-1: Specific cost identification method Calculate the total cost of items sold using a perpetual inventory worksheet. (Level 1) 7.5 Effect of inventory errors Explain the effect of inventory errors on the financial statements. (Level 1) 7.6 Valuation at lower of cost or net realizable value Explain the lower of cost or net realizable value requirement. (Level 1) 7.7 Inventory estimation methods Describe the gross margin method and retail inventory method for inventory value estimation, identifying the circumstances where each is appropriate. (Level 2) 7.8 Internal controls for inventory Describe the features of an effective internal control system for inventory. (Level 2) Module summary Print this module Substantive differences between IFRS and the pre-ifrs CICA Handbook that apply to this module IFRS standards referenced Comparable pre-ifrs Comments CICA Handbook sections IAS 2 Inventories 3031 Inventories These standards are converged; there are no significant conflicts. file:///f /Courses/2010-11/CGA/FA2/06course/m07intro.htm [22/07/2010 9:16:17 AM]
file:///f /Courses/2010-11/CGA/FA2/06course/m07tyk.htm Test your knowledge Module 7 The questions below from the Online Learning Centre (OLC) for the FA2 textbook address some of the core issues for this module. You may find it useful to go through these questions before you attempt the module as it may aid you in assessing the areas that you need to focus on. Chapter 8: Multiple Choice Quiz Note: Please ignore question 4 because the LIFO cost flow assumption is not permitted under IFRS. file:///f /Courses/2010-11/CGA/FA2/06course/m07tyk.htm [22/07/2010 9:16:18 AM]
file:///f /Courses/2010-11/CGA/FA2/06course/m07t01.htm 7.1 Nature of inventory Learning objective Describe the nature of inventory and what goods and costs are included in this asset category. (Level 1) Required reading Chapter 8, pages 397 402 up to "Periodic or Perpetual Recording Method" (Level 1) LEVEL 1 The text details the most common classifications of inventory and identifies which items and costs should be included in this asset class. Some additional points follow. Inventory is a current asset that represents goods held for future sale in the ordinary course of business or use in the manufacture of goods for sale. Inventory is frequently the largest single component of a firm s assets. Moreover, due to its nature, inventory is subject to wear, theft, and obsolescence. Due to its significance, it is critical that firms properly manage and safeguard their inventory. Cost benefit trade-off of inventory stocking levels There are costs and benefits in holding inventory. Some of the more common costs include interest charges, storage, insurance, security, and increased obsolescence. There is also the difficult to measure cost of lost sales due to not having an item in stock. These costs must be balanced against the benefits of stocking additional inventory, which are increased sales and purchase discounts for buying certain lot sizes. Some of these costs and benefits can be easily quantified, but some cannot particularly the sales aspect. As such, achieving the ideal level of inventory is usually the result of trial and error plus experience. Sales on instalment Sometimes when there is a high risk of default, the vendor retains title to goods sold on instalment terms until the last payment is received. Irrespective of whether the bad debts can be reasonably estimated (the instalment sales method is used) or otherwise (the cost recovery method is used), a sale is recorded and the inventory is expensed through cost of goods sold. Accordingly, while the company may retain legal title to the merchandise, it is not included in the inventory total. Interest expense Firms commonly obtain financing to purchase inventory, either from the bank or vendor. IAS 2 p17 18 preclude the capitalization of interest costs unless the inventories require a substantial time to get them ready for their intended use (for example, Boeing 747s). Purchase discounts The text mentions that inventory should be recorded at the lowest available cash price (net method) when purchase discounts are available. While theoretically correct, cost benefit considerations and managerial motivations (managers do not like to record "purchase discounts lost" as a separate expense category because it draws attention to their poor management practices or lack of capital) come into play, so the gross method is frequently seen. The two methods operate in the following manner: The gross method offsets purchase discounts against the cost of the purchases. This serves to reduce cost of goods sold. The net method segregates purchase discounts lost and records them as a financing expense. file:///f /Courses/2010-11/CGA/FA2/06course/m07t01.htm (1 of 2) [22/07/2010 9:16:19 AM]
file:///f /Courses/2010-11/CGA/FA2/06course/m07t01.htm Example 7.1-1 contrasts the gross method and the net method of accounting for a purchase discount. Example 7.1-1 Consider the purchase of $5,000 of inventory under the terms 2/10, net/30 (2% discount if paid within 10 days; otherwise, full payment is expected within 30 days). Following are the journal entries required for the gross method and the net method. For simplicity, PST and GST considerations have been ignored. Gross method Net method Inventory/Purchases 5,000 Inventory/Purchases 4,900 Accounts payable 5,000 Accounts payable 4,900 Assuming that the business pays the account within the discount period, the journal entries are: Accounts payable 5,000 Accounts payable 4,900 Purchase discounts 100 Cash 4,900 Cash 4,900 Assuming that the business pays the account after the discount period has expired, the journal entries are: Accounts payable 5,000 Accounts payable 4,900 Cash 5,000 Purchase Discounts Lost 100 Cash 5,000 file:///f /Courses/2010-11/CGA/FA2/06course/m07t01.htm (2 of 2) [22/07/2010 9:16:19 AM]
file:///f /Courses/2010-11/CGA/FA2/06course/m07t02.htm 7.2 Perpetual and periodic inventory systems Learning objective Compare and contrast the perpetual inventory system to the periodic inventory system. (Level 1) Required reading Chapter 8, pages 402 403 up to "Applying LCM Valuation" and Chapter 8, Appendix pages 420 423 up to "Cost Flow Methods" (Level 1) LEVEL 1 The text details the features of the perpetual and periodic inventory systems. Perpetual inventory systems are updated on an ongoing basis, while periodic systems, as the name implies, are only updated occasionally usually at period end. Prior to the widespread adoption of computerized accounting systems, periodic systems were the norm. Now, they are rare due to the critical import of a company effectively managing its inventory. Indeed, many businesses maintain sophisticated computerized point of sale inventory systems that track the sale of goods (many systems automatically generate a purchase order when the remaining stock falls below a preset level), segregated as to make, model, colour, size, and other features as they are scanned at the checkout stand. This aids management in making vital inventory related decisions as to stocking levels, economic order quantities (EOQ), allocation of shelf space and so on. Take a look at your receipt after your next trip to the supermarket. Note how the store has neatly itemized the exact details of what you have purchased. While there is no question that this information benefits the consumer, the retailer s primary motivation for producing it is to better manage its inventory. file:///f /Courses/2010-11/CGA/FA2/06course/m07t02.htm [22/07/2010 9:16:20 AM]
file:///f /Courses/2010-11/CGA/FA2/06course/m07t03.htm 7.3 Inventory cost formulas Learning objective Contrast specific cost identification with the FIFO and weighted-average cost formulas and determine when each is appropriate. (Level 1) Required reading Chapter 8, pages 402 403 up to "Applying LCM Valuation" and Chapter 8, Appendix, pages 423 428 (Level 1) Chapter 8, pages 407 408 up to "Loss on Purchase Commitments" (Level 2) Reading 7.1 (Level 2) LEVEL 1 The old CICA standard on inventory, Section 3030, referred to specific identification, FIFO, LIFO, and average cost as "methods of cost determination." Common practice has been to refer to these latter three costing methods as "cost flow assumptions," a term used throughout the text. Section 3030 was replaced by section 3031, which is roughly equivalent to IAS 2. The pre-ifrs CICA Handbook section 3031 and IAS 2 use the term "cost formulas"; we will use either "cost formula" or "inventory cost formula" in this module so as to be consistent with the Handbook. Companies purchase and sell inventory on an ongoing basis. Accountants are required to match the cost of the inventory sold to the revenue generated. Sometimes this process is straightforward. For example, when car dealers sell an automobile, they can identify the exact car from the serial number; their purchasing records will detail the cost. This is an application of the specific cost formula. More often, though, it is difficult, or even impossible to determine which specific item was sold. For example, a grocery store has no way of knowing (short of installing a costly tracking system) whether the soft drink that you purchased today arrived in a shipment yesterday or in the delivery received last week. This becomes an issue because often the cost of identical items received on different days varies. To address this, the IASB allows the use of two cost formulas other than specific identification FIFO and weighted-average cost. The standard setters recognize that the adoption of alternative cost formulas does not result in perfect matching, but consents to their use because of cost/benefit and materiality considerations. (The manner in which weighted-average cost is calculated depends on whether the company uses a periodic or perpetual inventory system. As set out on page 424 of the text, when a periodic system is employed, the average is usually referred to as a weighted average unit cost. When a perpetual system is used, the average is typically known as a moving average unit cost. Please refer to Exhibits 8A-2 and 8A- 3 on page 425 for an example of how the computation of these two averages differs.) Companies do have some discretion in which cost formula to use as IAS 2 p23 provides that the cost of inventories of items that are not ordinarily interchangeable and goods or services produced and segregated for specific projects shall be assigned by using specific identification of their individual costs. At first read, it may seem that the IASB has mandated the use of specific identification in all but limited circumstances. This is not the case though, as IAS 2 p24 emphasizes that specific identification of costs is inappropriate when there are large numbers of items of inventory that are ordinarily interchangeable. From a practical perspective, the "interchangeable" exception (foodstuffs, electronics, textbooks, ) will be much more prevalent than the rule (cars, high-end jewellery, artworks, ); therefore, the FIFO and weighted-average cost formulas are widely used. The text details the mechanics of the specific identification, FIFO, and weighted-average cost formulas. Companies can use either FIFO or weighted-average cost if specific identification is inappropriate. Once chosen, the company must disclose the cost formula used and continue to use this in future years unless they change accounting policies in accordance with IAS 8. Note: Reading 7.1 makes reference to "impending revisions to IFRS referenced in the Standards in Transition section." Briefly, the IASB is presently in the midst of a major project to amend IAS 37 Provisions, Contingent Liabilities and Contingent Assets. The purpose of the project is convergence with US GAAP and improvement in the requirements relating to the identification and recognition of liabilities. The revisions may well impact on accounting for commitments. At the date of writing, the timing of the final standard was uncertain. This comment is nonexaminable. file:///f /Courses/2010-11/CGA/FA2/06course/m07t03.htm [22/07/2010 9:16:21 AM]
file:///f /Courses/2010-11/CGA/FA2/06course/m07t04.htm 7.4 Computer illustration 7.4-1: Specific cost identification method Learning objective Calculate the total cost of items sold using a perpetual inventory worksheet. (Level 1) LEVEL 1 This computer illustration demonstrates how a spreadsheet program can be used to keep track of serialized inventory. Material provided A file, FA2M7P1, containing a partially completed worksheet M7P1 and the solution worksheet M7P1S. Description United Pre-Owned Car Dealer Ltd. buys and sells relatively new used cars. Because of the high unit cost, a worksheet (FA2M7P1) is used to keep track of the inventory of used cars. Each time a car is sold, the date of sale is entered into the worksheet. You will review the worksheet FA2M7P1, and then complete it using the data provided in Exhibit 7.4-1. Procedure 1. Start Excel. 2. Open the file FA2M7P1. Click the sheet tab for M7P1. 3. Study the database query in this worksheet. AutoFilter has been set for the database (cells A7:F23). The drop-down arrow to the right of each column label in the database indicates the AutoFilter setting. 4. In the column for Date Sold, enter the dates of sale of the vehicles sold using the information provided in Exhibit 7.4-1 below. The sale of the 2004 Toyota Camry has been pre-entered to provide you with an example. Enter the dates in the form of mm/dd/yy (for example, 07/13/09 for July 13, 2009). If you have difficulties with Excel recognizing the dates you enter, try entering the dates in the form of dd-mm-yy (such as 13-Jul-09) or customize the date formatting. 5. Perform the database query on all vehicles sold. Click the drop-down arrow in the Date Sold column. Choose (Nonblanks) from the list. The database now only shows those vehicles that have a nonblank sold date, filtering out all other unsold vehicles. The total cost of vehicles sold should show in cell D25 as $97,309. To redisplay the entire list, click the drop-down arrow in the Date Sold field, then choose (All). 6. Save the completed worksheet under your own initials. 7. To review the solution, click the sheet tab for M7P1S. Exhibit 7.4-1 United Pre-Owned Car Dealer Ltd. Data Unit Serial # Description Cost Date bought Date sold 1 RS76543 2004 Toyota Camry $15,991 14-Dec-08 13-Jul-09 2 N489175 2007 Acura Integra 22,984 20-Dec-08 3 DT68961 2007 Mazda 323DX 14,234 14-Jan-09 13-Jul-09 4 DA78653 2007 Honda Civic 15,654 23-Jan-09 5 V938910 2002 Volvo 244DL 15,679 16-Feb-09 13-Jul-09 6 V843941 2005 Nissan 240SX 16,874 25-Feb-09 7 TR28237 2007 Buick Century 20,543 11-Mar-09 15-Jul-09 file:///f /Courses/2010-11/CGA/FA2/06course/m07t04.htm (1 of 2) [22/07/2010 9:16:22 AM]
file:///f /Courses/2010-11/CGA/FA2/06course/m07t04.htm 8 HP23792 2003 Fiero GT 13,754 14-Mar-09 9 SL63207 2006 Civic CRX 16,923 23-Mar-09 10 H816394 2003 Honda Accord 15,678 24-Mar-09 17-Jul-09 11 C456129 2006 Sonata GLS 17,783 04-Apr-09 12 S489351 2005 Toyota Corolla 15,184 10-Apr-09 21-Jul-09 13 V786491 2005 VW Jetta 14,682 18-Apr-09 14 TM83467 2004 Acura Integra 15,041 23-May-09 15 TY13457 2004 Mazda MX6 14,984 17-Jun-09 16 H948916 2005 Honda Prelude 18,094 24-Jun-09 file:///f /Courses/2010-11/CGA/FA2/06course/m07t04.htm (2 of 2) [22/07/2010 9:16:22 AM]
file:///f /Courses/2010-11/CGA/FA2/06course/m07t05.htm 7.5 Effect of inventory errors Learning objective Explain the effect of inventory errors on the financial statements. (Level 1) Required reading Chapter 8, pages 409 410 up to Inventory Estimation Methods (Level 1) LEVEL 1 On occasion, an error will be made recording inventory. The most common cause of errors is the incorrect inclusion or exclusion of items in inventory. For example, after the end of the accounting period, it may become apparent that outbound goods in transit shipped on FOB destination terms were not recorded in inventory. Due to the relationship between inventory, purchases, and the cost of goods sold, inventory errors affect both the balance sheet and the income statement. An inventory error that overstates the value of the final inventory will result in the overstatement of income before income taxes by the same amount. Conversely, an inventory error that understates the value of the final inventory will result in an understatement of income before income taxes by the same amount. Example 7.5-1 illustrates the impact of inventory errors. Example 7.5-1 Cost of goods sold was calculated as follows for 20X8 and 20X9: 20X8 20X9 Beginning inventory $ 10,000 $ 11,000 Plus: Purchases 100,000 120,000 Goods available for sale 110,000 131,000 Less: Ending inventory 11,000 13,000 Cost of goods sold $ 99,000 $ 118,000 You subsequently discover that 20X8 s ending inventory was overstated by $3,000. Cost of goods sold is recalculated as follows: 20X8 20X9 Beginning inventory $ 10,000 $ 8,000 Plus: Purchases 100,000 120,000 Goods available for sale 110,000 128,000 Less: Ending inventory 8,000 13,000 Cost of goods sold $ 102,000 $ 115,000 Study the two schedules carefully and identify the similarities and differences. You should observe the following: Cost of goods sold was understated by $3,000 for 20X8 and overstated by a like amount in 20X9. file:///f /Courses/2010-11/CGA/FA2/06course/m07t05.htm (1 of 2) [22/07/2010 9:16:23 AM]
file:///f /Courses/2010-11/CGA/FA2/06course/m07t05.htm Cost of goods sold totalled $217,000 for the two-year period irrespective of whether the error is detected or corrected. Income before income taxes would have been overstated by $3,000 for 20X8 and understated by a like amount in 20X9. Income before income taxes for the two-year period remains the same regardless of whether the error is corrected. file:///f /Courses/2010-11/CGA/FA2/06course/m07t05.htm (2 of 2) [22/07/2010 9:16:23 AM]
file:///f /Courses/2010-11/CGA/FA2/06course/m07t06.htm 7.6 Valuation at lower of cost or net realizable value Learning objective Explain the lower of cost or net realizable value requirement. (Level 1) Required reading Chapter 8, pages 403 407 up to "Other Issues" (Level 1) LEVEL 1 If the value of inventory becomes impaired due to obsolescence, weak market conditions, or other factors, conservatism dictates that the value of inventory be downwardly adjusted. Previously, CICA Handbook section 3030 required that inventories be valued at the lower of cost or market, but "market" was not defined. While it was necessary for businesses to disclose the basis of determining "market," they were allowed to choose from a wide range of valuation methods. The most frequently used methods, and the ones referred to in section 3030, were net realizable value (NRV), NRV less normal profit margin, and replacement cost. Prior to the adoption of IFRS, paragraph 3031.09 was introduced, which required that inventories be valued at the lower of cost or NRV with NRV being defined in paragraph 3031.06 as the estimated selling price in the ordinary course of business less the estimated costs of completion and the estimated costs necessary to make the sale. Paragraph 3031.07 then went on to explain that NRV may not always equal fair value as NRV is entity specific while fair value is not. This means that shop A may be able to sell inventory item X for more than shop B. These pre-ifrs CICA Handbook standards are entirely consistent with IAS 2 p6 7. While it is likely that the terminology "lower of cost or market" will be used for some time, it remains important to recognize that this now means the lower of cost and NRV. file:///f /Courses/2010-11/CGA/FA2/06course/m07t06.htm [22/07/2010 9:16:24 AM]
file:///f /Courses/2010-11/CGA/FA2/06course/m07t07.htm 7.7 Inventory estimation methods Learning objective Describe the gross margin method and retail inventory method for inventory value estimation, identifying the circumstances where each is appropriate. (Level 2) Required reading Chapter 8, pages 410 419 (Level 2) LEVEL 2 Under certain conditions, it is desirable to approximate inventory at hand, rather than conduct a physical count. Situations that call for estimates include the following: The company wants to prepare a set of interim financial statements, but the cost of a physical inventory count is prohibitive. The company wishes to test the accuracy of inventory costs derived by another method. The company desires to estimate a loss for insurance purposes due to the physical destruction of inventory, by fire or other catastrophe. While these are all valid reasons to estimate inventory using the methods described in the text, the company still needs to undertake a physical count at year end. Though not the main thrust of this topic, page 416 discusses disclosure requirements related to inventory. Note that the standards require that the cost of goods sold be disclosed [IAS 2 p36(d)]. file:///f /Courses/2010-11/CGA/FA2/06course/m07t07.htm [22/07/2010 9:16:25 AM]
file:///f /Courses/2010-11/CGA/FA2/06course/m07t08.htm 7.8 Internal controls for inventory Learning objective Describe the features of an effective internal control system for inventory. (Level 2) LEVEL 2 The need to safeguard inventory is very important in most businesses as it is often subject to theft or other forms of misappropriation. Prudent companies address this matter through maintaining a system of internal controls to ensure that the inventory is adequately safeguarded. Examples of internal controls that firms use to protect their inventory include the following: Segregating the custody of inventory from the recording of inventory transactions; that is, separate the receiving function, the shipping function, and the accounting function. This division reduces the possibility of theft and concealment through falsification of records. Requiring that a purchase order be prepared and approved by an authorized person for all procurements. This document minimizes the possibility of unauthorized purchases being made. Requiring that a document be prepared for all inventory transactions; that is, use a receiving report for all goods received, a shipping report for all goods shipped, and other appropriate documents to capture other changes in inventory. Requiring that authorized purchase orders and receiving reports are matched to invoices from suppliers before a cheque is prepared. All documentation should accompany the cheque and be reviewed before cheques are signed. This documentation minimizes the possibility of inappropriate payments being made. Providing for periodic test counts of inventory balances and comparing the physical inventory on hand to the perpetual inventory records. Physically controlling the inventory; for example, storing it in a secure area and allowing only authorized people access to this area. Maintaining inventory at the minimum required to avoid stock-outs. Ethical considerations It is important to note that an appropriate balance must be struck between internal controls and the expectations of employees, customers, and others with respect to privacy. For example, some physical surveillance measures may provide effective internal control but raise privacy issues for example, the use of video surveillance cameras in change-rooms where customers try on clothes at a dress shop. The trade-off between the rights of the company and the rights of the individual are not always clear-cut. Consider for a moment the following questions: What obligation does a company have to tell its employees and customers that it is monitoring their phone calls and e- mails or that it randomly searches employee lockers for missing inventory? What steps should management take to make sure that internal controls are not misused to invade legitimate privacy interests of employees or clients? file:///f /Courses/2010-11/CGA/FA2/06course/m07t08.htm [22/07/2010 9:16:26 AM]
file:///f /Courses/2010-11/CGA/FA2/06course/m07summary.htm Module 7 summary Inventory measurement, inventory valuation, and cost of goods sold This module defines inventory, describes its characteristics, and explains the relationship between inventory and cost of goods sold. It describes criteria for determining what goods and costs should be included in inventory. Accounting for perpetual and periodic inventory systems are contrasted. Inventory cost formulas are described and illustrated and inventory valuation methods are explained. Describe the nature of inventory and what goods and costs are included in this asset category. Inventory represents goods held for future sale in the ordinary course of business or for use in the manufacture of goods for resale. Ownership of goods in transit is determined by the shipping terms. The consignor retains legal ownership of goods on consignment until the goods are sold by the consignee. Compare and contrast the perpetual inventory system to the periodic inventory system. Under a periodic inventory system, detailed records of inventory sales are not maintained. Inventory and cost of goods sold is determined periodically usually at the end of each period. Purchases are recorded in a purchases account, which is closed out to the cost of goods sold account at the end of the period. Under a perpetual inventory system, detailed inventory records are maintained. Purchases are debited to the inventory account at time of acquisition. The inventory and cost of goods sold accounts are updated when inventory is sold. Contrast specific cost identification with the FIFO and the weighed-average cost formulas and determine when each is appropriate. All inventory cost formulas apply the cost principle. All formulas attempt to match the cost of goods sold to the sales revenue. The methods differ in their assumption as to which goods are being sold and which goods remain on hand. The specific identification cost formula must be used unless there are a large number of interchangeable items in inventory. In the latter case, either the FIFO or weighted-average cost formulas may be used. Explain the effect of inventory errors on the financial statements. The effect of inventory errors can be determined from the equation that follows: Cost of beginning inventory Plus: Cost of purchases = Cost of goods available Less: Cost of ending inventory = Cost of goods sold If ending inventory is overstated, then cost of goods sold will be understated and vice versa. If beginning inventory was overstated (last year's ending inventory was overstated and last year's cost of goods sold was understated), then cost of goods sold this year will be overstated. If cost of goods sold is overstated, then income is understated. Explain the lower of cost or net realizable value requirement. The conservatism constraint requires that assets, including inventory, should not be carried at a value higher than their current value. Therefore inventory is typically valued at the lower of cost or net realizable value (LCNRV). The LCNRV method can be applied to individual inventory items or to groups of similar items. file:///f /Courses/2010-11/CGA/FA2/06course/m07summary.htm (1 of 2) [22/07/2010 9:16:27 AM]
file:///f /Courses/2010-11/CGA/FA2/06course/m07summary.htm Inventory writedowns are to be reversed if the value of the inventory written down subsequently recovers. Describe the gross margin method and retail inventory method for inventory value estimation, identifying the circumstances where each is appropriate. Companies sometimes find it more convenient to estimate the inventory on hand, rather than conduct a physical count. Reasons include the following: 1. The company wants to prepare a set of interim financial statements but the cost of a physical inventory count is prohibitive; 2. The company wishes to test the accuracy of inventory costs derived by another method; and 3. The company desires to estimate a loss for insurance purposes due to the physical destruction of inventory, by fire or other catastrophe. A physical count of inventory should be undertaken at year end. Common methods used to estimate inventories include the gross margin method and retail inventory method. The retail inventory method is typically used by entities that maintain inventory records using retail prices. Describe the features of an effective internal control system for inventory. Controls to safeguard inventory include segregating duties for the receiving, storing, shipping, and accounting functions requiring approval for purchases and payments requiring an audit trail for all inventory transactions counting inventory on a periodic basis file:///f /Courses/2010-11/CGA/FA2/06course/m07summary.htm (2 of 2) [22/07/2010 9:16:27 AM]
Reading 7.1 Source: Pre-publication version of Lo Fisher Intermediate Financial Accounting, Vol. 2, by George Fisher and Kin Lo. 2010 by Pearson Canada Inc. All rights reserved. Commitments Companies enter into legally binding contracts, both oral and written, on an ongoing basis. Many of these are mutually unexecuted contracts in that neither party has completed any part of the agreement yet. You may recall from your introductory financial accounting course that we do not report the assets and liabilities that will eventually arise from mutually unexecuted contracts until they meet the IFRS criteria for these items (assets and liabilities). This does not mean that mutually unexecuted contracts can be ignored, however, as various standards require that certain commitments be disclosed in the notes to the financial statements or provided for on the balance sheet. The underlying reason for the required disclosure is to provide the users of the financial statements with a more complete picture as to the entity's financial status and obligations. Part (c) of IAS 16 paragraph 74 mandates that the dollar amount of contractual commitments pertaining to the acquisition of property, plant, and equipment be disclosed. This requirement applies equally to both mutually unexecuted and partially executed contracts. IAS 37 paragraphs 66 69 require that onerous contracts be provided for in the balance sheet. Briefly, an onerous contract is one in which the unavoidable costs of fulfilling the contract exceed the benefits expected to be received. IAS 37 paragraph 68 refers to the downstream benefits to be received from the goods or services acquired in the contract rather than the current market value of the item. Accordingly, a contract to buy assets for more than the current market price is not necessarily onerous. It is expected that this aspect will be clarified somewhat in impending revisions to IFRS. Exhibit 11-15 illustrates how a drop in the market price may or may not lead to an onerous contract having to be provided for in the financial statements while exhibit 11-16 records the required journal entry. Exhibit 11-15 Onerous contracts Facts: Zeppy Distributors Inc. entered into a non-cancellable contract to buy 100,000 litres of paint for $4 per litre from the manufacturers for resale to retail outlets. Zeppy intends to resell the paint at $5 per litre as they typically charge a 25% markup. Subsequent to the contract being entered into, and before delivery is taken, the manufacturer reduces the price to $3 per litre due to weak demand. Financial Accounting: Assets Reading 7.1 1
In situation 1, Zeppy must reduce the resale price to $3.75 per litre (the current market price plus the 25% markup) due to strong competitive factors. In situation 2, Zeppy is able to maintain the resale price at $5.00 per litre as they are the sole distributor of the product. Situation 1 Situation 2 Expected economic benefit 100,000 x $3.75 = $375,000 100,000 x $5.00 = $500,000 Unavoidable costs 100,000 x $4.00 = $400,000 100,000 x $4.00 = $400,000 Profit/(Loss) ($25,000) $100,000 Result Onerous contract for which the expected loss must be provided Non-onerous contract Situation 1 requires the following entry: Exhibit 11-16 Journal entry to provide for the loss on an onerous contract Dr. Loss on onerous contract $25,000 Cr. Provision for loss on onerous contract $25,000 Financial Accounting: Assets Reading 7.1 2