The balance between project and process

Management of complex spatial development projects Graduation thesis Pelle de Wit

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Colophon: Title: The balance between project and process Management of complex spatial development projects Location: Baarn / Delft Date: 30th of March, 2010 Pages: 163 Status: Final version Author Name: P.Y. (Pelle) De Wit BSc. Student number 1219626 Email: pwi@atosborne.nl / pelledewit@hotmail.com Master Program: Specialisation: Faculty: University: System Engineering, Policy Analysis and Management (SEPAM) Land Use & Development (LUD) Faculty of Technology, Policy and Management (TPM) Delft University of Technology Graduation Committee Graduation section: Graduation professor: First supervisor: Second supervisor: External supervisor: Policy, Organisation, Law & Gaming Prof. Dr. J. A. (Hans) De Bruijn (Faculty of TPM, section POLG) Dr. W.W. (Wijnand) Veeneman (Faculty of TPM, section POLG) Prof. dr. W.A.M. (Wil) Zonneveld (OTB Research Institute) Drs. P.A. (Peter) Kee (AT Osborne) Delft University of Technology Faculty of Technology, Policy and Management Postbus 5015 2600 GA Delft 015-27 87100 www.tbm.tudelft.nl AT Osborne B.V. Postbus 168 3740 AD Baarn Tel: 035-5434343 www.atosborne.nl March 2010 3

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Preface This research report, on combining project and process management, is the result of my graduation internship at AT Osborne and also serves as thesis for the Master System Engineering, Policy Analysis and Management. The past 6 years I have followed this education programme and the preceding Bachelor programme at the faculty of Technology, Policy and Management at Delft University of Technology. Education and research at this faculty focuses at social problems in which technology plays an important role. I have enjoyed this education programme which fitted well with my broad interest. From the beginning of my study at the faculty of TPM, I followed a specialization in spatial development. During an earlier internship I already learned a lot about policy issues related to housing and spatial development. In addition to this experience I wanted to focus on the implementation and management of these developments during my graduation project. Therefore, it was with great motivation that I took the possibility that AT Osborne offered me to focus my graduation research on the management of complex spatial development projects. During the graduation period I could not only develop my knowledge on this subject, I also got a unique inside look into many of the largest projects in the Netherlands. At the conclusion of my research I warmly thank my supervisors from the TU Delft for the provided assistance. Wijnand Veeneman, Wil Zonneveld and graduation professor Hans de Bruijn have repeatedly supported me with useful comments. Within a moment, Wijnand was always able to focus at the most important elements of my work and to provide me with subtle instructions that kept me on the correct path. Discussions with Will were a perfect opportunity to reflect on my research and he made sure that I was keeping a close eye on the structure of my report. At slightly greater distance also Hans de Bruijn redirected my research with some crucial comments. During my research I have also received support and a pleasant working environment within AT Osborne. Therefore at first I d like to thank Peter Kee, who was my first external supervisor and contact person within AT Osborne. He supported me by ensuring that my research was well in line with practice and he brought me in contact with many other specialists that work within AT Osborne. However, Peter was not the only one who provided me with advice. During different stages of my internship, about a dozen of colleagues contributed to the result of my research. They provided me with comments on the draft versions of my research proposal and my interview protocol. They shared information with me about recent studies and interesting practices that could enrich my research. They accompanied me to some of my interviews. They discussed with me on preliminary research results. This support was a nice incentive to pursue my research. My enthusiasm about managing spatial development projects has only grown during this research and thereby this graduation period offered me a nice conclusion of my study. I hope you all enjoy reading the results. Pelle de Wit March 2010 March 2010 5

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Summary I Problem statement and research design The planning and implementation of a high proportion of complex spatial development projects is facing problems. Managing these projects is a challenge because they are technically complex, take place in a dynamic environment and many stakeholders are involved. To successfully manage these projects a combination of project management and process management is required. This is in contrast with the scientific literature, where project and process management are quite separated worlds. A clear scientific framework or theory about connecting project and process management is not yet present. Project managers seem to have insufficient support to successfully apply project and process management interventions. It is expected that project managers who have a better picture of potential interventions can manage more effectively. The objective of this research is to develop a scientifically based framework that presents a categorised and extensive overview of project and process management interventions. This framework should support project managers to successfully apply these managerial interventions in the management of infrastructure and urban development projects. To achieve this objective a research question is formulated and further detailed in four sub-questions. How can managers of spatial development projects, given the context and management issues in these developments, properly apply project-oriented and process-oriented interventions and by that increase the success of their management? 1 Which project management and process management interventions can be applied by project managers? 2 Which types of complexity and issues do project managers face during spatial development projects? 3 What are the possibilities and limitations in combining project and process management interventions? 4 Given a specific issue and context in spatial development projects, which interventions should be applied to increase the success of the overall project? To answer these questions, two research methods are used. First is a literature review performed to compose a theoretical framework. Second, 31 interviews with experienced project managers are conducted to obtain information on the implementation of project and process management and on interventions with a decisive influence on project results. II Answers on the sub-questions 1 Which project management and process management interventions can be applied by project managers? Managers of spatial development projects have the availability of a large range of managerial interventions. Interventions are conscious interferences of a project manager in a project or process. With an intervention managers steer or influence the current situation and aim at achieving change. March 2010 7

Pure project management and pure process management exist of opposing approaches to comparable situations. Project management aims at structured accomplishment of a definite and demarcated scope and thereby steers on control of time, money and quality. Process management aims at collective enabling of a dynamic and discussable scope and thereby steers on increasing support, acceptation and feasibility. During the interviews 20 intervention opportunities are observed whereby project managers were able to achieve a decisive influence on the project results. To further categorize these interventions three major characteristics of interventions are described: 1 The intervention depth describing the intensity of a proposed change. 2 The intervention width describing the number of involved stakeholders. 3 The intervention length on describing the period in which the intervention takes place. 2 Which types of complexity and issues do project managers face during spatial development projects? Complexity The context of spatial development projects is characterized by four components of complexity: Size complexity, related to the number of parts, such as stakeholders or sub-projects. Interdependence complexity, related to the interdependencies between these parts. Uncertainty in goals, which means objectives or scope of the project are uncertain. Uncertainty in methods, which means there is uncertainty on how project goals will be achieved. The interviews revealed practical examples of complexity in spatial development projects. Financial complexity of urban development projects is high because earnings are vulnerable to market developments. Infrastructure projects are mainly funded by the government, which causes a lower level of uncertainty of benefits. Social complexity in spatial development projects is high which is mainly caused by political involvement. Involvement of various governmental levels is greatly complicating and unexpected political interventions can disrupt the progress of a project. Issues In spatial development projects many different issues can occur and give cause to an intervention. An important distinction among the issues can be made between risks and uncertain events. In the case of a risk, the probability of the issue can be determined and a project manager can take action on forehand. In the case of an uncertain event the issue is not predictable and project managers have to react after the event. The interviews revealed practical examples of important issues. Achieving and maintaining spatial quality is one of the major issues in urban development projects. Planning issues are relatively less important in the realisation of urban development projects in comparison to infrastructure projects. The planning is often perceived as a derivative of quality and budget. Increasing the speed of the planning phase is one of the biggest issues for project managers in infrastructure projects. Involving and informing the appropriate stakeholders is one of the key issues in all spatial development projects. March 2010 8

3 What are the possibilities and limitations in combining project and process management interventions? Project management is based on control and reducing complexity, while process management is based on flexibility and coping with complexity. Caused by these intrinsic discrepancies, interventions can constrain each others possibilities. Applying a project management intervention can have negative consequences for the possibility to apply a process management intervention. Process management interventions can also raise a blockade for subsequent project management interventions. Still there are different possibilities to combine project and process management. The relationship varies by project due to project specific characteristics or circumstances. Project managers consider the chart in figure I as the best visualisation for the combination of project and process management in spatial development projects. This graphs shows that the quantitative share of process management is declining but a small amount of process management remains required. The decrease of process management is capricious, which means that the long term decrease is interrupted by a temporary renewed attention for the process. Connections between project and process management are visible through the peaks in the graph. Figure I: The development of the proportion of project and process management during projects The peaks in the graph indicate two different events. First, a peak can indicate a decision-making process. Process management plays an important role in the phase previous of decision-making, causing a peak in the share of process management. A second explanation for the peaks is the emergence of unexpected issues. In order to resolve issues, additional process management is often needed. The capricious graph indicates that project managers should be able to switch between different approaches because at one moment a project management intervention is required, but shortly thereafter a process approach might be desirable. 4 Given a specific issue and context in spatial development projects which interventions should be applied to increase the success of the overall project? Project managers and their organization have to posses the ability to apply an intervention at the right time, which offers exactly what is required in a unique situation. The substance of the intervention should be unique, but it is possible to present an overview of the applicable intervention mechanisms. An overview of observed intervention mechanisms that can have a crucial contribution to project results are shown in figure II. March 2010 9

Pure interventions refer to process management interventions and project management interventions that are fully consistent with the definitions of project and process management as used in this research. Elements that require project management are a defined scope, hierarchical relations, a stable environment and limited complexity. Elements that require process management are a discussable scope, interdependent stakeholders, a dynamic environment and high complexity. Mutually reinforcing interventions show synergy between project and process management. Examples are project-oriented interventions that contribute to the objectives of process management and process-oriented interventions that contribute to the achievement of project goals. This shows that interventions can be applied to achieve unexpected goals and contribute to each other s objectives. Mutually compensating interventions are project-oriented interventions complemented with process conditions and process-oriented interventions complemented with project conditions. These conditions function as a compensation for potential negative effects of the original intervention. Mutually allowing interventions are project-oriented interventions that are possible through the outcomes of an earlier process and process-oriented interventions that are possible by the results of previous project phases. This mechanism shows that project and process management interventions can be applied based on each other s results. Figure II: Overview of different intervention mechanisms III Conclusions Answer main research question How can managers of spatial development projects, given the context and management issues in these developments, properly apply project-oriented and process-oriented interventions and by that increase the success of their management? March 2010 10

Project managers can influence the success of their project by applying interventions that match the current project situation. There are 20 distinctive interventions opportunities observed that may have a decisive influence on project results. It is possible to distinguish elements of a projects situation that require project management and elements that require process management. However, a project situation is almost never purely suited for project management or purely suited for process management. Therefore in many interventions aspects of project and process management have to be combined. There are several mechanisms to combine project and process management by interventions. Determining the most appropriate intervention is difficult due to the ambiguous and complex project situations. To support this choice the project manager and his organization must posses: A good analytical ability to recognize upcoming problems in spatial development projects. A good analytical ability to assess the presence of factors that influence the success of interventions, specifically the presence of various components of project complexity. Knowledge about factors that determine if a project situation requires a project management or a process management approach. Knowledge on combining project and process management in intervention mechanisms. The quality to create and apply effective interventions that are appropriate to deal with unique situations which emerge in spatial development projects. Contribution to scientific literature There are three elements of this research that can contribute in connecting the currently separate literature schools on project and process management. 1 This study shows that the combination of project and process in practice takes place regularly. Project and process management are often naturally combined by project managers to match the characteristics of the project situation. Also in scientific literature these separate worlds have to be combined. 2 This research provides insight into the connection between project and process management at the project level. Project managers switch between a project and a process approach around decision-making processes and in response to unexpected events. This approach can be visualized into a capricious relationship between the demand for project and process management during spatial development projects. 3 A conceptual framework is designed to show how interventions can be applied at the interface of project and process management. This framework provides a description of mechanisms by which managers combine originally opposite management approaches. The analysis shows that in practice project and process management are not only connected, but by applying these mechanisms both approaches reinforce each other. Comments on research The disadvantage of the research method is that through interviews the perceptions of project managers are measured and there was no possibility to objectively monitor these perceptions. This has several consequences. Respondents may have presented their projects more positive than it is reality and they may have focused on achieved successes. Moreover, respondents might have overestimated their own role in the projects and underestimated the influence of the context. Although interviews March 2010 11

are rated as the best method for answering the research question, these factors weaken the certainty of the formulated conclusions. IV Recommendations Based on this research, three recommendations are formulated: Windows of opportunity The success of interventions is depended on the context in which they are applied. Applying an intervention in the appropriate context requires a good preparation. It is recommended to actively search for windows of opportunity, which offer the perfect opportunity to successfully apply a specific intervention. A necessary element of a window of opportunity is dissatisfaction about the current situation or a chance of significant improvement. To apply a process-oriented intervention the presence of a shared sense of urgency among the stakeholders is also important. To apply a project-oriented intervention the absence of possible resistance is critical. Connect project and process management Project situations contain both elements that require process management and elements that require project management. These elements often appear simultaneously and cause ambiguous project situations. To intervene successfully in these ambiguous situations, interventions should contain a combination of project and process management. It is recommended to weave project and process management together in an individual intervention or in a series of linked interventions. Mechanisms to realize this connection are described in the next recommendation. Combining intervention mechanisms Three intervention mechanisms are identified to combine project and process management. 1 Mutually reinforcing interventions: Project management should not only be used for the realization of project-oriented objectives, it may also contribute to the achievement of process-oriented goals. Conversely, process management should not only be used for the achievement of process management objectives, it may also contribute to the achievement of project-oriented objectives. It is recommended to let project and process management contribute to each others objectives. 2 Mutually compensating interventions: Project management interventions could raise resistance among other stakeholders and process management interventions may contain excessive openness and thus cause additional uncertainty about the scope, schedule or budget. It is recommended that these potential negative effects of interventions are compensated by adding projectoriented conditions to process-oriented interventions and by adding process-oriented conditions to project-oriented interventions. 3 Mutually allowing interventions: Appointing and utilizing achievements in relation to project management objectives can create conditions that allow the appliance of process management interventions. Conversely also the results of performed process management can be used to create conditions that allow appliance of project management interventions. Project and process management interventions can therefore be applied based on each other's results. March 2010 12

Content Preface 5 Summary 7 1 Introduction 15 1.1 Research topic: (un)manageable projects?...15 1.2 Research context...15 1.3 Structure of the report...16 2 Research design 17 2.1 Problem statement: management of complex projects...17 2.2 Research objective and research questions...18 2.3 Research method...19 3 Project and process management interventions 23 3.1 Introduction...23 3.2 Project and process management...23 3.3 Opposing management interventions...25 3.4 Categorisation of interventions...32 3.5 Conclusion management interventions...35 4 Complexity and management issues 37 4.1 Introduction...37 4.2 Complexity in spatial development projects...37 4.3 Management issues...39 4.4 Conclusion complexity and management issues...41 5 The challenge of combining project and process management 43 5.1 Introduction...43 5.2 Combinations of project and process management...43 5.3 Limitations in combining project and process management...47 5.4 Conclusion possibilities and limitations...48 6 Experiences of project managers 51 6.1 Introduction...51 6.2 Selection of respondents...51 6.3 Interview protocol...53 6.4 Experiences with project and process management...53 6.5 Experiences with crucial interventions...59 6.6 Further analysis of interventions...66 6.7 Conclusion empirical research...68 March 2010 13

7 Integration of project and process management 69 7.1 Introduction...69 7.2 Pure project and process management...71 7.3 Mutually reinforcing interventions...74 7.4 Mutually compensating interventions...82 7.5 Mutually allowing interventions...87 7.6 Conclusions appropriate interventions...94 8 Conclusions and recommendations 99 8.1 Introduction...99 8.2 Answers on the sub-questions...99 8.3 Answer main research question... 108 8.4 Discussion research results... 109 8.5 Recommendations... 112 9 Epilogue 115 9.1 Comments on research... 115 9.2 Further investigation... 117 9.3 Personal reflection... 118 10 Literature 121 Appendix I: Categorized interventions 125 Appendix II: Lijst met interview respondenten 133 Appendix III: Interview protocol 137 Appendix IV: Summary of interviews in 150 quotes 143 Appendix V: Nederlandse samenvatting 157 March 2010 14

1 Introduction 1.1 Research topic: (un)manageable projects? Management of large spatial development projects has an unfortunate image. As research indicates, 90% of infrastructure projects faces cost overruns and benefit forecasts are often wrong by more than 20% (Flyvbjerg, 2007). But not only infrastructure projects are confronted with these drawbacks. Also urban development projects are often confronted with delays and cost overruns. A look at the headlines of the Dutch newspapers in 2009 gives an indication that realisation of large spatial development projects is still associated with problems. Box 1-1: Headlines Dutch newspaper in 2009 indicating problems in management of large projects Works at North/Southline shut down for at least two weeks City council Wieringen rejects EIA Wieringenborderlake; construction companies threat with claims Antwerp hit as Westerschelde works suspended Diversion A9 at Badhoevedorp delayed Banks withdraw as partners, auction nv Zuidas stopped Another delay for high-speed railway south Some of these projects, such as recently the Noord/Zuidlijn in Amsterdam, are delayed by technical and financial issues during realization. However, also social complexity during the initiatory and planning phase causes problems for the management. This indicates that those large spatial development projects are complex in several dimensions, both technical and social. Traditional project management tools are not sufficient to deal with this complex and ambiguous reality (Streatfield, 2001). To deal with all present dimensions of complexity those projects require a combination of management styles. As is further explained in the problem statement, both project and process management are necessary to successfully complete large infrastructure or urban development projects. 1.2 Research context This research is performed by Pelle de Wit as graduation thesis for the Master System Engineering, Policy Analysis and Management at the faculty of Technology, Policy and Management of Delft University of Technology. During the realization of the research, Pelle is appointed as intern at AT Osborne. AT Osborne is a Dutch consultant and management company working in the field of spatial development and real estate. Employees of their department Infrastructure, Urban Planning and Environment" are active as project manager or consultant in several large infrastructure and urban development projects in the Netherlands. To perform in these complex projects it is important that their employees are able to apply an effective combination of managerial interventions. March 2010 15

Employees of AT Osborne learn by experience but also participate in research projects to increase their understanding of management of infrastructure projects and urban development. AT Osborne also explicitly offers possibilities for students to execute their graduation thesis at AT Osborne and to develop more knowledge about management of large spatial development projects. This research is an example of that commitment en does focus at the challenge of connecting project and process management. 1.3 Structure of the report In chapter 2 the research design and the analytical framework of this study are discussed. The chapter explores the research problem and the objectives of the study. Also the applied research strategy is formulated. Chapter 3, 4 and 5 elaborate on the theoretical framework of the research. Assumption is that to successfully manage spatial development projects knowledge is needed on what interventions (chapter 3) should be applied in which situations (chapter 4) and that project managers should deal with the mutual relationship between these interventions (chapter 5). Chapter 3 focuses on project management and process management. The characteristics of the two management styles are discussed and differences are shown by describing the opposing interventions that these styles use to tackle managerial problems. Chapter 3 also describes a further categorization of interventions based on three distinctive criteria. In chapter 4 the various situations in which process and project management interventions are implemented are discussed. A description is given of various types of project complexity that play a role in large spatial development projects. It also discusses the various kinds and types of issues that can arise and force managers to apply interventions. Chapter 5 presents the final part of the theoretical framework. It further explores the relationship between project and process management throughout the duration of a project. What expectations exist in the literature about this relationship? And what limitations impose the two management styles on each other? Besides literature study, empirical data is gathered by conducting interviews. The set up of the interviews and a first analysis of the results are presented in chapter 6. The way project managers experience the relationship between project and process management is compared with the hypotheses from chapter 5. Chapter 7 is a detailed analysis of the interventions discussed in the interviews. Specific attention is paid to the question which interventions are applicable in which situations. Not only pure process and project management interventions are described, but also intervention mechanisms that combine both approaches. The study is concluded in Chapter 8 by providing conclusions on the research questions. Based on the obtained information recommendations are formulated to improve the management of complex spatial development projects. Also the added value of this research to the existing scientific literature is discussed. Chapter 9 contains an epilogue in which the quality of the research is discussed. Moreover, the chapter explores the possibilities for further research and presents a personal reflection of the researcher. March 2010 16

2 Research design In this chapter the research design is explained. In paragraph 2.1 the problem is demarcated on the basis of which a problem statement can be formulated. Subsequently on basis of this statement in paragraph 2.2 a research objective is defined. To achieve this objective in the same paragraph a main research question is formulated and divided in a number of sub-questions. Paragraph 2.3 elaborates on the research method to answer these questions. 2.1 Problem statement: management of complex projects 2.1.1 Demarcation of the problem The research topic of combining project and process management is too broad to research all involved aspects in the limited time for this graduation project. Therefore demarcation of the research problem is necessary. A large amount of scientific literature is available on both project management and process management. However, project and process management schools can be qualified as separated worlds. Only recently a smaller section of these literature schools underlines that both project and process management are essential and should be combined in spatial development projects (Collyer and Warren, 2009; Geraldi, et. al., 2008; Shenhar and Dvir, 2007; Whitty and Maylor, 2009). Next step is to create knowledge how to realize this combination between project and process management interventions. The amount of scientific research that addresses this issue is relatively small. Available research projects are partly case studies on projects where project and process management are successfully combined (Edelenbos and Klijn, 2009; Klijn and Teisman, 2002). However, results of these case studies are predominantly theoretical and for the most part not applicable in practice by project managers. Nevertheless it can be concluded that recently literature is seeking the relation between project management and process management in managing complex projects (Geraldi et. al., 2008). The personal skills and preferences of project managers play an important role in the application of managerial interventions. Often managers constrain themselves unconsciously to a small amount of managerial interventions which they are comfortable with. There is no extensive framework for managers with an overview of managerial interventions they can apply to realize a successful combination of project-oriented and process-oriented strategies. Literature suggests that fruitful combinations of project management and process management approaches might be possible (Geraldi, 2008). Therefore such a framework is expected to contribute to the success of the management of spatial development projects. Based on this observation the problem that is addressed in this research is demarcated and limited to the lack of practical guidelines for project managers to use an effective combination of project and process management interventions during spatial development projects. March 2010 17

2.1.2 Practical and scientific problem To define a clear problem statement, a closer look is taken at the work of project managers and project delivery organizations. Project managers have to posses a certain combination of knowledge and skills to successfully manage complex projects. They should posses the ability to analyze the current situation of a project, to identify objectives of the project and to compare these two situations. Based on this comparison project managers should posses the capacity to apply an appropriate intervention (either process or project oriented) that contributes to achieving these objectives. Last but not least, they need the skills to implement these interventions. This demanding combination of skills is not always present among project managers. First problem is that the managers in daily practice of spatial development projects do not posses an extensive overview of managerial interventions. Second, there is limited knowledge about the question which intervention is appropriate in which situation of a project. These two aspects contribute to a situation in which managers mainly trust on their personal skills, preferences and intuition while managing their projects. The preceding description of the work of project managers introduces the practical aspects of the problem. In addition to this the problem statement also has a scientific aspect. There is a lack of scientific theory or a scientific framework which provides evidence about successful mechanisms to combine and integrate project and process management. In box 2-1 both the practical and scientific aspects of the problem statement are presented. Box 2-1: Problem statement Practical problem statement: Managers in spatial development projects rely significantly on personal skills, preferences and intuition in the application of project and process management interventions which causes a risk of unsatisfying management results. It is expected that project managers who have a better picture of potential interventions can manage more effective. Scientific problem statement: A clear scientific framework or theory to combine project and process management is not yet present which is an important knowledge gap in this field of research. 2.2 Research objective and research questions On the basis of the formulated problem statement an objective for the research is defined (box 2-2). Box 2-2: Research objective Develop a scientifically based framework that presents a categorised and extensive overview of project and process management interventions to project managers. This framework should support them to successfully apply these managerial interventions in the management of infrastructure and urban development projects. March 2010 18

In accordance with this research objective, focus of this research is on identifying managerial interventions and applying those interventions in appropriate situations in spatial development projects. To achieve this objective a research question is formulated in box 2-3. Box 2-3: Research question How can managers of spatial development projects, given the context and management issues in these developments, properly apply project-oriented and process-oriented interventions and by that increase the success of their management? To answer this main research question, sub-questions are defined. By answering these questions a solution for the defined problem statement is generated. 1 Which project management and process management interventions can be applied by project managers? Sub-question 1 presents a categorised list with possible interventions related to project and process management. Project managers can use these interventions to influence spatial development projects. The list of interventions can be used as an operationalization of the concepts project management and process management. 2 Which types of complexity and issues do project managers face during spatial development projects? Sub-question 2 aims at exploring the context in which project managers operate by describing the complexity and issues that managers face during spatial development projects. Describing this context is important because different context characteristics require different types of interventions. 3 What are the possibilities and limitations in combining project and process management interventions? Sub-question 3 does focus on the relationship between project and process management. Project and process management interventions influence each potential. Therefore it is important to explore the possibilities and limitations to apply interventions from both approaches in spatial development projects. 4 Given a specific issue and context in spatial development projects, which interventions should be applied to increase the success of the overall project? Sub-question 4 describes a range of intervention mechanisms and the appropriate situations in which they should be applied. Thereby this question presents the answer on the practical problem statement of this thesis. 2.3 Research method To answer the defined research questions a research approach is composed (figure 2-1). Two main research methods are used, namely literature study and interviews. March 2010 19

2.3.1 Literature study The literature study is used to answer the first three research questions. This paragraph provides a short overview of the steps that are taken in the literature review. First a description of project and process management and a list of available managerial interventions in complex projects is formulated (question 1). An extensive literature review is performed as theoretical method for composing this overview of managerial interventions. In literature on project and process management a wide range of managerial interventions is identified. To understand the working of interventions and make a further categorization of interventions, also literature on intervention management is studied. Based on this literature, different types of interventions are identified. Figure 2-1: Research approach Second an extensive overview is presented of the context in which managers operate in spatial development projects and the important managerial issues that arise in these projects (sub-question 2). The context of large spatial development projects is among other things characterized by complexity and uncertainty. This categorization is used to order project contexts into different categories. Presenting an overview of both important the managerial issues and the context of spatial development projects is important because this determines which managerial interventions can effectively be applied. The results from the literature study are used as input for the interviews. March 2010 20

2.3.2 Interviews During the interviews empirical data is collected that presents a necessary supplement to the data collected in literature. Empirical data is of more recent date than available data in literature. Besides the topicality, the gathered empirical data is better suited to answer the fourth research questions and not yet available in literature. This advantage above literature review is expected because collecting data among people is specifically suited to gather information about knowledge, attitude and opinion of the interviewee s. To ensure the quality of the data, correct respondents should be selected. This selection is further discussed in Chapter 6. The method that is used for the interviews is a semi-structured interview. Advantage of a semistructured interview in comparison with a structured interview is the possibility to bring up new questions during the interview as a result of the answers of the interviewee. This structure is chosen because the quality of the data will be improved if the interviewer can focus on the most relevant topics without a constraining format. Conducting a semi-structured interview does not mean that the topics to be explored should not be discovered well in advance. Therefore the interviewer composes an interview protocol that describes the main topics that will be discussed. This interview protocol is added in Appendix III. The data collected in the interviews is analyzed and mainly used to formulate and answer on subquestion four. However, also the answers on the other research questions are supplemented with the results from the interviews. March 2010 21

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3 Project and process management interventions 3.1 Introduction In the first two chapters the research has been introduced and the research questions are defined. This chapter describes project management and process management interventions and thereby answers the first research question: 1 Which project management and process management interventions can be applied by project managers? First an introduction in project and process management is presented in paragraph 3.2. In paragraph 3.3 the concepts project and process management are further operationalized by presenting an extensive overview of opposing interventions. This extensive overview is needed to make it possible to categorize the interventions that are discussed during the interviews as either project-oriented or process-oriented. The description of the interventions is all-embracing but rather simplified. As a consequence relatively extreme archetypes of a project and a process management approach are described. In chapter 7 a more intensive description of important interventions is given. This description is based on the empirical data. The interventions that are identified in paragraph 3.3 posses a wide range of characteristics. It is desirable to be able to classify the interventions that are discussed during the interventions in specific categories. This makes it possible to investigate if specific types of interventions are more or less suitable for specific issues and contexts. Therefore in paragraph 3.4 a categorisation is made of these interventions based on intensity, dimension and duration. Finally paragraph 3.5 answers sub-question 1. 3.2 Project and process management Both project and process management are essential elements in the management of nowadays complex spatial development projects. Interactive process strategies are necessary to operate as a manager in the current network society. Process management is a style of management that emerged mainly in the last twenty years and is specifically aimed at dealing with interdependencies and dynamics in network situations. Also control strategies based on more old-fashioned project management are needed. Controlling budget and time of a project remains important. Not all aspects of spatial projects are complex and especially in more simple contexts project management remains critical. This paragraph introduces process and project management and shortly addresses the strengths and weaknesses of both management styles. 3.2.1 Project management The characteristics of project management as described in this paragraph are based on the work of Meredith and Mantel (2000), Mantel (2005) and Miller and Lessard (2000). Project management can be seen as the means, techniques, and concepts used to run a project and achieve its objectives (Meredith and Mantel, 2000). In project management the substance of a plan March 2010 23

is the leading element and project management is aimed at realization of the defined project objectives, which are related to performance, time and cost. The management approach and decisionmaking occurs structured and linear. Key element in this traditional project management approach is control. To realize strict control over the project the project manager has to set up a project organization with effective information flows (Mantel, 2005; Meredith and Mantel, 2000). Also risk assessment and risk management are incorporated in the control strategy. Projects are split up in phases. In (inter)national literature a large number of different divisions in phases can be found. One of the most used project management methods is the so-called Prince 2 method. Prince 2 offers a framework and clear guidelines for managing project by dividing them in four phases: preparation, initiation, implementation and closing. In project management methods, the content of plan is worked out in detail at the start of the project and afterwards this content is used as a communication tool and to create support among involved actors. Starting point is that the content of the plan will not be adapted as consequence of the dynamics in or around the project. Decision-making in project management is characterized by hierarchy. In hierarchical situations the decision-making has a structured progress from problem definition to solution. Project management solves problems by splitting them up in solvable, smaller projects and rapid decision-making. 3.2.2 Process management The description of process management is mainly based on the work of De Bruijn et. al. (2002) and supported by work from Teisman and Edelenbos (2008) and Koppenjan and Klijn (2004). Where project management does focus at the substance of a project, process management or interactive management strategies focus at gaining support and acceptance for a plan or process. The feasibility of a plan or project plays a central role, even if this means that original plans have to be adapted. The process is more important than the originally defined objectives. Therefore process management is sometimes referred to as consciously directing the dynamics in and around a project, by managing the interaction between people. Process management acknowledges that a project manager is not in the position to use hierarchical management tools, but that the project manager is one of the interdependent actors around the project. Decision-making in process management is related to decision-making in networks, which involves unpredictability and whimsicality. Process management broadens the problem definition to search for solutions and postpones difficult decisions Although the process is leading, this does not mean that process management is without rules. De Bruijn et. al. (2002) identified four main principles for setting up a good process. 1 First the process has to be transparent and open to all relevant parties. Everybody should have the possibility to join the process 2 Second the core values of the actors involved have to be respected. Besides by protecting their main interests, this is possible by let them commit to the process rather then to the result and by offering them exit options from the process. 3 Third the process has to show speed, which for example is stimulated by offering prospects of gain. 4 Fourth and last principle is that the process should posses enough substance. Therefore it is important that the process moves from substantial variety to selection. March 2010 24

3.3 Opposing management interventions To create better understanding of the differences between project and process management in this paragraph an overview of interventions is introduced. Interventions can be defined as the way by which a manager interferes in a project or process to steer or to influence the current situation. Also consciously not taking action or ignoring a specific signal is an intervention. Thereby interventions create change (De Caluwe and Vermaak, 2006; Boonstra and De Caluwe, 2006). Box 3-1: Definition of interventions Interventions are conscious interferences of a project manager in a project or process to steer or to influence the current situation and thereby aimed at achieving change. The discrepancies between project and process management are explained by describing the opposing approaches from project and process management to react on comparable situations. On the basis of this contrast it is possible to define interventions that are discussed during the interviews as a project-oriented or a process-oriented intervention. Consequence of the ambition to present a comprehensive overview of interventions is that the delineation of these interventions is short and simplified. To show the contrast between project and process management extra emphasis is put on the differences of the interventions. This leads to extreme archetypes of a project management and a process management approach. It should be noticed that these short descriptions do not reflect the full complexity and specific characteristics of the interventions. In reality more complicated interventions can be applied, for example possessing elements from both project and process management. As counterbalance to this quantitative paragraph, based on the empirical research chapter 7 presents a more qualitative view on interventions. The crucial interventions that are discussed in the interviews are compared with this extensive list based on literature. Thereby the most important intervention opportunities according to project managers are selected. 3.3.1 Categorisation of interventions In spatial development projects managers have to intervene on different subjects. Interventions can for example affect the costs of a project, the technical possibilities or the support among stakeholders. The large variety of possible subjects is categorized in seven subjects. The classic project management approach is aimed to realize a plan according to the defined specifications (performance), at the desired time (planning) and within budget (cost) (Meredith and Mantel, 2000). The classic triangle of scope, cost and planning are core elements of project management and present the first three subjects in which interventions are classified. To realize a project within scope, time and budget, according to the same authors, a project managers first task is to set up a project organization including effective information flows. Therefore organization is the fourth subject of interventions. The subjects identified so far are mainly internal focused. However, projects are operated in an environment and a large number of stakeholders are involved in spatial development projects. Three subjects of interventions related to stakeholders are defined. These are related to building a stakeholder network (stakeholder involvement), maintaining relations with the actors in this network (stakeholder March 2010 25

management) and dealing with conflicts between these stakeholders (conflict management). Summarizing the seven subjects in which the interventions are divided are: 1 Performance 2 Cost 3 Planning 4 Organization 5 Stakeholder involvement 6 Stakeholder management 7 Conflict management 3.3.2 Interventions related to performance There is a clear distinction between project and process management regarding the determination of scope. First step of a process approach is to define a joined problem definition because it is expected that different stakeholders have different perceptions of the problem (Schultz, 2009). The process manager assumes that defining a joined problem definition involves winners and losers. Moreover, the process manager offers flexibility in scope and stimulates the search for multi issue coupling, because this offers possibilities to realize win-win situations (De Bruijn et. al., 2002:98; De Bruijn, et. al. 2004b:38; Van de Blaak 2006:34). During the process a regular re-assessment of the goals and the progress is made, if necessary goals are adjusted (TCI, 2004). Sometimes an unexpected but feasible solution is discovered. In those cases a process manager will change the scope to provide a problem that is matching the new available solution (De Bruijn et. al., 2002:29). Table 3-1: Interventions related to the scope of a project Subject Process oriented Project oriented Problem perception Problem definition Determination of scope Range of scope Control of scope Problem vs. solution Develop joint problem perception with stakeholders Defining the problem definition involves winner and losers and behave according to that Offer flexibility in scope, support problem shifting Broaden the project, search for multi issue coupling Perform regular re-assessment of progress and goals Define a problem which can be solved by the available solution Assume all stakeholders hold to same problem perception Assume that all actors are associated and loyal to the defined problem definition Freeze scope during project, assume stable problem Focus a one single issue and unravel in small solvable problems Hold on to original plan and persuade actors on chosen goals Define a solution that solves the actual problem A project management approach assumes that there already is one clear problem definition and that the stakeholders are loyal to this definition (Grit, 2000:52; Meredith and Mantel 2006:311). In an early stage of the project the scope is determined. To deal with complexity, preference is to constrain the scope to a single issue or to unravel the issue in smaller solvable problems. Dynamics during the project are no reason to change the plan. The project manager holds on to the chosen solution, which March 2010 26

is intended to solve the originally identified problem (Van de Blaak, 2006:35; Deloitte et. al., 2009:26). There are also important differences between project and process management concerning the design process. A process manager does focus a process which is finally intended to lead to a solution. The design takes place along a general vision whereby the solution finding moves from a variety of options to selection of a final solution (De Bruijn and Ten Heuvelhof, 1999). In selecting the possible designs main criteria are manageability and feasibility of the design. The process managers offer room for creativity in the design and even stimulate this by using several design teams (Klijn et. al., 2006). The quality of the product is improved by iterative design circles (Collyer and Warren, 2009). In contrast a project manager does focus at identifying one thorough solution for the identified problem. The design is constrained and focused at finding the best solution for the identified problem solution (Teisman and Edelenbos, 2008). The technological performance of the product is one of the main criteria for the design. The design is executed by a single design team, operating within strict constraints and delivering the best technical solution after a profound design process (Meredith and Mantel, 2006:311). Table 3-2: Interventions related to the design of the project Subject Process oriented Project oriented Focus of design Focus at process which is intended to lead to a solution Focus at a thorough solution for the identified problem Basis of design Design along a general vision Design along clear constraints and on basis strict problem solution Solution finding From variety to selection Focus on one problem solution Focus quality control Acceptation and feasibility Technological and spatial quality Design strength Offer room for creativity Design within strict constraints Design team Stimulate creative concurrence by using Focus on one design team several design teams Design approach Iterative design (spiral model) Classic design (waterfall model) 3.3.3 Interventions to deal with planning A pure process management approach starts with making process agreements with involved stakeholders about the planning (De Bruijn, et. al., 2002:57; De Bruin and Ten Heuvelhof, 1999:65). In the exploration phase of the project, a process manager is patient and takes time to make the minds of stakeholders ready to deal with new plans (Verheij and Boers, 2007). The planning is flexible to deal with an irregular sequence of the process and maintain the possibility to temporarily set problems aside. The start and end of process rounds are left open and decisions are used to start new process rounds (De Bruijn and Ten Heuvelhof, 1999). By contrast, a manager applying a pure project management approach imposes a project planning on the involved stakeholders. A project management approach is result-oriented and focuses directly on problem solving. The planning exists of a stringent order of project phases. If there is a risk of delays, the time pressure will be increased. The start and end of every project phase is clearly defined and decisions give direction to the implementation of the project (De Rooy, et. al., 2006:162; Veeneman, 2004). March 2010 27

Table 3-3: Interventions related to the planning of the project Subject Process oriented Project oriented General planning Process agreements on planning Impose project planning on actors Start-up phase Take time to make minds ready Focus at problem with full speed Flexibility Use a flexible planning to handle an irregular sequence of process rounds Operate a stringent planning with a regular sequence of project phases Dealing with delays Temporarily set issues aside Increase pressure of time, give priority to certain aspects Demarcation Open start and end of project rounds. Clear start and end of project phases Role of decisions Decisions open a new process round Decisions give direction to project Speed Stimulate speed by showing prospects of gain Stimulate speed with stringent deadlines 3.3.4 Interventions to deal with costs In a process management approach it is more likely that a manager tries to establish a public private partnership or starts a search for co-financers. Thereby a process manager tries to create a common interest to decrease the costs (Miller and Lessard, 2000). When awarding contracts, emphasis is on meeting functional requirements and long term benefits. A process-oriented approach provides a certain flexibility to modify the budgets (Heuvelhof, et. al., 2007:30). A pure project management approach primarily does focus at a stand alone financing structure. Contracts are awarded based on meeting specific project requirements, where the costs are of great importance. Limiting and controlling the costs is a responsibility of the project organization and therefore a strict regime of financial accountability is implemented (Marrewijk, et. al., 2008). Table 3-4: Interventions related to the costs of a project Subject Process oriented Project oriented Financing structure Search possibilities for public-private Stand alone financing partnership Contract structure Functional requirements, focus on quality Specific requirements, emphasis on cost Freedom Flexible budgets if necessary Strict regime of financial accountability 3.3.5 Interventions to deal with the project organization The choice for a process or project management approach influences the set up of the project organization. A pure process management approach assumes the appointment of a process manager; independent from all involved stakeholders and prepared to work with actor bounded information (De Bruijn and Leijten, 2007). The process managers main strength is networking capacity and the ability to connect stakeholders (Verheij and Boers, 2007). The process manager composes a diversified project organization in which he cooperates with representatives of various involved stakeholders (Verheij and Boers, 2007). The process manager associates himself to the project and maintains long term relations with stakeholders (Deloitte, 2009:26; Whitty and Maylor, 2009; De Rooy, et. al., 2006:162). The project organization is a horizontal ori- March 2010 28

ented and employees have a certain freedom to operate within the organization (Van de Blaak, 2006:34-35; Heuvelhof, et. al.; 2007:32). Conversely a project management approach starts with the appointment of a project manager associated to the main stakeholder(s). The project manager is assumed to make use of objective and analyzable information (Meredith and Mantel, 2006:158) and merely result-oriented. The project organization is composed with the main aim to realize a substantial product. Employees and the project manager are appointed based on their substantial knowledge (Collyer and Warren, 2009) and positions of employees change depending on the project phase. The project organization is a hierarchical oriented organization with a stringent division of tasks (Grit, 2000:101). Table 3-5: Interventions related to the project organization Subject Process oriented Project oriented Position of manager Employ an independent manager; Facilitating and coordinating role Employ a manager with a substantial vision and a steering role Strength of manager Capacity to connect people Result-oriented and decisive Information Work with subjective, contested and actor bounded information Assume information to be objective, robust and analyzable Focus of organization Deal with important actors and keep Substance of the project them involved Composition Compose a diversified organization, people with different backgrounds and Engage people based on substantial knowledge from different stakeholders Term of appointment Keep one project director to maintain long-term relations with stakeholders Appointment on basis of required competences per project phase. Hierarchy / structure Create horizontal relations in organization, focused at process Create hierarchical relations in organization, focused at the scope Division of tasks Offer freedom to operate in organization Define stringent and clear tasks for team members 3.3.6 Interventions to involve stakeholders The approach related to the involvement of stakeholders is one of the main differences between project and process management. A process manager believes in the value of openness. All motivated actors are invited in the process; the focus of the manager is on assembling a network with maximum diversity (De Bruijn, et. al., 2002:56; De Rooy, et. al., 2006:162). Local stakeholders are invited to deliver their local intelligence (Hertogh and Westerveld, 2009). Private stakeholders are invited for their market knowledge and to connect public and private interest. Public partners are invited to create support and decision-making power. The process manager makes agreements with stakeholders about exit options and the possibility to join the process in a later stadium (De Bruijn, et. al., 2002:59). In general, actors are allowed to come and go. To tempt stakeholders to join the process, the process manager offers the possibility to cooperate loosely (Verheij and Boers, 2007). Only commitment to the process is demanded, not to the results of the process (De Bruijn, et. al., 2002:59). March 2010 29

On the other hand, the project-oriented manager involves only a limited number of stakeholders to keep the project manageable. The manager does focus on cooperation with the major stakeholders. Local, non-governmental actors are excluded because of their unpredictability (Hertogh and Westerveld, 2009). The number of involved private and public stakeholders is also restricted to avoid conflicting interests and legal procedures. The stakeholder network as compiled at the beginning of the project will not be changed. Actors who joined the network have to commit to the result of the project. Table 3-6: Interventions related to stakeholder involvement Subject Process oriented Project oriented Involving actors Involve all motivated actors Constrain number of actors Focus Focus on maximum diversity Focus on major actors Local actors Involve local intelligence Exclude local unpredictability Public vs. private Involve private stakeholders to connect public and private interests Avoid conflict between public and private interests Timing Early involvement of public partners for creativity and knowledge Avoid risk of conflict with compulsory public contract law Flexibility Options to join and leave Solid composition of field of actors Intensity Offer possibilities for loosely participation Intense cooperation with main stakeholders Commitment Ask for commitment on process, make declaration of intent Ask for commitment on result of project, set obligation of result 3.3.7 Interventions for stakeholder management Once stakeholders have become involved in a project, it is important for the project manager to maintain relationships with these stakeholders. Cooperating with the various actors is qualified as stakeholder management. Also related to stakeholder management distinctions between project and process management exist. A process manager cooperates with the stakeholders in an informal way. Cooperation is based on trust and within the network transparency and communication are of main importance (De Bruijn, et. al., 2002:113, Mackay, 2005; De Rooy, et. al., 2006:162). This contributes to horizontal relations where all stakeholders receive equal treatment. One of the tasks of the process manager is to stimulate joint fact finding to establish a basis of negotiated knowledge (De Bruijn, et. al., 2002:170, Van de Blaak, 2006:34-35). In addition to joint fact finding, it is important to identify the shared values (Verheij and Boers, 2007). The process manager does focus on building support among all the stakeholders (De Bruijn, et. al., 2002:113) and takes into account that there exists a political autonomy to change already made decisions (Schultz, J.M. et. al., 2009; De Rooy, et. al., 2006:162). The project-oriented manager assumes that the best results are achieved by a formal organization of the project. Agreements with involved stakeholders are set down in contracts and the cooperation between stakeholders is characterized by hierarchy. The project manager has no involvement in the knowledge position or values the stakeholders. Focus of the project manager is on gaining support March 2010 30

within the project organization (Meredith and Mantel, 2006:308). The content of the plan is used to generate support. In principle the project team holds to made decisions, there is little flexibility. Table 3-7: Interventions related to stakeholder management Subject Process oriented Project oriented Stakeholder analysis Ongoing activity Once-only activity Dealing with regulation Informal organization of process, effectively breaking the rules Formal organization of project, the royal way Basis of agreements Trust Contracts Transparency Focus on transparency and communication in network Only inform stakeholders when really necessary Hierarchy Create horizontal relations Create hierarchical relations Substantial knowledge Joint fact finding to establish negotiated knowledge Make every actor responsible for its own knowledge position Values Invest in creating shared values Don t engage in stakeholders values Basis of support Focus on external support Focus on internal support Generating support Allow actors to exert influence By content of the initiative Influencing actors Indirect steering, external stimuli Direct steering from manager Dealing with politics Prepare for political dynamics, constant search for commitment Assume political support as stable, external factor Communication Pro active, search for exposure Passive and limited communication 3.3.8 Interventions to manage conflicts Despite investing in stakeholder management, conflicts may occur. In dealing with conflicts differences exist between a project management and a process management approach. The process manager tries to search consensus by careful decision-making. If stakeholders fail to reach agreement, the moment of decision making is postponed. By organizing foreseeable conflicts in a later phase of the project, it is possible to increase the commitment of stakeholders to the process. Based on the accumulated trust, conflicts will less soon lead to a definitive break between involved stakeholders (De Bruijn, et. al., 2002:83). To solve conflicts the process manager does focus on underlying interests that explain the positions of stakeholders. Based on better understanding of stakeholders positions, new discussion and negotiations can start (De Rooy, et. al., 2006:162). Stakeholders also have the possibility to postpone their commitment to decisions, which offers them possibility to explain the decisions inside their own organization (De Bruijn, et. al., 2002:59). After a decision is made, the process manager invests in management of losers (De Bruin and Ten Heuvelhof, 1999:65; De Vries and Hertogh, 2006). In contrast the project-oriented manager does focus on rapid decision-making and decisiveness to eliminate conflicts. The project manager tries to solve the main problems and conflicts as fast as possible. Therefore he identifies the position of the stakeholders and tries to convince the opponents by explaining the merits of his plan (Teisman and Edelenbos, 2008). To avoid future conflict, the project manager asks for commitment on all major decisions. The project manager does focus on the winners of conflict to realize its goals. March 2010 31

Table 3-8: Interventions related to conflict management Subject Process oriented Project oriented Speed Search for consensus in careful decisionmaking processes Focus on rapid decision-making and decisiveness Planning of conflict Organize conflict deep in the process, try to postpone conflicts Start with focus on main problems and conflicts, organize conflicts Framing conflict Frame conflicts as solvable dilemma s, exploit opportunities Emphasize substantial differences, try to diminish losses Position of conflict Move conflict to outside of process, offer extra forums for negotiating Organize central discussion with project direction Remove conflict by Searching for underlying interest behind stakeholders positions Focusing on actual position of stakeholder Deadlock Start a new process of discussion and Explain the merits of the plan negotiation Commitment Offer stakeholders possibility to postpone commitment to decisions Ask for commitment on all major decisions Aftercare Invest in management of losers Focus on cooperation with winners 3.4 Categorisation of interventions In the preceding paragraph a list of project and process management interventions is discussed. Although the representation of the interventions in section 3.3 is one-dimensional, interventions exist in different forms. Therefore in this paragraph the interventions are further categorised based on other characteristics. The three criteria that are used in categorising the interventions are: 2 The intensity of the intervention (3.4.1) 3 The dimension of the intervention (3.4.2) 4 The duration of the intervention (3.4.3) Based on the literature study these three criteria are qualified as most suitable to evaluate discrepancies between the interventions. On these subjects substantial differences between individual interventions are observed. These differences are considered to affect the outcome of an intervention in a specific project situation. Advantage of these criteria is also that they can be classified on a binary scale and thereby the interventions can be divided in 2 distinguishing categories. 3.4.1 Intensity: intervention depth A first criterion is intensity, qualifying the depth of an intervention. Intervention depth is a concept described in intervention management literature by Homan (2005). It does focus on how intense an intervention does encroach in the behaviour of the stakeholders or how intense an intervention does interfere in the operation of a system or project. The intensity of interventions can be qualified on a sliding scale between superficial and deep. Superficial interventions have a limited impact on the behaviour of the involved actors. The degree in which these interventions constrain or stimulate actors or systems in their actions is limited. The desired change in behaviour is limited. An example of a superficial intervention is making a stakeholder March 2010 32

analysis. An analysis is a method to increase knowledge about a subject, but the subject of analysis is not expected to change its behaviour as a consequence of the research. Deep interventions aim at realizing a significant change in behaviour of a stakeholder or system; they can include changes in standards and norms. Changes in behaviour can for example be achieved by using incentives. If negotiations between stakeholders lack speed, it can be beneficial to show them prospects of gain. This can make it beneficial for them to reach agreement as fast as possible. The stakeholders change their behaviour because of the prospects of future benefits. This is an example of a deep intervention. Table 3-9: Examples of superficial and deep interventions Intervention style Superficial Deep Process oriented Stakeholder analysis Show prospects of gain Project oriented Assume loyalty to problem definition Define stringent responsibilities An important remark on this criterion is that some interventions can have both a superficial and a deep impact. This is because the impact of the interventions is depended on the manner of application. An example is the introduction of new process agreements aimed at directing stakeholder behaviour. Initially stakeholders can perceive these agreements as an unimportant rule; stakeholders might even try to ignore the agreements. At this initial stage the impact of the intervention is only superficial. However, it is possible that afterwards involved stakeholders realize the importance and advantages of the agreements. If stakeholders get used to the agreements a change in applicable norms takes place. At this stage the impact of the interventions has become deep. 3.4.2 Dimension: intervention width A second criterion is dimension, qualifying the intervention width. Also intervention width is a concept originating from intervention management literature and described by Homan (2005). Intervention width describes the number of stakeholders that are affected by an intervention. The width of interventions can vary between narrow interventions and comprehensive interventions. Narrow interventions are aimed to change the behaviour of one stakeholder or even a single person within an involved actor. An example of a narrow intervention is inviting a group of local citizens to discuss preliminary project plans. Table 3-10: Examples of narrow and comprehensive interventions Intervention style Narrow Comprehensive Process oriented Involve local intelligence Enlarging the scope of a project Project oriented Focusing at personal targets Focus on one problem solution Comprehensive interventions intend to affect the complete stakeholder network. A comprehensive intervention can be a change of scope in a project to enlarge the possibilities for win-win solutions. All stakeholders are affected by this intervention which is aimed to stimulate the cooperation between the involved actors. There is no exact distinction between narrow and comprehensive interventions. It is also possible that interventions are aimed at a group of actors with a specific characteristic, for example all involved March 2010 33

public stakeholders. These types of interventions are positioned in the middle between narrow and comprehensive interventions. It is also important to recognize that the dimension of interventions can change. For example an intervention can first be applied as test on a small group of stakeholders and, if the intervention is successful, afterwards to all involved stakeholders. 3.4.3 Duration: intervention length A third criterion is the duration, qualifying the intervention length. The intervention length does focus on the period in which the intervention takes place. Related to this duration a distinction can be made on a gliding scale between temporary measures with a short duration and interventions which contain a constant change in procedures and have a long duration. Temporary interventions are often concrete measures aimed at realizing one demonstrable objective. An example of a temporary measure is the employment of three design teams to stimulate creative concurrence. Although beneficial results of this creative process can last long, the intervention itself is only a short decision. Table 3-11: Examples of temporary and constant interventions Intervention style Temporary Constant Process oriented Stimulate creative concurrence by employing several design teams Believe in trust as basis of agreements and cooperation Project oriented Increase time pressure Focus on intense cooperation with main actors Constant interventions often aim at realizing a new working procedure or a specific attitude. To realize this objective it can be necessary that the manager does focus on a specific subject for a longer period of time and constantly emphasizes the need for a certain attitude. An example of these constant interventions is the continuing focus of a project manager to cooperate only with the main stakeholders and pay less attention to other stakeholders. It is important to recognize the difference between the duration of the intervention itself and the continued existence of the result of an intervention. Also interventions with a short duration can have impact on the long term. 3.4.4 Main aspects of categorisation Categorisation of interventions can be useful because specific project situations require specific interventions. Therefore, in appendix I a comprehensive overview is presented of project management and process management interventions and their characteristics. However, there are also aspects that limit the added value of the categorisation. First the categorisation into two categories remains a simplification of reality. It is more realistic to conclude that the interventions are positioned on a gliding scale between two extremes. Second the categorisation of interventions can only function as a snapshot in time. This is because the nature of interventions can change. Interventions that start superficial can become deep while narrow interventions can also be used comprehensive. In spite of these disadvantages, the categorisation of interventions can be helpful for project managers to choose the best available intervention. Important lesson is that if an intervention is narrow, su- March 2010 34

perficial and temporary, it is relatively easy to implement. Conversely deep, comprehensive and constant interventions involve a much more complex implementing process and demand more efforts from the project manager. This can be explicated because the impact of these interventions is more intense, more actors are involved and they are confronted with the intervention during a longer period of time. 3.5 Conclusion management interventions This chapter started with the statement that management of complex spatial development projects demands an integral approach with both project-oriented and process-oriented management. Afterwards different views on project and process management as presented in scientific literature are listed. Based on this research a definition of both management styles is presented (box 3-2). These definitions are used to describe project and process management in the continuation of this research. Box 3-2: Definitions of project and process management Project management aims at structured accomplishment of a definite and demarcated scope and thereby steers on control of time, money and quality Process management aims at collective enabling of a dynamic and discussable scope and thereby steers on increasing support, acceptation and feasibility. In addition to these definitions, a preliminary answer on the first research question is formulated: 1 Which project management and process management interventions can be applied by project managers? Managers of spatial development projects have the availability of a large range of managerial interventions. Extreme and simplified descriptions are given of project management and process management interventions. This overview showed opposing approaches from both management styles to comparable situations. The situations in which interventions can be used are divided in seven categories, of which four are more related to classic project management and three other categories are associated with the social, process aspects of projects. In total based on literature 60 project and process management interventions are listed. The number of interventions is too high to take a further look at all these interventions. It can even be argued that the number of available interventions is countless, because the identity of an intervention is also depended on the project manager who implements it and the project in which it is implemented. In this research two attempts are made to deal with this infinite number of interventions. First in paragraph 3.4 the choice is made to look at types of interventions rather than to individual interventions. Three important criteria are listed to categorize different types of interventions. A first criterion is intensity, qualifying the depth of an intervention on a sliding scale between superficial and deep. A second criterion is dimension, qualifying the intervention varying between narrow interventions and comprehensive interventions A third criterion is the duration, qualifying the intervention length on a gliding scale between temporary measures and constant measures. March 2010 35

Based on these criteria the interventions that are discussed during the interviews can be divided in specific categories. This makes it possible to investigate if specific types of interventions are more or less suitable for specific issues and contexts. Second attempt to deal with the infinite amount of available interventions is that the interviews with project managers focus on the most important or crucial interventions. These interventions have a decisive influence on the project results. The interventions discussed during the interviews are compared with the longlist with 60 intervention opportunities as formulated in this chapter and thereby defined as project-oriented or process-oriented intervention. Moreover the most important intervention opportunities, according to the project managers, are selected from this longlist. Some crucial interventions are described more extensive and thereby practical examples of project management interventions and process management interventions are given. March 2010 36

4 Complexity and management issues 4.1 Introduction In chapter 3 managerial interventions are discussed. But why are these interventions required? That question is answered in this chapter by discussing the complexity of spatial development projects and the issues that project managers have to deal with in these projects. Thereby an answer is formulated on sub-question 2. 2 Which types of complexity and issues do project managers face during spatial development projects? First a closer look is taken at the components and the dimensions of the complexity that are present in spatial development projects. Operationalizing the concept of complexity is important for the empirical research. During the interviews important interventions are discussed and it is expected that success of these interventions depends partly on the degree of complexity. To examine this hypothesis, the degree of complexity has to be categorized. Second a description is given of the types of management issues that appear in spatial development projects. A distinction is made between different types of issues. Hereby it is also possible to rank the issues that are discussed during the interviews. This is meaningful because the appropriate method of intervention can vary by type of challenge. 4.2 Complexity in spatial development projects This paragraph presents an introduction in different components of complexity. The categorization of complexity in spatial development projects is based on the scientific work of Baccarini (1996), Turner and Cochrane (1993) and Williams (1999). First a closer look is taken to structural complexity (4.2.1), than a description is given of uncertainty (4.2.2). These aspects are combined in 4.2.3, describing project complexity. 4.2.1 Structural complexity First type of complexity present in projects is structural complexity. A widely accepted definition of structural complexity in projects is made by Baccarini (1996). He concluded that projects consist of many varied interrelated parts. This means that structural complexity can be operationalized in two aspects: 1) differentiation (variety of parts) and 2) interdependency (interrelated parts). The first component of structural complexity is the variety of parts. In this research, the complexity related to the number of parts of a project is defined as size complexity. The second aspect of structural complexity is the interdependency of parts. Gigch (1991) emphasized that complexity is not only dependent on the number of recognisable subsystems, but also on the extent of their interactions. Interdependence complexity emerges in projects with a great a number of possible relations between the different sub-projects or involved actors. The emergence of the network society, extensively described by Manuel Castells (Castells, 2000) is an important driver behind the growth of interdependence complexity in spatial development projects. March 2010 37

4.2.2 Uncertainty Second type of complexity present in projects is uncertainty. Two main components of uncertainty in projects are defined by Turner and Cochrane (1993). They distinguished projects with: Uncertainty about goals and objectives. Uncertainty about methods to achieve these goals. Uncertainty in goals implies that a project manager has to work in the knowledge that changed ambitions or technological development can force him to change the scope of a project. Uncertainty about methods means that the work breakdown structure is not well defined. The precise sequence of activities involved in achieving deliverables is unknown (Turner and Cochrane, 1993). 4.2.3 Project complexity The concepts of structural complexity and uncertainty in projects are coupled by Williams (1999). He defined that: uncertainty and structural complexity are indeed separate concepts, while both together produce the overall difficultness and messiness of the overall project. The following diagram is a visual reflection of the composition of project complexity. Figure 4-1: Components of project complexity 4.2.4 Dimensions of project complexity The components of project complexity appear in different dimensions. The classification of project complexity in dimensions is based on the substance of the complexity. In infrastructure and urban development projects six dimensions of complexity are identified (De Bruijn, et. al., 1996; Hertogh, 1997). These dimensions, shown in figure 4-2 are: 3 The technological dimension, involving complexity of the technical system 4 The social dimension, involving complexity regarding stakeholders. 5 The organizational dimension, involving complexity related to the project organization. 6 The financial dimension, involving complexity related to the large budget of the project. March 2010 38

7 The legal dimension, involving complexity related to a large amount of relevant regulation. 8 Time dimension, involving complexity related to the long running time of projects. Although complexity arises in all these dimensions, social complexity tends to be dominant. Organizational complexity also has an important role, while technical complexity in most projects is less problematic than expected (Hertogh and Westerveld, 2009). It is expected that the extent to which certain dimensions of complexity are present is influenced by the type of project and the project phase. Figure 4-2: Six dimensions of complexity (adapted from: Van de Blaak, 2006; Hertogh and Westerveld, 2009) 4.3 Management issues In spatial development projects a wide range of issues can motivate project managers to intervene. Objective of this paragraph is not to present a complete overview of all possible issues. Instead a categorisation of issues is presented. This makes it possible to classify management issues during the interviews in specific categories, which is important because different types of issues might require different types of interventions. First a categorisation of issues is made based on the cause and effect of the issues. Second a categorisation of issues is made based on subject. 4.3.1 Categorisation of issues based on cause and effect A first distinction is made between issues that emerge as consequence of a risk or as consequence of uncertainty. A risk is an event that can be described in statistical terms, which means that the chance of emergence can more or less be calculated. In contrast, uncertainty describes situations of which the emergence is turbulent, cannot be estimated and the potential outcomes are not clear on forehand (Miller and Lessard, 2000:76). A second distinction is made related to the effect of the issues. A first category of issues has an effect that only can cause losses for the project; a second category of issues has an effect that can involve a possible variation in both the losses and gains of a project (Miller and Lessard, 2000:76). March 2010 39

4.3.2 Categorisation of issues based on subject. In this paragraph a categorisation of issues is presented based on the subject. For this categorization the same seven categories are used as for the categorisation of interventions on subject in paragraph 3.3. All seven categories can further be divided in three sub-categories with types of issues that motivate managers to intervene in their project. Table 4-1: Categorization of issues based on subject Subject Performance issues Cost issues Planning issues Project organization issues Stakeholder involvement issues Stakeholder management issues Conflict management issues Issue category Determination of scope is difficult Issues caused by scope change Issues related to quality Issues caused by decreased benefits Issues caused by increased costs Issues caused by uncertainty about financial aspects Issues caused by lack of urgency Issues caused by delays Issues asking for adjustment of planning Issues causing damage to external image Issues causing damage to internal relations Issues because knowledge and quality is insufficient Difficult to invite stakeholders Starting cooperation is difficult Cooperation is under pressure Issue caused by attitude of stakeholders Issues caused by positions of stakeholders: Issues caused by actions of stakeholders Substantial conflicts Relational conflicts Obstructive behaviour The three types of issues that appear related to performance are 1) issues that cause a difficult determination of scope, 2) issues caused by changes in scope and 3) issues related to the quality of the product. Also related to financial issues three types of issues appear. These are issues related to the benefits of the project, issues related to the costs of the project and remaining issues causing uncertainty about financial aspects. The planning of a project also presents important challenges for the project manager. Issues appear related to 1) a lack of urgency, 2) delays in the project or 3) issues asking for adjustment of project speed. Issues related to project organization are damage to the external image of the project organization, issues related to the internal relations in the project organization and problems with quality and knowledge management. Involving stakeholders can cause issues related to inviting stakeholders, starting cooperation with the invited stakeholders or issues that cause pressure on the cooperation. After a group of stakeholders is involved, they have to cooperate to successfully complete the project. Issues that prevent a successful cooperation can be related to the attitude of stakeholders, the positions of involved stakeholders and the actions of involved stakeholders. During spatial development projects conflicts between involved March 2010 40

stakeholders emerge. First substantial conflicts can be identified. Second, more relational conflicts can be identified. Last category of conflict includes wilful obstructive behaviour. 4.4 Conclusion complexity and management issues This chapter discussed the complexity of spatial development projects and management issues that motivate or force project managers to intervene. In this concluding paragraph a preliminary answer is formulated on the second sub-question: 2 Which types of complexity and issues do project managers face during spatial development projects? Complexity The context in which project managers operate is characterized by project complexity existing of the following four components: Size complexity, related to the number of parts, such as stakeholders or sub-projects. Interdependence complexity, related to the interdependencies between these parts. Uncertainty in goals, which means objectives or scope of the project are uncertain. Uncertainty in methods, which means there is uncertainty on how project goals will be achieved. Project characteristics indicating that complexity is present in spatial development projects appear in six dimensions. Although complexity arises in all these dimensions, social complexity tends to be dominant. Organizational complexity also has an important role, while technical complexity in most projects is less problematic than expected. The presence of the various components and dimensions of project complexity can vary per project and per phase of a project. There are differences between the complexity in urban development projects and the complexity in infrastructure projects. It is expected that the degree of complexity has a significant influence on the most appropriate management style. Therefore the operationalization of the concept of project complexity is used to classify the interventions discussed during the interviews in different categories depended on the present complexity. Management issues A large range issues can appear during spatial development projects. These issues are classified based on their cause, being risk or turbulence and based on their effect, being a loss or a variation in gains and losses. Depended on these two characteristics, project managers have to take into account four types of possible events. These are: The risk of losses The risk of variation in gains and losses An uncertain event causing losses An uncertain event causing variation in gains and losses Issues can also be distinguished based on subject. Seven subjects are identified on which issues can emerge. These subjects correspond with the seven subjects of managerial interventions discussed in chapter 3. For project managers it is important to recognize the type of issues because different types require the appliance of different interventions. The variety of issues is too large to discuss all possible issues extensively. Because of the dominance of social complexity it is expected that most important issues are related to dealing with stakeholders. During the interviews this hypothesis is tested and important issues are discussed with project managers. March 2010 41

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5 The challenge of combining project and process management 5.1 Introduction Chapter 3 presented an introduction in project and process management interventions. To gain more information about the relationship between these interventions this chapter does focus on subquestion 3: 3 What are the possibilities and limitations in combining project and process management interventions? In paragraph 5.2 the relationship between project and process management in spatial development projects is described. Particular attention is paid to the development of this relationship over time. In paragraph 5.3 a description is given of the intrinsic discrepancies between project and process management. These discrepancies limit the possibilities to combine both approaches. The preliminary answer on the third research question is presented in paragraph 5.4. 5.2 Combinations of project and process management Chapter 3 emphasized the opposing characters of project and process management. Project management and process management interventions are described as each others opposites. However both project-oriented and process-oriented interventions are necessary in complex spatial development projects. This means that the approaches need to be combined or connected. There are indications that project and process management do not only include discrepancies but that it is possible to realize this combination. Examples are the results from a survey among project managers, reported by De Bruijn, et. al. (2004a). They conclude that according to a majority of project managers process management isn t an excuse for endless talking but indeed can contain aspects of command and control. Managers also emphasized that the process of creating support in process management can even increase decisiveness, which is normally more associated with project management (De Bruijn, et. al., 2004a). In addition to this Klijn et. al. (2008) concluded that project results on content and on process are correlated. After research among project managers they stated that: strategies that are good for process outcomes are also indirectly good for content outcomes. But how do these management styles relate to each other in spatial development projects? Scientific literature describes various relationships between both approaches. The relationship appears to vary depending on several factors such as project characteristics and the preferences of the project manager. But, in particular it is suggested that the required proportion of project and process management differs throughout the duration of a project. To increase the understanding of the relationship between project and process management, this paragraph focuses on the development of the relationship over time. Five theoretical models are introduced illustrating how project and process management can be related to each other. These theoretical models serve as hypotheses to be tested in the interviews. 5.2.1 Equal share of project and process management The first combination of project and process management assumes an equal share of project and process management. As mentioned earlier in this thesis and argued by several authors, complex pro- March 2010 43

jects require a management approach dealing with both technological issues and organizational factors (Whitty and Maylor, 2009; Xia and Lee, 2004). This is reflected in figure 5-1. Dvir et. al. (2003) mention explicitly that processes such as end user involvement should start at the first stage of the project and continue until its successful end. This is an indication from literature that process management is needed throughout the whole time span of complex projects. Disadvantage of this theoretical model is that it suggests that the project environment remains stable in time. Thereby the complexity of projects is underestimated. Figure 5-1: Equal share of project and process management 5.2.2 Sequential combination of project and process management A second model shows a sequential combination of project and process management. This model assumes that a process management approach is used to start a project, to create a sense of urgency, to explore the solution space together with involved stakeholders and to reach consensus about a preferable product. Afterwards a project management approach is used to lay down the design in contracts, organize strict control over the construction phase and define clear procedures for operation. Figure 5-2: Sequential combination of process and project management This model suggests a radical change in management style in the middle of the project. In scientific literature support for this model is presented by Engwall and Westling (2004). After case study research they concluded that projects can be characterized by a moment of sudden change which dramatically reduces project dynamics. Engwall and Westling identified a long initial period with technical problems and frustrations about the process. Thereafter within a short time the project metamorphasized to enjoy a three-year period during which speed ( ) dominated the agenda. This March 2010 44

model is relatively simple which makes it easy to communicate. However, the simplicity of the model can also be seen disadvantage, namely that the reality is oversimplified. 5.2.3 Linear transition from process to project management A third model to describe the relationship between project and process management assumes a smooth and linear transition from mainly project management to mainly process management. This model combines elements from model 1 and model 2. It affirms the assumption from model 2 that at the start of the project mainly process management is required and that during construction the accent should be put on project-oriented management. However, in addition to model 2, this model shows a linear transition. Thereby the model recognizes the assumption behind model 1 that in all phases of spatial development both project and process management play a role. The model also emphasizes that project phases don t have a clear start or finish point but that the transition from initiation to operation takes place gradually. Basic assumption behind this model is the conviction that in earlier phases of the project more process management is needed because there is more uncertainty, and that during construction more and more project management is needed as uncertainty is decreasing. This assumption is, among others, promoted by Winch (2001), who concluded that the uncertainty is decreasing as the project is near completion because more information about the project is available and the certainty about goals and methods to be used is increasing. Figure 5-3: Linear transition from process to project management 5.2.4 Capricious relationship between project and process management The fourth model describing the relationship between project and process management assumes a capricious development of complex projects. This assumption is based on the experience that in complex projects external dynamics are strong and different types of situations alternate with each other fast. Furthermore the project environment is never purely suited for project or process management. This model underlines the conclusion from De Bruijn and others (2004) that the project manager should be alert at changes in the environment and that the relationship between project and process management is changing continuously. Therefore in this model the relative importance of project and process management varies in conformity with the changing situation of the project. Besides changes in the project situation, also new appointed project managers can lead to an abrupt change of dominant management style. March 2010 45

Advantage of this model is that it recognizes the complexity of spatial development projects and the consequences of a continuously changing relationship between project and process management. However the model is also unsatisfactory because it is lacking the ability to give predictions about the continuation of the project. Figure 5-4: Capricious relationship between process and project management 5.2.5 Several (sub)-projects as part of process management approach The fifth model presents a complete different view on the relationship between project and process management. This model assumes that to successfully realize a complex spatial development project, an overall process-oriented approach is suitable. This means that process-oriented interventions remain leading throughout the complete project, from initiation till completion. Project management is used to implement sub-projects. Literature suggests that this model is in particular suitable for large projects, also classified as programmes (Vereeke, et. al., 2003). The simultaneous management of a number of (sub)-projects of different types and scopes presents particular problems (Maylor et. al., 2006). Examples are resource conflicts, simultaneous management of the throughput times and balancing the often conflicting interests of multiple participants (Platje and Seidel, 1993). Dealing with these challenges and aligning different (sub)-projects might require a coordinating process approach as visualized in figure 5-5. Figure 5-5: Process approach filled up with project management to manage sub-projects March 2010 46

5.2.6 Remarks on the relationship between project and process management On the basis of literature five possible relationships between project and process management are identified. These models try to explain the development of the project and process space over time. All these five models include advantages and disadvantages, which are further explored during the interviews. Based on literature it can be stated that not all the projects are the same, so it is impossible to identify one ideal model. However, a good theoretical model of this relationship has to find a balance between predictability and reality. These models only discuss the relationship between project and process management space as stagnant object. But in addition to these models it is important to take in consideration that the relationship between project management and process management is not only depended on time but also on other project characteristics. Project characteristics that can possibly influence this relationship are the number of involved stakeholders, the scope of the project and personal preferences of involved project managers. Finally it is noted that individual project and process management interventions can constrain each other. This means that a specific project management intervention can limit the available process space. This subject gets closer attention in the next paragraph. 5.3 Limitations in combining project and process management Aim of this thesis is to connect project management and process management. However, problems can emerge relating to the intrinsic discrepancies of these two. These discrepancies are described in this paragraph. The methods and interventions that are used in project and process management are based on assumptions about the operating of problems. The background of the way problems are tackled can be reduced to a small amount of these assumptions. And because of the opposing nature of these assumptions, intrinsic discrepancies exist between project and process management. Which are these assumptions that are inherent to project and process management? Table 5-1 presents five main assumptions (De Bruijn, et. al., 2002:21-32). Summarizing it can be concluded that project management is based on control and reducing complexity while process management is based on flexibility and coping with complexity. Table 5-1: Assumptions behind project and process management Project-oriented assumptions There is one problem definition There is one problem The problem is static Steering is based on hierarchy Stakeholders behave predictable Process-oriented assumptions There is discussion about the problem definition Several problems are interwoven The problems are dynamic Steering is based on interdependencies Stakeholders behave strategic What happens if, notwithstanding these assumptions, project and process management are combined in one project? Because a precise balance is almost impossible, there is a risk that one of the two approaches prevails. This proposition is explicated by two examples. March 2010 47

If a manager believes in the project-oriented assumptions, a possible combination is that process management is exclusively used as an instrument for implementation in a dominant project management approach. If a manager believes in the process-oriented assumptions, a possible combination is that process management is surpassing the project-oriented approach and project management is only used for controlling insignificant aspects. It is understandable that these combinations are not successful. Conflicts will arise between both approaches. To explain this, two examples of conflicting interventions are given. First a process management intervention that constrains project management possibilities is given in box 5-1. Box 5-1: Process management intervention constraining project space A possible process management intervention, as stated in table 3-8, is to organize foreseeable conflicts deep in the process. From a process perspective this is a smart intervention because you offer stakeholders the possibility to build up trust in the process. After some time, if stakeholders have invested in the process and increased their confidence in finding a good solution, conflicts can be solved easier. However, this intervention is constraining the available project space. As long as the conflict remains unsolved, the project is confronted with more uncertainty about definitive goals and products. So the process management intervention has an adverse impact on project management objectives. Such as process management interventions can constrain the possibilities for effective project management, likewise project management interventions can interfere with the successful operation of process management. This is shown with the second example in box 5-2. What is the added value of this paragraph for the project manager who wants to combine project and process management? Before an intervention is implemented, it can be useful to consider if the intervention does constrain the possibilities for future interventions and if this is desirable. This means that an additional consideration should be made in choosing the correct intervention. Box 5-2: Project management intervention constraining process space A possible project-oriented intervention, as stated in table 3-1, is that a project manager is not willing to change original plans but only tries to persuade involved stakeholders on the chosen goals. This might be effective for the progress of the project at that specific moment but can also encourage hidden resistance among these stakeholders. Thereby successful cooperation in the future is hampered. Future process management interventions will loose effectiveness because of the created dissatisfaction among the stakeholders. So the project management intervention has an adverse impact on process management objectives. 5.4 Conclusion possibilities and limitations In this chapter a closer look is taken at the relationship between project and process management. Thereby a preliminary answer can be formulated on sub-question 3: 3 What are the possibilities and limitations in combining project and process management interventions? March 2010 48

Project and process management are often both applied in spatial development projects. However it is difficult to present a theoretical model of the mutual relationship. The relationship between project and process space is variable and can be described in several ways, as is shown in paragraph 5.2. Five different models are composed and function as hypotheses during the interviews. It is expected that elements of all theoretical models can be found in reality and in the perception of the project managers. The challenge is to compose a model that contains a good balance between reality and predictability. Apart from the duration of the project, the ability to combine project and process management is also influenced by other factors. The interviews continue to look for dominant influences. Despite the fact that different combinations of project and process management can be found in projects, it is difficult to attain a good balance. Intrinsic discrepancies between project and process management remain based on the different assumptions behind those approaches. As a project manager completely holds to the principles of one of the management approaches, there is a risk that this approach prevails. As a result applying a project management intervention can have negative consequences for the possibility to apply a process management intervention. And conversely, process management interventions can also raise a blockade for subsequent project management interventions. March 2010 49

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6 Experiences of project managers 6.1 Introduction In this chapter the empirical part of the research is described. To answer the research question empirical data is collected through interviews with project managers of large spatial development projects. In paragraph 6.2 the selection of respondents for the interviews is described. Paragraph 6.3 describes the structure of the interview protocol and the relationship between the interview questions and the theoretical framework. The interview questions address two topics, first the relationship between project and process management and second crucial interventions in spatial development projects. The results of the interviews are discussed in the paragraphs 6.4 till 6.6. In paragraph 6.4 the findings on the relationship between project and process management are described. Most attention is given to project managers perception of the development of this relationship over time. In paragraph 6.5 the results of the questions focusing at crucial interventions are presented. The paragraph contains a brief statistical overview of the interventions and describes how the interventions are classified into various categories based on the theoretical framework. In paragraph 6.6 an initial analysis of these interventions is made whereby a few striking results are appointed. The chapter concludes in paragraph 6.7 with an initial conclusion on the empirical research. Interview reports The full reports of the interviews are confidential and therefore not attached to this report. However specific elements from the interview reports are included in this report, to illustrate and clarify the results. 1 First in this chapter interview quotes are included in separate text boxes. These quotes illustrate the text of the section below and are chosen because they properly reflect the opinion of a respondent. Thereby the quotes show that there are many shared insights on project and process management but that on some parts project managers have different personal visions. These personal beliefs are often justified by the respondents on the basis of their own experiences or by other arguments. This full context of the quotes can be found in the interview reports. 2 Second an overview of the 150 most important and appealing quotes are shown in Appendix IV. Thereby an even more comprehensive picture of the perspective of respondents on the management of spatial development projects is presented. 6.2 Selection of respondents To answer the research questions both sufficient and high quality data is needed. Therefore accurate composing of the expert panel is important. The respondents should be representative for the overall group of project managers and they should be experienced project managers to have an informed opinion. The number of interviews (31) is the maximum that could be conducted in the limited amount of time available for this research. A list of the respondents and their professional activities is added in appendix II. These respondents are selected on the basis of six criteria, which are listed below. March 2010 51

1 Currently involved in project management Project managers still have to be involved in the management of complex spatial development projects. Their actual involvement guarantees that the knowledge of management of complex projects is still up to date and part of their professional experience. This is expected to increase the quality of the interviews. Besides, their actual involvement makes it easier to identify these experts. 2 Experience with spatial development The project manager has experience with the management of spatial development projects. This can either be urban development, infrastructure or another type of spatial development. While selecting the experts it is important that managers from different types of projects are represented. By doing so, the comprehensiveness of the expert panel is guaranteed and also possible differences between managers in these types of projects can be identified. 3 Experience with project complexity The manager should be experienced in managing complex projects. Projects tend to get complex because of their size and interdependencies, this means a high number of sub projects and involved actors and a high degree of interrelations between these actors and sub-projects. Judgment of complexity remains subjective but to guarantee their experience with complexity, managers are selected among management of the current largest projects in the Netherlands. 4 Senior management The respondents are selected among senior project managers. This is important for two reasons. First it is expected that senior project managers are responsible for all aspects of the projects, both social and technical issues. Based on their comprehensive responsibility, they are assumed to properly reflect the importance of various issues and interventions for the whole project. Junior project managers, which only bear responsibility for a specific topic or sub-project, might have a distorted view of the management issues the whole project faces. Also at a lower level the role of process or project management might be relatively under-represented. Second, the senior project managers are expected to be the most experienced and skilled people. Because they have experience in multiple projects they are expected to be able to reflect on the relation between context variables and management approaches. Therefore they can deliver the best contribution to this research. To meet these criterions only respondents are selected who function within their project(s) as project leader or project director. 5 Availability of the experts: A last selection criterion is that the project managers are available for the research. This is important because experts that attendance the panel should have enough available time for an interview. To guarantee that enough experts are available, first a longlist with 60 project managers is composed. These managers are ranked on their suitability on the other selection criteria and afterwards checked on availability. March 2010 52

6.3 Interview protocol To obtain empirical data an interview protocol is composed. The complete interview protocol is included in Appendix III; this section discusses the key choices made in composing the protocol. Important choice is that the first part of the interview on crucial interventions has a relatively open structure. Advantage is that the respondents can talk freely about interventions that they applied. The respondents may describe situations from their own frame of reference without being asked to link these experiences to the theoretical framework of this study. Thereby the most pure information is obtained. The task to couple the practical experiences to the theoretical framework remains with the researcher and cannot be taken by the respondent. The questionnaire supports the researcher in actually making this linkage between theory and practice. In the interview protocol some questions are listed for the interviewer to gather more information about the characteristics of an intervention, the issue which the project managers reacted on and the complexity of the situation where this was happening. By checking whether the respondents told that information themselves or otherwise by explicitly asking them, all aspects of the theoretical framework are discussed in the interview. A risk of the interviews is that respondents describe interventions from their own experience and show insufficient reflection. By asking about similar situations in other projects and the opinions of other stakeholders about this particular intervention, an attempt is made to gather as much information as possible about the context of the intervention. The second part of the interview contains a more closed structure. The respondents are confronted with definitions of project and process management and they are asked to respond on five charts reflecting a possible relationship between project and process management. These questions are important to understand how managers try to combine process and project management. With the closed interview structure also more homogeneous responses are obtained and therefore the results are more generalizable. The disadvantage of the method is that project managers may face definitions or concepts that they are not used to. This can lead to distorted or socially desirable answers. The chosen interview design is considered the best method to collect data for answering the research questions. However, there are also some weaknesses associated with this method. Most important is that the researcher asks for the perception of project managers and how they experienced situations in their projects. There is a tension between collecting opinions and perceptions on the one hand and presenting factual and normative conclusions on the other hand. Although in the preparation of the interview protocol steps are taken to obtain data as objectively as possible, this means that the conclusions based on these results contain certain vulnerability. 6.4 Experiences with project and process management Project managers elaborated on the relationship between project and process management in their projects. Several factors that can influence this relationship are discussed and the respondents elaborated on how they connect project and process management. 6.4.1 Share of project and process management Project en procesmanagement zijn onlosmakelijk met elkaar verbonden als ying en yang March 2010 53

The hypothesis that both project and process management are required to successfully complete complex spatial development projects is confirmed by all respondents. Project managers acknowledge that project and process management belong together. A large majority of 80% of the respondents stated that the quantitative share of process management is declining during the project and that at the same time the share of project management is increasing. However, process management does not disappear completely; many respondents confirm that also during the realisation phase a small amount of process managements remains needed. The importance of a management approach for the project as a whole is not always in conformity with the share of the same management approach in the activities of the senior project manager. This can be clarified based on the role of the respondents. Three respondents mentioned that on the basis of their role as facilitator/mediator process management remains leading in their personal interventions during the complete project. In these cases for the complete project the role of project management is still growing, but these project management tasks are delegated to other managers or organizations. 6.4.2 Relationship between project and process management over time We streven er wel naar om het proces af te bouwen maar de wereld om ons heen staat niet stil. Er zijn veel externe invloeden die vragen om een nieuwe procesaanpak The second topic discussed during the interviews is the development of the relationship between project and process management over time. This discussion was opened by showing the five graphics described in paragraph 5.2, which all represent a possible relationship over time. After a brief explanation of these models, respondents are asked to reply. Is the proportion of project management process and equal throughout the entire project, or is this relationship capricious? Does the share of project management slowly grows over a project or is there a big step from process to project management? The respondents are challenged to argue on these graphics and questions or to add a personal drawing to the five proposed relationships. Many respondents found the charts a challenging way to look at their work as project manager. Often they recognized aspects of the presented graphs, but the respondents also suggested several adaptations or made their own chart. The three most nominated models are discussed in this section. Capricious relationship The relationship between project and process management is seen as capricious by a majority of 55% of the respondents. Among the interviewed managers this is by far the best valued representation of the relationship over time. A capricious relationship means that the amounts of project and process management are continuously changing. However, in combination with this capricious relationship, in the long term these respondents do experience an increasing share of project management in projects. The capricious nature of the relationship is reflected by the fact that the increasing share of project management is interrupted by a temporary renewed attention for the process. This is visualized in figure 6-1. Notable elements in the graph are the peaks in the share of process management. These peaks reflect a switch between a project and a process management approach. There are two main reasons that can give rise to the peaks in the proportion of process management. March 2010 54

Figure 6-1: Relationship between project and process management as described by majority of respondents 1 First, a peak can indicate the moment of an important decision. In the phase previous of decision making process management plays an important role. Together with stakeholders discussions take place to increase support for a specific choice. This causes a peak in the share of process management. After the decision is made, specific issues are settled and can be transferred from the process-oriented approach to the project management approach. This explains why the graph shows a valley after the decision has been made. 2 A second explanation for the peaks in the graph is the emergence of unexpected issues. There are many issues that can require additional process management, for example deteriorating relationships with stakeholders, construction problems or relevant legislative changes. As a consequence plans need to be adjusted or new discussions with stakeholders have to take place. If the issue is solved, project management again obtains greater prominence and the graph changes again from a peak to a valley. Although the majority of the project managers considers this graph as the best representation of reality, comments can be posted on the realism of this relationship over time. The choice of this model may partly stem from the desire of project managers to reduce the share of process management during the project. A share of process management that remains high, or even increases, towards the end of the project may indeed be interpreted as a failure of the project manager to control his project. Dominant process-oriented approach Six respondents, all discussing extremely large projects or multi-projects, recognize a dominant process management approach with several smaller sub-projects as part of the overall process. In these projects the project manager has a coordinating role to take care of better alignment between all subprojects. This task requires mainly process management. The implementation of the subprojects is carried out under the responsibility of individual project offices, which take care of the project management. Some of these respondents emphasize that the sub-projects tend to get larger if the overall process nears completion. This is explained by the fact that first small and simple measures are implemented. If these first sub-projects are successfully implemented, the implementation is scaled up and subprojects increase in size. This is visualized in figure 6-2. March 2010 55

Figure 6-2: Relationship with dominant process approach in combination with sub-projects Box 6-1: Example project with dominant process approach: De Groote Wielen A comprehensive process-oriented approach containing project management blocks is appointed by managers from several large urban development projects. One of them, project manager of a large housing development, explains that main aspect of his work is to provide the coordination between the many sub-projects of the development. He is also the link between politics and the project. As a result, his work is characterized by a process-oriented focus while the project management tasks are delegated to the managers of the subprojects. Also a remark should be made on the interpretation that project managers give to this model. If the blocks with project management reflect a sub-project, does this mean that these subprojects are conducted entirely without process management? Or should the project management blocks actually be seen as separate projects in which both project and process management are required? The interviews suggest that this is at least partially true. Although a part of the process management is only required at the scale of the overall project, project managers indicate that also in the subprojects a limited amount of process management remains needed. Bij gebiedsontwikkeling zie ik een continu proces met in deelprojecten een rol voor projectmanagement. Het is belangrijk om deze blokken projectmanagement in diverse maten weer te geven. Bij de aanleg van Vinex locaties ben je na 8 jaar in een fase dat veel deelprojecten in uitvoering zijn en dan worden de blokken projectmanagement steeds groter en zwaarder Structured stepwise approach Four respondents, which are all manager of an infrastructure project, recognize a stepwise relationship from mainly process management to mainly project management. They argue that this stepwise relationship is depended on tendering procedures which include specific moments when processes have to be finished and subjects are fixed in a project approach. These respondents stated that almost no scope changes are possible after tendering, while a discussable scope is seen as a vital element of process management. This relationship is shown in figure 6-3. March 2010 56

Figure 6-3: Stepwise transition from mainly process management to mainly project management Also related to this graph it can be questioned whether it is a desired or a real relationship between project and process management. The interviews give indications that despite a tendering procedure sometimes a high degree of process management remains necessary in late project phases. For example because an unpredictable environment can still not be controlled and because adjustments in the contract are required. However, by contrast project managers also indicated that clear capturing of made agreements can help to reduce complexity and uncertainty. If this succeeds the necessary share of process management is effectively reduced. Box 6-2: Example project with stepwise approach A project manager, responsible for the realisation of a infrastructure project, perceives a stepwise transition from mainly process management to mainly process management. He explains that infrastructure projects are characterized by a limited amount of milestones, such as the determination of the exact route (Dutch: tracébesluit) or the start of the tendering procedure. At these moments many details of the project are set and afterwards implemented by a project-oriented management approach. Also some other project managers of infrastructure projects experienced this gradual development of their management approach. Linear transition from project to process Only three respondents experience a linear transition from mainly project management to mainly process management, as shown in figure 5-3. Although many others confirm that this is a reasonable theory and a relationship worth pursuing, most respondents emphasize that this is also an illusion. The project environment includes too many dynamic and uncertain events which makes it impossible to attain this linear relationship. March 2010 57

Factors influencing relationship between project and process De verhouding tussen project- en procesmanagement hangt niet alleen samen met de tijd, de complexiteit en je tegenspelers bij de partners in het project spelen ook een grote rol Many respondents emphasized that the relationship between project and process management is not only depended on the time but also on characteristics of the project. The project characteristics that are seen as influential on this relationship are: The complexity of the project scope. In a technical more complex project, more interdependencies between project parts exist and it is expected that more unexpected events happen. As a consequence the relationship between project and process management is more capricious. The complexity of the project environment. Among others Peer Rooijmans, project director RijnGouwelijn, stated that if a project is implemented in the middle of society and more interdependent stakeholders are involved, the relationship between project and process is more capricious. The behaviour and habits of project partners. Project partners can have a focus on either process of project management. For example, if all project partners are project-oriented and accustomed to work in a straight line from A to B, then the project can lose control of the process. If complications emerge, such as an obstructive stakeholder, the project partners might find it difficult to deal with this problem. The behaviour and habits of the project manager. Also project managers can be more specialized in either project or process management. Managers can get nervous of a capricious relationship between project and process because it can be difficult to control. Other project managers feel comfortable with this relationship because they realize, as Stef Fleischeuer stated, that flexibility helps to reach the finish line. 6.4.3 Remarks on the appliance of project and process management Definitions of project and process management Bij procesmanagement zie ik te vaak een brede definitie, een te faciliterende insteek waarbij we wel zien wat haalbaar is. Maar bij goed procesmanagement weet je wel waar je heen wilt Some respondents made a personal remark on the definitions of project and process management. Four respondents mentioned that it is important that process management should not be noncommittal. They stress that open-ended processes should be avoided and that processes need to have a clear direction. In contrast to this opinion, three other respondents emphasized that process management should be more open and in that in practice process management is too often applied on a project-oriented way and that this is harming the success of the process. These comments show that different perceptions of process management do exist. Two respondents said it is important to complement the overview of management approaches with program management. One of them argued that especially in large projects it is relevant to consider project and process management in combination with program management. This is a useful addition March 2010 58

to the used theoretical framework. However, within the scope of this study there are no possibilities for further investigation to the role of program management. The role of the project organization Goede projectmatige en procesmatige mensen in een team bij elkaar maakt schakelen tussen project en proces tot dagelijkse praktijk Respondents explained that the success of combining project and process management is depended on the project organization and the people working in this organization. The structure and capacity of the organization should be adapted based on the amount of project-oriented or process-oriented work. In particular, the successful application of process management and operating in a complex environment requires high personal skills. Diversified team with both process-oriented and projectoriented managers can stimulate and strengthen the combination of project and process management. Respondents also confirmed that combining project and process management remains a challenge for them. One of them proposed the dilemma what approach should dominate in times of crisis. Based on his experience in infrastructure project he is convinced that during crisis the project managers should let process management prevail. Other project managers argued that in a moment of crisis decisive project management is appropriate. 6.5 Experiences with crucial interventions The second set of questions focused at obtaining information about crucial interventions, these are interventions with a decisive influence on project results. In total 77 interventions are discussed during the interviews. Important intervention opportunities First part of the analysis is to identify the most important intervention opportunities. The crucial interventions as described by the respondents in the interviews are compared to the long list of interventions set out in chapter 3. Purpose of this long list was to provide a complete list of intervention opportunities based on literature. By comparing the interview results with this list, the main intervention opportunities according to the project managers are found. The long list in chapter 3 consisted of 60 intervention opportunities, further divided into opposing project management and process management interventions. The 77 discussed interventions were not always entirely consistent with these extreme interventions; many interventions were more complex in nature and applied between those two extremes. However, it was possible to identify the appropriate intervention option, such as intervening in the range of scope or "involving local actors. Among the 77 interventions 20 distinctive intervention opportunities are observed. In the perception of project managers these are the main intervention opportunities to influence the project outcome. March 2010 59

Further analysis of interventions Analysing the most important intervention opportunities is only the first step of the analysis. Secondly, the interventions are studied extensively to assess in which situations these interventions are most appropriate to apply. While discussing the interventions attention is paid to the four specific topics which are already described in the theoretical framework. These topics are shown in figure 6-4 and listed below: The style and characteristics of the intervention (operationalized in chapter 3). The issue that gave rise to the intervention (operationalized in chapter 4). The context in which the intervention took place (operationalized in chapter 4). The results of the interventions in relationship to the different control parameters of project and process management (operationalized in chapter 3). Figure 6-4: Conceptual view on interventions Based on the mentioned operationalization, these interventions are categorized on those four topics. For example the researcher qualified every intervention as either a process or a project management intervention. Box 6-3: Description of the model intervention For the realization of an infrastructure project, the involved municipalities signed a management agreement with the province, which was responsible for the project. During the planning of the project resistance raised in one the involved municipalities. There was particular criticism on the safety of the route through the city centre. In a referendum the majority of the population voted against the project. The municipality thus broke the management agreement. The province first has threatened to continue the project even without the cooperation of the municipality. However, this created an unpleasant and almost unworkable situation. If intervention is ultimately sought to a solution to get back together. An alternative route was found in the municipality, and this route received much more support. To make this new route possible, adjustments had to be made in the existing infrastructure. The province decided to contribute financially to these adjustments. Thereby the deadlock was broken and the municipality became a cooperative partner again. This categorization is important because it helps to determine in what situations which interventions are successful. After all the characteristics of an intervention and its situation are specified, they are March 2010 60

set in an Excel sheet. With this Excel sheet it is possible to make basic statistical calculations with the interventions and their characteristics. The results of these calculations are displayed in this paragraph. To show how the classification of the interventions took place, one intervention is used as model intervention. This model intervention is introduced in box 6-3 and concerns the problems around the route of a new light rail system. The blue boxes throughout this paragraph show how this model intervention is categorized and on which arguments these categorizations are based. 6.5.1 Characteristics of interventions Een goede procesmanager hoeft geen goede projectmanager te zijn en andersom ook niet The interventions are divided in project-oriented and process-oriented interventions. This division is made on basis of the definitions of project and process management presented in paragraph 3.5 and the operationalization of project and process management in paragraph 3.3. From the total group of 77 interventions, 53 (69%) are defined as process-oriented interventions and 24 (31%) are defined as project-oriented interventions (table 6-1). This does not mean that project managers in total use more process management interventions than project management interventions. But specifically among the crucial interventions, the percentage of process management interventions is higher. Although for all interventions it is tried to distinguish between project and process management interventions, this distinction is sometimes not clear. Several interventions were found that combined aspects of both approaches. Box 6-4: Categorisation of the style of the model intervention The model intervention is qualified as a process management intervention. This intervention matches the definition of process management because: The interventions aim at collecting realization of a discussable scope. After discussion the route of the infrastructure is changed. This doesn t match the definition of project management, focusing at a definite and demarcated scope By this interventions the province is managing on increasing acceptation in the resisting city rather than on controlling project objectives Table 6-1: Share of project and process management interventions Intervention Style Project interventions Process interventions All interventions Number 21 56 77 Percentage 27% 73% 100% The interventions are classified based on their characteristics (table 6-2). This makes it possible to investigate if specific types of interventions are more or less successful to deal with specific issues and contexts. A large share of the crucial interventions has a deep impact, meaning that they interfere intense in the operation of the project. The number of stakeholders affected by the crucial interventions differs; both comprehensive and narrow interventions are used. A majority of the crucial interventions are temporary measures with a short duration. March 2010 61

Box 6-5: Categorisation of the characteristics of the model intervention The model intervention is qualified as a deep, comprehensive and temporary intervention. This categorisation is based on the following arguments: The scope adaption is a deep intervention because a significant change in the behaviour of the infrastructure system is realized. The scope adaption is a comprehensive intervention because it has consequences for all involved stakeholders. The province, the municipality and the population are directly involved because they discussed the scope change. However, also the other involved stakeholders are influenced by this intervention because it had consequences for the planning en realisation of the project as a whole. The scope adaption is a temporary intervention because the intervention itself existed of a couple of intense negotiations. In proportion to the duration of the project these negotiations took a very short time, only the consequences of this intervention are long lasting. Table 6-2: Characteristics of interventions Issues Depth. Length Width Deep Superficial Comprehensive Narrow Constant Temporary Number 61 16 36 41 28 49 Percentage 79% 21% 47% 53% 36% 64% 6.5.2 Issues causing interventions Mijn interventies zijn een logisch gevolg van denken vanuit besluitvorming. Ik bepaal eerst welk besluit ik wil en op welke datum, vervolgens kijk ik wat daarvoor nodig is Two criteria are used to classify the issues; these are the cause and effect of issues. For project managers it is important to recognize the type of management issues they re dealing with because different types of issues require different types of interventions. The cause of an issue can be either an expected risk or unexpected turbulence. A significant amount of issues (40%) are expected risks, which means that project managers took into account the possible occurrence of this issue. This issue is either described in statistical terms or at least an estimation is made that this issue can appear. If no statistical analysis is possible, project managers make an estimation based on their experience and knowledge about the project. However, still a majority of 60% of the issues happens unexpected. Table 6-3: Cause of issues Issues Expected risks Unexpected turbulence Number 31 46 Percentage 40% 60% March 2010 62

Box 6-6: Categorisation of the issue giving rise to the model intervention The issue which gave cause to the model intervention is qualified as follows: The cause of model intervention is qualified as an unexpected turbulence. The idea for the project, including the original route, is precisely created in resisting municipality to resolve the traffic problems in the city centre. Only later the resistance is created and therefore that precisely that municipality would protest against this project was not expected by the province. The effect of the model interventions is qualified as losses. If this problem would occur, it only could achieve negative consequences to the original project objectives. There was no possibility that the arisen opposition would contribute to a faster and better realization of the infrastructure. The second criterion to classify the issues is the effect whereby a distinction is made between issues causing losses for the project and issues causing variable results. Only a small amount of the issues has variable results. These are mainly fluctuations in the economy, which can both strongly improve and deteriorate the market conditions for spatial development projects. Table 6-4: Effect of issues Issues Change of losses Variation in gains and losses Number 72 5 Percentage 94% 6% 6.5.3 Results of interventions Interventies gebruik ik om bij te sturen, maar of we linksom of rechtsom bij het doel komen maakt mij niet uit Interventions often cause multiple effects; an intervention that changes the scope of a project can for example at the same time increase the quality and the support for a project. It is important to understand the possible results of interventions because than project managers can judge whether the expected positive effects of an intervention outweigh the negative effects. This can determine whether or not to apply an intervention. A majority of the crucial interventions has a positive effect on the quality or performance of the project. Only a small share of the interventions affects the project quality (table 6-5). Table 6-5: Effect of crucial interventions on project quality Issues Positive None / small Negative Number 49 26 2 Percentage 64% 34% 3% March 2010 63

Box 6-7: Categorisation of the results of the model intervention The results of the example intervention are qualified as follows: The effect on quality is categorized as positive. The integration of the infrastructure in the existing city has improved and in the new plans also the road infrastructure is improved further. The effect on budget is qualified as negative. The route change will cost the province about 50 million extra on the total project costs of 350 million. The effect on the planning is qualified as negative. During the last years the project is delayed by five years and a major part of these delays is caused by the changed route through the city. The effect on support and acceptation is qualified as positive. Although there are still groups in the population and the municipality who don t support the realization of the infrastructure, generally the resistance decreased significantly by adjusting the route. Most crucial interventions do not affect project budgets, in other words: the interventions take place within the existing budget. Almost 20% of the interventions has a positive effect on project budget, which means that as a result from the intervention costs reduce of revenues increase (table 6-6). Table 6-6: Effect of crucial interventions on project budget Issues Positive None / small Negative Number 15 54 8 Percentage 19% 70% 10% The effect of crucial interventions on project planning shows a large variety. Remarkable is that 17% of the crucial interventions has a negative impact on project planning. This is significantly more than the negative effects related to other parameters. Table 6-7: Effect of crucial interventions on project planning Effect of planning Positive None / small Negative Number 22 42 13 Percentage 29% 55% 17% Crucial interventions have a positive effect on the support/acceptation of a project in 2/3 of the discussed situations. It is remarkable that according to the project managers crucial interventions never affect the overall support for a project. Sometimes crucial interventions did affect the support among a specific group of stakeholders but in those cases this is compensated by increased support among other stakeholders. Table 6-8: Effect of crucial interventions on project support / acceptation Issues Positive None / small Negative Number 51 26 0 Percentage 66% 34% 0% March 2010 64

6.5.4 Context of interventions Projecten bieden een combinatie van complexiteit en concreetheid en dat maakt het managen juist zo leuk The context of the interventions can be described based on the present type of complexity. In chapter 4 the components of complexity are discussed. Making a classification of the interventions on these components is important because it is expected that the degree of complexity has a significant influence on the most appropriate management style. One of those components is size complexity, related to the number of parts in the project. All the respondents during the interviews are project manager of a large spatial development project. Although the size of the projects differs to some extent, size complexity is expected to be present in all the projects that are discussed. Therefore size complexity cannot be appointed as distinctive element between the different interventions and it is not taken into account during the analysis. Box 6-8: Presence of components of project complexity Issues Interdependence Uncertainty of goals Uncertainty of methods complexity Yes / high No / low Yes / high No / low Yes / high No / low Number 71 6 38 39 14 63 Percentage 92% 8% 49% 51% 18% 82% Box 6-9: Categorisation of the context of the model intervention The context of the example intervention is qualified as follows: The phase in which this intervention took place is the planning phase. The realization of the project would soon be started and the project organization was busy completing the final design. The interdependence complexity is qualified as high. In theory, the province has the ability to make an "integration plan" (Dutch: inpassingsplan) and thus to enforce the route of the project to the municipality. But in practice, a good cooperation between all relevant authorities is necessary to ensure quick and smooth implementation of the infrastructure. Moreover, province and municipality are linked and interdependent not only in this project but also in other policy fields. The uncertainty of goals is qualified as high. To find a solution for the current deadlock the stakeholders are willing to discuss the specifications of the product. To scope will be adapted in multiple ways. The route is changed and the design of the trains is under discussion to improve the safety. The uncertainty of methods is qualified as low. The involved authorities already reach agreement about the methods of realisation. The province will be responsible as leading actor and client for the realization of the infrastructure. March 2010 65

Interdependence complexity is almost always present if a crucial intervention takes place. Also uncertainty of methods is present by a large majority of the interventions. Uncertainty of goals is observed in approximately half of the interventions. Besides looking to the complexity, also the phase of the project in which the intervention took place is discussed. The majority of the crucial interventions are made during the planning phase of the project. Also during realisation of the projects still a significant amount of crucial interventions is made. Box 6-10: Relevant project phases of crucial interventions Issues Exploration Planning Realisation Operation Number 8 45 24 0 Percentage 10% 58% 31% 0% 6.6 Further analysis of interventions In addition to the presented statistical overview, this section highlights some striking elements from the results. 6.6.1 Interventions Door het opzetten van een goed samenwerkingsmodel zorg je dat je niet hoeft in te grijpen, niet hoeft te interveniëren. Als je escalatie nodig hebt om bij te sturen, ben je eigenlijk te laat Project and process management interventions are applied for different subjects and show different results. Project-oriented interventions are more often applied to solve issues related to the planning. Almost half of the project management interventions increases the speed of a project. At the same time less than a quarter of the process management interventions has a positive effect on the project speed. At the same time process management interventions have more often a negative impact on the planning than project management interventions. More than 20% of the process management interventions does have slowing effects on the planning, while only less than 10% of the project management interventions has this consequence. This is a significant indication that project management interventions are more suited to control or to increase the speed of a project. Interventions that are classified as comprehensive are more often used in a context with uncertainty of goals. Almost 60% of the comprehensive interventions takes place in a context with uncertainty of goals, while only 40% of the narrow interventions takes place in this context. This is an indication that in a situation with unclear goals the project manager tries to involve more stakeholders. The involvement of stakeholders is expected to support the identification of their interests. If these interests are clear, the uncertainty of goals can be decreased further. Comprehensive interventions have more often a negative impact on planning than narrow interventions, respectively in 28% and 7% of the situations. This is an indication that a higher number of involved stakeholders causes slower decision making. The intervention length is strongly related to expectedness of the issue. Almost 90% of the constant interventions are aimed to solve expected risks. Managers react on expected risks with a constant intervention in more than 80% of the cases. Thereby constant interventions have more often a positive effect on planning, namely in 43% of the situation, while only 18% of the temporary interventions March 2010 66

positively influences the planning. Temporary interventions have more often a negative impact on planning than constant interventions, respectively in 24% and 2% of the situations. This is an indication that project managers take into account that long-lasting interventions or procedures should not affect the project planning. 6.6.2 Issues Als door een partij een probleem wordt gezien, dan zeg ik: haal hem binnen. Krijg ik te horen dat deze partij een risico is, dan zeg ik: haal hem nog sneller binnen The subject of an issue influences the characteristics of the interventions and the results. Interventions aimed at achieving change in the organization are constant, long term interventions in 75% of the situations, while only 36% of all the interventions are constant. This is an indication that achieving organizational goals requires the sustained attention of the project manager. Another striking result is that interventions related to the quality and the scope of the project relatively often affect the budget and the planning of the project, in respectively 27% and 36% of the situations. This is an indication that improving the scope in several cases is realized at the expense of speed and cost. 6.6.3 Context Het is een grote uitdaging in projecten om samen te werken met veel partijen, die allemaal verschillende belangen hebben en toch onderling afhankelijk zijn Remarkably the share of crucial project and process management interventions is almost equal in all phases of the project. The percentage of project management interventions increases slowly from 25% in the exploration phase to 31% in the planning phase and 33% in the realisation phase. Yet there are other differences between the project phases. During the exploration phase more interventions are aimed at all stakeholders. 75% of the interventions in the exploration phase is comprehensive while in total only 47% of the interventions is classified as such. In this stage of development, the focus is on broad cooperation During the realisation phase more interventions can be found focused at budget control (33% vs.18% overall), while less interventions are used to gain support or acceptation (46% vs. 66% overall). This shows that during the realisation phase the focus of the project manager shifts from obtaining support to monitoring implementation. Interdependence complexity and uncertainty in methods remain heavily present throughout the different project phases. However, uncertainty in goals is decreasing during the project, from 75% during exploration, to 56% during planning and 23% during the realisation phase. This shows that during the project clarity on the scope increases, but nevertheless there remains much confusion about the working methods. March 2010 67

6.7 Conclusion empirical research As part of this investigation more than 30 interviews with project managers are conducted. Based on the willingness and openness that the respondents have shown, a great wealth of data is collected. The interview reports present a good insight into the daily practice of the biggest spatial development projects in the Netherlands. The interviewed project managers were generally able to properly reflect on their work and to explain their vision on the application of project and process management. Also good examples of interventions that were critical to the results of the projects are discussed. However, using this information for a scientific analysis should be undertaken cautiously. The data does not reflect facts but the perception of a group of managers and within this study there was no possibility to discus competing interpretations of these interventions. As a consequence the data might be distorted. Respondents may have presented their projects more positive than it is reality and they may have focused on achieved successes. This weakens the quality of the conclusions that can be drawn on the basis of these interviews. Part of this chapter was also to link the interview results to the formulated theoretical framework. As expected in the framework, there seems to be a clear relationship between the applied interventions and the context of the project. However, linking the interventions to the theoretical framework is also a challenge, many interventions are difficult to classify as purely process-oriented or purely projectoriented. It is sometimes difficult to translate the ambiguity of reality into a framework. The detailed analysis in Chapter 7 pays more attention to this problem. March 2010 68

7 Integration of project and process management 7.1 Introduction Chapter 6 presented an overview of the data from the interviews. In this chapter a next step is made by further analyzing the empirical data and thereby an answer is formulated on the fourth subquestion: 4 Given a specific issue and context in spatial development projects which interventions should be applied to increase the success of the overall project? 7.1.1 Data analysis The 77 observed interventions are used as a starting point for answering the fourth research question. The analysis focused on identifying mechanisms by which project managers can effectively intervene in specific situations. By determining these intervention mechanisms primarily a distinction is made between process and project management interventions, since the distinction between these two management styles is the basis of this research. Therefore the first two selected intervention mechanisms are pure process management interventions and pure project management interventions. Pure interventions mean that these are fully consistent with the definitions of project and process management as used in this study. However, only describing these pure project and process management interventions does not present a complete overview of the available mechanisms. As the data showed, many crucial interventions are applied at the interface between project and process management. These interventions are not fully consistent with the definitions of project and process management; instead elements of both definitions can be recognized. This means that in these situations there is a relationship between project and process management. The type of relationship between project and process management is used as distinguishing element in determining the other intervention mechanisms. In total six other intervention mechanisms are identified describing different methods to combine project and process management by interventions. 7.1.2 Structure of chapter 7 In paragraph 7.2 a description is presented of pure process management and pure project management interventions. Paragraph 7.2.1 elaborates on the project-oriented interventions and paragraph 7.2.2 on the process-oriented interventions. The intervention mechanisms are described in the paragraphs 7.3 to 7.5. Each paragraph first describes a project-oriented intervention mechanism which is tied with process management. Then the second part of the paragraph considers the process-oriented mirror image of that intervention. Paragraph 7.3 looks at mutually reinforcing project and process management intervention mechanisms, paragraph 7.4 describes mutually compensating project and process management interventions and paragraph 7.5 elaborates on mutually allowing project and process management interventions. March 2010 69

Figure 7-1: Structure chapter 7 For every intervention mechanism first the functionality is described, second the requirements for success are listed and third an explanation of this success is given. All descriptions of interventions are further illustrated by an example from the interviews. In chapter 6 it already is concluded that sometimes it is difficult to translate examples from practice into a theoretical framework. Presenting these intervention mechanisms that combine project and process management is a method to strengthen the linkage between practice and theory. To conclude this chapter, paragraph 7.6 provides an answer on the fourth sub-question. 7.1.3 Project management in a network environment In assessing the context in which the identified intervention mechanisms take place, in particularly the degree of interdependence complexity is striking. Social interdependence complexity is present in all cases, which means that also the project-oriented intervention mechanisms are applied in a network environment. Project management in a network environment is not a self-evident mechanism. In a network different stakeholders are interdependent and need to cooperate to obtain project success. In this context it sounds paradoxical to successfully use project-oriented interventions because a project manager does not have enough power to impose a vision on other stakeholders. Moreover, unexpected events can affect the vision and the power position of the project manager. However the data shows that, despite of the network environment, in specific network situations project management can be successful. Indeed it can be crucial to project success. De Bruijn and Ten March 2010 70

Heuvelhof (1999) described seven situations in network environments in which project management interventions are applicable. These seven situations are called paradoxes because, although the use of this form of management seems impossible at the first sight, it contributes significantly to project success. The analysis of intervention mechanisms in this chapter is partly build upon these results from De Bruijn and Ten Heuvelhof. Some examples of observed interventions are similar to the paradoxes they identified. However in addition to these, also other mechanisms of successful project management interventions in a network environment are discussed. In the description of these mechanisms it is explained why that type of project-oriented intervention can be successfully applied in a network environment. 7.2 Pure project and process management 7.2.1 Pure project management interventions Pure project management interventions are interventions that completely match the definition of project management as used in this report. First this means that there is a definite or demarcated scope that should be realized. In line with this the interviews show that in most situations where project management interventions are applied the uncertainty in goals is absent or low. The project managers apply project management if they have a clear view of their goals. This does not always mean that the end product of the project is completely defined; goal of the interventions can also be the delivery of an interim product. In addition to this, pure project management interventions are observed more often in the realization phase since then more information about goals and methodology of the project is available. Second pure project management steers on control of the project parameters time, money and quality. In line with this all the observed project management interventions show positive effects on the quality or scope of the project. Besides these positive effects on scope control, project-oriented interventions also show better result related to planning than process management interventions. Almost half of the project management interventions increases the speed of the project, while less than a quarter of the process-oriented interventions has this effect. Third pure project management aims at structured accomplishment of the scope. Therefore project management is suited to situations without or with low interdependence complexity. In the current network society the absence of interdependencies is rare. Situations without interdependence complexity are mainly observed within the project organization where the existence of hierarchic relations makes it possible to control the environment and enforce structured implementation. This explains why the observed pure project management interventions are mainly applied for organizational issues, such as the establishment and change of the organizational structure. This is also the case with the example in box 7-1. Requirements for success The project manager has a clear vision of the desired scope and this scope is accepted by the involved stakeholders. The project manager has power to control the realisation of this scope within time and budget. The context is stable preventing that the scope and power position of the manager will be damaged by unexpected events. March 2010 71

Box 7-1: Example pure project management intervention Issue: A large road construction project is moving from the planning phase to the realisation phase but the project organization is not yet equipped for this assignment. Neither size nor qualities in the project organization are sufficient to deal with this challenge. Objective: Develop a project organization matching the scope of the project. Intervention: The project director analysed the required structure and capacities to successfully manage the realisation of this project. On the basis of this analysis he decided to restructure the organization in conformity with the requirements and draw on the necessary people. Result: The intervention had huge impact on the organization. After the intervention the new project structure is ready and the organization can start managing the realisation of the project. The new structure and better equipped organization has positive effects on the control of scope, the budget and control of planning. Context: The implementation of this intervention was possible because the project manager had the specific mandate to restructure the organization. On the basis of his mandate, the relations within the organization are hierarchical and his is able to enforce this intervention. Besides the absence of interdependence complexity, also the goals of the project are clear. Explanation The success of project management is based on reducing the complexity of projects and structured problem solving. In simple and hierarchical situations this is an effective management approach. Disadvantage is that by structuring and splitting up the project is becomes more difficult to react on various opinions or unexpected events. For the management of spatial development this means that project managers in today's society have to look carefully in which situations the use of pure project management is still possible. 7.2.2 Pure process management interventions Pure process management interventions are interventions that completely match with the definition of process management as used in this report. First this means that the scope of the project is still dynamic and discussable. Therefore process management interventions are suitable for the planning phase of projects. During the planning phase most times both the uncertainty in goals and the uncertainty in methods are high. The project manager than needs to cooperate with other stakeholders to determine a scope of the project which has broad support. During the realisation phase the uncertainty of goals is often lower, but uncertainty of methods might still be present in a significant number of situations. In those cases process management interventions can be applied to determine a method of realisation which is supported by the stakeholders. Second pure process management steers on increasing the support, acceptation or feasibility of a project. Therefore process management interventions are often applied as response to a lack of support or a poor relationship between stakeholders. This is useful because process management interventions achieve better results on these parameters than project management interventions. An example of an intervention aimed at increasing support is regular consultation with residents, as described in box 7-2. March 2010 72

Third pure process management aims at collective enabling of the scope. In line with this process management is applicable in network environments with high interdependence complexity. This interdependence complexity is mainly present in the social dimension, which means that different stakeholders are interdependent and need cooperate to reach their goals. Box 7-2: Example of pure process management intervention Quote: Het is heel belangrijk dat het project voor de bewoners een menselijk gezicht heeft Issue: A municipality is developing a new urban area on the border of the city. The development is accompanied with several problems. Based on the misfortunate past, many residents distrust the municipality. A new appointed project manager expects that this distrust may give rise to objections and delays of the project. Objective: The project manager wants to remove this distrust and build a good relationship with the stakeholders, especially with the residents. Intervention: The project manager decided to meet representatives of the residents, united in a village council, at least every six weeks. The project manager invested in this relation and campaigned for a more open approach to this people. Result: As a result of the meetings more support is created for the development and the present distrust is largely removed. Finally the relationship improved to such extent that, at the request of the residents, the frequency of the consultation could be reduced. Context: The project was already moving to the realisation phase and goals and methods were already partly determined. In these situations it may be tempting to use mainly projectoriented interventions. However, residents have an important position in the area and play a role in the development. This is an example of the still existing interdependence complexity. To maintain support it is important to continue making use of process-oriented interventions. Requirements for success The involved stakeholders still have to determine the exact problem or desired scope of the project. Broad support and feasibility are crucial to make realization of the project possible. Unexpected events can influence the problem characteristics and/or the feasibility of the desired scope. Explanation The success of process management is based on the ability to cope with complexity and collaboration. In uncertain environments and confronted with interdependent stakeholders this is necessary in order not to get bogged down in fixed structures. However, the search for togetherness and the openness to new developments can be detrimental to the decisiveness and the delivery of concrete products. For the management of spatial development projects this means that process management has become an indispensable element in realizing projects. However, managers should be keeping a sharp eye that sufficient incentives guarantee that still progress is made and that the process contains adequate substance. March 2010 73

7.3 Mutually reinforcing interventions This paragraph elaborates on mutually reinforcing interventions. These are project-oriented interventions that contribute to the objectives of process management and process-oriented interventions that contribute to the achievement of project goals. The structure of this paragraph is shown in figure 7-2. Two different project-oriented intervention mechanisms are observed in this category and discussed in section 7.3.1. The first project-oriented intervention is aimed to drive on the speed of a process (7.3.1.1). The second project-oriented intervention mechanism is aimed at directly increasing support and commitment for the project (7.3.1.2). Mirrored to these mechanisms, process-oriented interventions can successfully contribute to the realization of project objectives. The interviews showed that process-oriented interventions can have a direct positive effect on the achievement of defined project goals, which is discussed in 7.3.2. Process-oriented interventions can support the control and implementation of the scope (7.3.2.1), the control of the planning (7.3.2.2) or the control of the budget (7.3.2.3). Figure 7-2: Structure paragraph 7.3 7.3.1 Project-oriented interventions to support process objectives 7.3.1.1 Project-oriented interventions to drive on process Description If a process fails to come on pace, a project-oriented intervention can be applied to accelerate the process. The threat of a project management intervention can be decisive to increase the process speed. This intervention mechanism is mainly applied in the initial phases of a project when both uncertainty in methods and uncertainty in goals are high. An example is that a municipality can use the threat of legal means to persuade stakeholders to start a cooperation process, which is further de- March 2010 74

scribed in box 7-3. In this example the municipality tries to hierarchically implement their own plans and thereby they focus on controlling the planning of the project. Appliance of this mechanism can be temporary if the only intention is to get the process going. But it is also possible that the threat of a project management intervention is used for a longer period to keep the process on speed. Box 7-3: Example project-oriented intervention to drive on process Quote: De grondeigenaar kon kiezen of delen, als we niet minnelijk konden verwerven zouden we de gronden gaan onteigenen Issue: The municipality wants to work together with a landowner to start a large urban development. But the negotiations are facing an impasse and it seems impossible to make an agreement on the short term. The municipality expects that the development will face serious delays if the landowner will not start to cooperate. Objective: The municipality wanted to increase the speed of the development and to reach agreement with the landowner about some form of cooperation. Intervention: The municipality used the threat of binding instruments, more specific the ability to expropriate, as an incentive to tempt the landowner to cooperate. With this intervention they tried to convince the landowner that cooperation would also be more advantageous to him. This can be qualified as a project management intervention because key elements of the definition of project management are reflected in the actions of the municipality. They opt for hierarchical control and structured implementation of their own plans; thereby they manage on control of time. Result: The landowner faced a new situation and after some considerations he decided rather to cooperate and sell his plot to the municipality than to conduct all possible legal proceedings. Thereby the municipality obtained ownership of the plot and was able to make development plans shortly afterwards. Context: At first the land owner was in his comfort zone, because he felt that the municipality was depended on him. However the municipality showed their possibilities to intervene hierarchically and to enforce their own plans. Thereby the landowner realized that if he wouldn t cooperate, he would lose all influence on the development. The threat of expropriation was an incentive to cooperate and to sell his land. Requirements for success The project manager intends to launch a process at short notice. Among the stakeholders a sense of urgency is lacking and as a consequence the process does not start or has a low speed. The project manager is able to threat or to organize external threat, to trade the process approach for a command and control approach. The prospect of a hierarchical approach has adverse consequences for the stakeholders. Explanation The explanation for the success of this mechanism is that the project manager creates the conditions for a win-win situation. The involved stakeholders can avoid the negative consequences of a project management approach by cooperating in the process. These stakeholders maintain the ability to exert March 2010 75

influence in a process which is profit for them. The project manager avoids a protracted battle with various stakeholders. For successful realization of the project the project managers is dependent on cooperation with other stakeholders, so if cooperation is achieved that means profit. For the management of spatial development projects this means that a project manager can tempt stakeholders to participate in a process through reflecting this as an option to gain wins. 7.3.1.2 Project-oriented interventions to increase support and commitment Description In network environments project-oriented interventions most times give rise to more resistance. However, in specific situations strict control of project objectives can be decisive in achieving adequate support and commitment. This is a narrow intervention mechanism, mainly observed in situations where the project manager has to increase the support for the development of a specific stakeholder of group of stakeholders. Often the intervention is aimed at increasing support among politicians or administrators, who measure project success on the basis of project-oriented objectives (box 7-4). The interventions can both be temporary to gain support at a specific moment, or constant to maintain the support over a longer period of time. Box 7-4: Example project-oriented intervention to increase support Issue: A project manager is leading an innovative spatial development project in which urban development and realization of major infrastructure are combined. However, the project is lacking political support for the realization; the integral approach and the preliminary design are expected to be too expensive. Because the lack of political support the realization of the project is in danger. Objective: The project manager wants to maintain the integral scope of the development because he is convinced of the added value of the integral approach. At the same time he wants to increase the political support for the development. More specific the national government needs to be convinced to grant a subsidy to the project. Intervention: The project manager decided to strictly manage on reducing costs and to try to build a feasible business case. This meant a focus on budget within the project organization Result: The project manager succeeded in realizing savings in his budgets. By decreasing the costs he convinced politicians to support the development and the subsidy for the project was granted. Context: This project-oriented intervention was possible because the critical stakeholders reviewed the project mainly on achieving project oriented goals. To maintain the substantive goals on the long term, it was necessary to temporarily use strict project-oriented management. March 2010 76

Requirements for success In one specific (group of) stakeholder(s) support for the project is lacking. These stakeholder(s) judge the project mainly on the achievement of project-oriented objectives. It is possible for the project manager to temporarily manage powerful on the control of these project-oriented objectives. The results of the temporarily project management approach can convince the critical stakeholders to maintain of increase support for the project. Explanation The explanation for the success of this intervention mechanism is that the project manager meets the expectations of relevant stakeholders. It is easier for stakeholders to measure the outcome of a project by the achievement of hard measurable targets than on obtained support. The relevant stakeholder expects the project to achieve specific objectives and it is less relevant how these goals are achieved. Through project management interventions the project manager achieves the specific goals and thus gains the desired support for his project. For the management of spatial development projects this means that project managers should have a good picture of the interests of stakeholders and demands they make on the project. Achieving these interests could allow him to manage more effectively. 7.3.2 Process-oriented interventions to support project objectives Realizing the project within budget and planning or controlling the scope is normally related to project-oriented interventions. However there are exceptions on these management routines. In some situations it are the process-oriented interventions that ensure that these project objectives can be achieved. In this paragraph a description is presented of process-oriented interventions that contribute to the achievement of project-oriented objectives. 7.3.2.1 Process-oriented interventions to support scope implementation Description The first mechanism under discussion is a process-oriented intervention aimed to achieve the desired quality or scope of the project. Realizing a demarcated scope is normally related to project management. But sometimes situations arise which make it difficult or impossible to achieve this desired scope. This can for example be caused by a lack of design quality. In these situations new uncertainty about goals and methods can arise and process-oriented interventions are needed to bring the project further and to achieve the desired quality. This often means that after reconsideration the scope of the project is customized or adapted. Sometimes shortly before the start of the realisation a new design process is started to improve the quality of the product, as described in box 7-5. And if the intervention is successful, the scope is better connected to the originally defined project objectives. These interventions are having an intense, deep impact on the project. The observed interventions contribute to project quality and in more than 75% of the situations also the support for the project is increased. However, in 35% of the cases this mechanism is also associated with project delays. March 2010 77

Box 7-5: Example process-oriented intervention to support scope implementation Quote: Het project in de toenmalige vorm was niet de gewenste kwalitatieve ontwikkeling en we hebben de moed gehad om dit te heroverwegen Issue: The municipality worked together with a real estate developer on the development of a new shopping mall in the city centre. A final design for the mall was already made and the project was shortly before realisation. It was at this late stage of the development that the municipality realized that the current design didn t match their original project objectives. The design was closed and the massive presence didn t match with the current structure of the old city centre. Objective: The municipal project manager realized that they should have adjusted the design in an earlier phase. Still he wanted to try to change the design and link it better with the old centre. Intervention: The municipality decided to withdraw their support for the design. They tried to convince the real estate developer that they would benefit as well if the future look of the mall would be in line with the existing city centre. Result: In cooperation between the municipality and the developer the design was adapted. This intervention caused a number of difficult conversations and also significant delays for the project. But after realization of the new design, there was great satisfaction among all involved stakeholders about the improved quality. Context: In a late phase of development much uncertainty raised in the municipal project office. They doubted if the design and working methods were in line with the original project objectives for quality. This uncertainty gave rise to a process management intervention and a major review of the design. By good substantive arguments and through extensive dialogue, the municipality was able to convince the property developer to cooperate on this issue. Requirements for success The current project approach is not yet or no longer guaranteeing the achievement of the originally set project objectives The involved stakeholders perceive a sense of urgency to work together to find new products or methods. The involved stakeholders believe that these changes may contribute to a better realization of the project objectives. Explanation The explanation for the success of this mechanism is that on principle nobody is opponent of quality improvement. The intervention mechanism does not focus on scope changes but specifically on scope improvement. And precisely the joint review of plans and search for creative solutions shows to be the best way to meet quality related project goals. For the management of spatial development projects this means that a project manager can justify and provide support for a scope adjustment if this is framed as a quality improvement whereby the product better meets the originally defined project objectives. March 2010 78

7.3.2.2 Process-oriented interventions to support planning control Description Realizing the project according to planning or increasing the project speed is most times related to project management while process management is often perceived as time consuming. But there are several examples of process-oriented interventions that contributed to a faster progress of the project. The right incentives for cooperation can have better effects on progress than maintaining a tight schedule. This is especially useful in situations when the uncertainty of methods is high and the exact working method is not yet defined. Very different process-oriented interventions to accelerate the project are observed in the interviews. Examples are timely bringing together the desired decisionmakers (box 7-7) or organizing external pressure on the stakeholders as described in box 7-6. Beneficial side effect of these interventions is that in many cases not only the speed but also the support for a project increases. This intervention mechanism is explained by two different examples. Box 7-6: Example process-oriented interventions to support planning control Quote: Om ze harder te laten lopen werken constante prikkels van buitenaf heel goed Issue: A municipality is working together with another stakeholder on a large urban restructuring project. These two stakeholders do have a joint project office. The project manager experiences a lack of urgency among both the stakeholders. There efforts are not sufficient to realize their planning Objective: The project manager wants to increase the speed of the process and he wants to realize a stronger commitment of the stakeholders Intervention: The project manager constantly tries to organize external stimuli to make the partners run faster. One example is that he invites well-known opinion leaders to criticize on the preliminary plans. He involves experts from both governments and market parties to comment on the plans for the restructuring. Result: The external comments have a significant influence. The partners experience that they are monitored and they try to seize the opportunity to show their ambitions. Context: In this project the project manager mainly acts as a facilitator, his main task is to stimulate the cooperation between the two partners. He is not in a position to command the partners to comply with the planning; therefore the interdependencies are too high. Moreover, in this early stage of development goals and methods are not clear enough to agree about a clear time table. Therefore he has to use process-oriented interventions to stimulate the sense of urgency among the partners. Requirements for success Several stakeholders work together towards project realisation but this process is lacking speed. Stakeholders experience a sense of urgency or the project manager has the opportunity to create this. Further delays will at least partly be blamed on the involved stakeholders. The project manager has been convincing to relevant stakeholders to obtain new or innovative practices and working methods. March 2010 79

Explanation The explanation of the success of this mechanism is that the stakeholders can avert an impending loss by increasing the speed of the project. Stakeholders try to avoid a negative image in which the failure of a project is charged on them. This creates a sense or urgency and a situation where stakeholders are willing to make just one extra step to realize a breakthrough and to speed up the project. What does this mean for the management of spatial development projects? The role of project manager is to visualize this future loss or even to organize it. Organizing criticism can be a motivation for stakeholders to pursue their efforts to avert this criticism. Box 7-7: Example process-oriented interventions to support planning control Issue: For a large urban development project the municipality has to work together with a real estate developer. After two years of negotiations, almost a comprehensive contract can be signed for the project. However, still one major discussion point remains. During the normal negotiation procedure it has not been possible to reach agreement about this. Part of the problem is that the negotiation team lacks authority to decide about this issue which has a high profile in local community and local politics. Objective: The project manager wants to ensure that within two weeks, at the planned date, the municipality and the developer can sign their contract. Intervention: Because following the normal project procedures has been inadequate, the project manager establishes a new process. To force a breakthrough he invites both aldermen and other political leaders and the board of directors from the developer. In a series of high level meetings they have to reach agreements about the last stumbling block for the contract. Result: The top management level of both project partners together focuses on the problem for a couple of days. To everyone s satisfaction they succeed in closing a compromise. Thereby it becomes possible to sign the contract at the planned date. Context: Following the normal project procedures would have failed in reaching a compromise. By up scaling the discussion at the right moment, it was possible to reach agreement. However, this was only possible because, although the uncertainty about goals and methods was still high, both partners experienced a high sense of urgency. There was a broad recognition that this process should not fail. 7.3.2.3 Process-oriented interventions to support financial result Description A process management approach of a project can lead to stakeholders submitting expensive wishes and demands. But if applied at the right moment, process-oriented interventions can also be helpful in controlling the budgets. This intervention mechanism is applied in situations with interdependence complexity and high uncertainty in methods. In these situations a minor adjustment in the scope or a smart adaption of working methods can contribute to substantially lower costs or higher benefits. The example in box 7-8 shows that making process adjustments at the right moment can be decisive in decreasing the costs. It is observed that often in the same time the quality of the project is increased as well. March 2010 80

Box 7-8: Example process-oriented interventions to support budget control Quote: Om het plan financieel haalbaar te maken moesten de partners water bij de wijn doen Issue: The costs for the construction of a major road infrastructure were strongly increased. A large number of involved stakeholders had specific demands regarding the integration of the road. Early in the design the project office agreed on these requirements, but at that time the financial consequences were not clear. A couple of years later, the development of the detailed design showed that together these requirements led to a significant budget overrun. Objective: The project manager had to provide a design that met the maximum available budget. Intervention: The project manager chooses a process-oriented approach. He started new negotiations with all the actors who originally introduced additional requirements. Usefulness and need of every measure was discussed. Moreover, he convinced the stakeholders that without cost reduction the project would not continue. Result: Most stakeholders did not like the fact that initial commitments were withdrawn. But most of them recognized it was the better to work on optimizing the plan, than to loose all participation and influence. Thus the project manager succeeded to agree with most stakeholders to remove or modify complementary measures adequately. Context: In this situation the expected budget overruns were so large that strict projectoriented control wouldn t be sufficient to realize the project within budget. To be able to realize the project within budget it was necessary to perform a process oriented approach and to reconsider the defined scope. Requirements for success There should be convincing evidence that cost reductions are needed to continue the project Review or adjustment of the scope or work method provides opportunities for cost reduction. The benefits of lower costs are distributed among the various involved stakeholders. The benefits outweigh any negative consequences on the planning and quality. Explanation The explanation for the success of this mechanism is that stakeholders do not like to loose their influence. Stakeholders who can benefit from an adjustment of the scope are inclined to seek opportunities for cost reduction with the project manager, because this gives them influence in adaption of the design. Thereafter this is a motivation for other stakeholders to also contribute ideas because they don t want to risk that plans are changed without their influence. This intervention is specifically effective when the continuation of a project is at stake if no reduction in the cost occurs. In these cases stakeholders are inclined to support the process of cost reduction because otherwise all benefits they would reach with the project are lost. For the management of spatial development projects this means that a project manager has to present convincing evidence that cost reductions are needed to continue the project. If one stakeholder does start to cooperate, other stakeholders will follow because they don t want to lose their influence. March 2010 81

7.4 Mutually compensating interventions This paragraph describes mutually compensating interventions. These are project management interventions complemented with process conditions and process management interventions complemented with project conditions. The structure of this paragraph is shown in figure 7-3. Three different project-oriented intervention mechanisms are observed and discussed in section 7.4.1. The first mechanism shows project-oriented interventions in combination with offering process space (7.4.1.1). The second mechanism shows project-oriented interventions with a fallback process option (7.4.1.2). The third mechanism shows project-oriented interventions to control procedures (7.4.1.3). Mirrored to these project mechanisms, also process-oriented interventions can successfully be implemented complemented with project conditions. Although the content of the project conditions varies, there is only one distinctive process mechanism found in this category. This mechanism is discussed in 7.4.2. Figure 7-3: Structure paragraph 7.4 7.4.1 Project-oriented interventions complemented with process conditions 7.4.1.1 Project-oriented interventions in combination with process space Description The first mechanism shows project-oriented interventions in combination with providing process space. Providing process space can diminish expected resistance against project management interventions. Examples of this mechanism are found in project situations with high interdependence complexity and either uncertain goals or uncertain methods. March 2010 82

Interventions are deep and narrow by realizing an intense change of procedures for a specific (group of) actor(s). The project-oriented interventions in combination with providing process space are mainly used to increase the quality or performance of the project. On basis of the interviews it can also be concluded that these interventions are used to react on expected risks. The example in box 7-9 describes a project manager expecting that the quality of his development cannot be guaranteed during a process management approach. Therefore he decided to use more project-oriented management and enforce stricter control on design quality. Box 7-9: example project-oriented interventions in combination with process space Issue: For the development of a major urban restructuring project, various municipal departments are working together. Each department has is own task during this process. However, the project manager is unsatisfied with the quality of the urban designs and with the work of the responsible department. Also he perceives no improvement based on process-oriented consultations. Objective: The project manager attaches great importance to the spatial quality and wants to increase the quality of the urban plans. Intervention: The project manager decided to outsource the design of the urban plan to a reputable urban designer. However, he had to keep support for the development within the municipal organization. Therefore he offered space to the design department to take up new responsibilities. This department was given the opportunity to define ambitions for the urban design and to control the quality of the design. Result: Employees from the design department needed some time to get used to their new role but accepted the intervention of the project manager. On the long term both the quality of the urban plans and the support for the development increased. Disadvantage of the intervention are the increased costs because the new urban designs were more expensive than the municipal plans. Context: The project was characterized by uncertainty about the goals. The project manager could not agree with the design from the municipal department but within the municipal organization he was depended on their cooperation. Therefore the project-oriented intervention was only possible because at the same time the project manager offered new responsibilities to this department and thus retained the support for the development. Requirements for success A process-oriented approach is considered detrimental to the achievement of project objectives. The project manager has the power to temporary enforce project management interventions. A specific (group of) stakeholder, whose power is affected by the intervention, can be compensated without creating negative side effects for the project. The process space is sufficient compensation to preserve or enhance the support of this stakeholder for the project. Explanation The explanation for the success of this intervention is the fact that regular resistance against project management interventions is avoided. Two aspects of this mechanism are important to avoid resistance in advance. First, providing process space means that the involved stakeholder has the opportu- March 2010 83

nity to achieve influence or to gain other benefits from the intervention. This prospect makes it attractive to support the intervention. Besides this positive outlook it is hardly possible for stakeholders to protest against an intervention that offers them true potential. Maintaining their resistance would cause poor imaging and weaken their position within the project. For the management of spatial development projects this means that providing compensation in the form of process space can enable the enforcement of project management interventions. 7.4.1.2 Project-oriented interventions with fallback process option Description Project-oriented interventions can raise resistance because stakeholders see the risk that at a later stage the intervention is disadvantageous for them. But if stakeholders know that if the circumstances justify it, there is a fallback option and the stakeholders can still start a process to deal with the disadvantages, they are more likely to accept the original project management intervention. These interventions are observed in situation where stakeholders agree about the objectives of the project but are uncertain how these should be achieved. They are willing to take compromise regarding the method, if they know the posses the ability to change them if really needed. Thereby this intervention mechanism is typically constant and superficial. The fallback option remains in the background but has little influence on the day to day behaviour of the stakeholders. This intervention can increase the speed of reaching agreement because stakeholders know that they are prepared for the possibility of a crisis. Box 7.10 shows an example of such an intervention, where the fallback option is used. Box 7-10: Example project-oriented intervention with fallback process option Issue: An economic downturn has major negative implications for the development of a large housing project. The home sales have fallen sharply and as a consequence the cooperating property developers are not able to comply with the made agreements. In principle they are required to buy specified quantities of land plots but currently they do not have funds available. Objective: The project office has the objective to survive this crisis together with all the major stakeholders. They don t want to change the current urban plan abut also the built relationship should be maintained during this economic setback. Intervention: In this crisis situation the project manager decides to deal with the made agreements flexible and to start new negotiations with the developers. Result: The new negotiations lead to temporary adapted speed but the long-term cooperation and relations are hardly affected because the partners had the opportunity to deal with agreements flexible. Context: Being flexible with the development method, in this case by adapting the speed, makes it possible to maintain support and control the scope during a major crisis. It is important to realize that this flexibility can only be used in real emergency situations, otherwise agreements lose their value. March 2010 84

Requirements for success Stakeholders have gone through a process and thereby reached a draft agreement. Stakeholders are reluctant to strict control of project objectives and project methods. Unexpected developments can have significant influence on the achievement of project objectives. Explanation The explanation for the success of this mechanism is that it responds to underlying interests of involved stakeholders. Stakeholders ultimately do not aim at realization of a project, but at preservation of their core values. This mechanism offers the possibility, in situations where their core values are at risk, to fall back on previous agreements. This creates a secure environment in which stakeholders are more likely to abandon their objections to project management interventions. For the management of spatial development projects this means that taking into account the core values of stakeholders, can increase the steering possibilities of the project manager and thereby helps to achieve project objectives. 7.4.1.3 Project-oriented intervention to control procedures Description In network environments applying project management interventions to control the substance of the project often causes resistance. But in specific network situations it is possible for a project manager to use project-oriented interventions to enforce procedures. In the interviews this intervention mechanism is observed in situations with high interdependence complexity and uncertainty in methods but defined goals. The project manager tries to achieve these goals and increases the speed of the project by implementing procedures. These procedures often have a long-term effect which makes these interventions constant. Box 7.11 shows an example of a project manager who has managed to convince the stakeholders to follow a specific planning procedure that enabled him to manage on speed of the project. Requirements for success The project manager has a clear vision related to one or more substantial objectives. The project manager has the power position to impose a process design or procedure to the other relevant stakeholders. The establishment of the procedure or the process design has impact on the achievement of the substantial objectives of the project manager. Explanation The explanation for the success of this mechanism is the indirect method of managing. Because of the interdependence complexity the project manager does not posses the ability to enforce substantive decisions. However, a process design can indirectly also have substantive effects. But because adverse effects of the intervention are not yet fully seen by the stakeholders, resistance is avoided. For managers of spatial development projects this means that they should not always opt for direct control. Indirect influencing of stakeholders through the enforcement of procedures can be more effective to achieve substantive objectives. March 2010 85

Box 7-11: Example project-oriented intervention to control procedures Quote: Gelukkig is de door gemeenten niet vooraf beseft welke tijdsdruk het instellen van deze procedure zou meebrengen Issue: A large urban development project was crossing several municipal borders. Because of the complex governmental context the project manager expected delays caused by political indecisiveness. Especially preparing a spatial structure plan was expected to be time consuming. Objective: The project manager wanted to stimulate the speed of the development and he wanted to force the municipalities to accelerate the cooperation. Intervention: There was a significant chance that much land for the development would be bought by property developers. Partly on the basis of this argument the project manager convinced the cooperating municipalities to establish the WVG (Wet Voorkeursrecht Gemeenten). The municipalities agreed with this procedure which would give them the first right to buy land in the development area. Result: The chosen procedure had large consequences. To remain the possibility to purchase land on basis of this law, the municipalities had to finish a spatial structure plan within 2 years and a land use plan within 5 years. As a consequence of the procedural demand, the speed of the process was stimulated. Context: Enforcing the procedure was quite easy for the project manager because the municipalities wanted to avoid property developers gaining control over the development. This procedure was also easy to accept because no substantive choices were made. But indirectly the procedure forced the municipality to make these substantive choices within 2 years and thereby it gave the project manager the possibility to increase the speed of the process. 7.4.2 Process-oriented interventions complemented with project conditions Description Another observed mechanism includes process-oriented interventions complemented with project conditions. Normally one of the characteristic elements of a process approach is openness. This mechanism shows that in some situations a process approach can be successful within specific project-oriented conditions. These interventions are observed in situations with high interdependence complexity and high uncertainty in methods, but defined goals. In these situations the process is designed to determine the appropriate method, while the defined goals function as the conditions. These processes are essentially designed to improve the quality of the project. These interventions often take place in a late stage of the project if the original method failed to achieve the project goals. For example if a developer failed to make an urban plan feasible (box 7-12). This creates a possibility for a process aimed at finding a new way to achieve the project goals. Requirements for success The project manager has a clear picture of the substantive project goals The project manager has the power to enforce the realization of these goals or all the stakeholders have already agreed to these goals. March 2010 86

By following the current practices and methods, the achievement of these project goals is under pressure A joint search for creative solutions and working methods can contribute to better results on the project goals. Box 7-12: Example of process-oriented intervention with project conditions Issue: A municipality has an implementation contract with a property developer for the redevelopment of a large shopping mall in combination with housing development. In this contract agreements are made about the planning of the development and the real estate program that will be developed. However, the property developer indicates that as a result of the economic crisis implementation of the preliminary design is financially not feasible. Objective: The municipality wants that the agreements as laid down in the contract are implemented. Intervention: The municipality lets the developer first recognize that they cannot fulfil their commitments. Afterwards they offer him space to adapt the plan, in consultation with other stakeholders, and make the plan feasible. However, adaptations are only possible within certain constraints. Thus guarantees the municipality that their main objectives remain intact. Result: Main result so far is that this intervention was a new opening for the stalled process. The substantial outcome is unknown because this process is still under way. However, it is expected that the developer would succeed in optimizing the urban plan within the municipal conditions and would be able to make the development feasible. Context: The project manager from the municipality imposes constraints on the developer and thereby constrains the process of redesigning. This is possible because the municipality has already certainty about their goals and moreover because these goals are set in an agreement with the developer. Explanation The explanation for the success of this mechanism is that it is in line with previous project developments. One of the key elements of a good process is openness. However, if properly coordinated with the major stakeholders, during the development it is possible to capture more and more substantial aspects of the development. Limiting the excessive openness of a process is thus no barrier to a good process but rather guaranteed by previous developments agreements. For the management of spatial development projects this means that capturing intermediate products of a process allows the applying of project conditions. Thereby a project manager can limit the openness of a process and enforce stricter control on the project. 7.5 Mutually allowing interventions This section elaborates on project-oriented interventions that are possible through the outcomes of an earlier process and on process-oriented interventions that are possible based on previous projectoriented results. The structure of this paragraph is shown in figure 7-4. During the interviews three different project-oriented intervention mechanisms are observed in this category and these mechanisms are discussed in section 7.5.1. The first two project-oriented interventions are based on a successful process. This means that during the process already a majority reached agreement (7.5.1.1) or March 2010 87

that process agreements are made (7.5.1.2). It is also possible that a project management intervention can be applied because a process has failed (7.5.1.3). Mirrored to these project-oriented mechanisms successful process-oriented interventions can occur as a result of project results. These mechanisms are discussed in 7.5.2. A successful control of scope or budget may lead to adaption of the scope or extension of the project (7.5.2.1). It is also conceivable that poor control of budget and planning leads to the decision that the ambitions of a project are reduced or that the project should stop completely (7.5.2.2). Figure 7-4: Structure paragraph 7.5 7.5.1 Project-oriented interventions based on process results 7.5.1.1 Project-oriented interventions on basis of process majority Description The first example is a project-oriented intervention on basis of a majority acquired in a process. This means that during a collaboration process a majority of the stakeholders reached agreement, but still a small number of opponents remains. If the majority is large enough, it is possible to use a projectoriented intervention and to command the remaining opponents. Due to the pressure of the majority, the last opponents will not oppose against the intervention. These interventions are mainly applied in situations where the interdependence complexity is high but the uncertainty of goals and the uncertainty of methods are decreasing. Agreement about the scope or methods is almost reached but convincing the latter opponents is a time consuming effort. Therefore this intervention mechanism is mostly aimed to speed up the process, for example by imposing a deadline (box 7-13). Thereby it is specifically applied to solve unexpected issues. Initially the March 2010 88

project manager tried to attain agreement in a process and only if this fails, the project management intervention is applied. This type of interventions is typically temporary and comprehensive. With a short intervention all involved stakeholders are brought into one line after which the project can move to the next phase. Box 7-13: Example project-oriented intervention on basis of a process majority Quote: Ik kon me een deadline veroorloven omdat de mensen al in de goede richting liepen Issue: The exploration phase of a large spatial development project had to move to an agreement about a key planning decision (Dutch: planologische kernbeslissing). For the process manager it was difficult to manage on speed. For the completion of this project phase never a deadline was settled. This made it possible for stakeholders to slow down the process in the hope that it could deliver higher profits later. Objective: The process manager wanted to increase the speed of the process. Intervention: The process manager arranged a meeting with the initiating authority, the ministry of Transport and explained that in the current situation he saw no possibility to reach agreement before the next elections. This was a big shock to the minister of Transport who expected good results. As a reaction she imposed a strict deadline on the process and demanded results before the next elections. Result: Shortly after this intervention an agreement is reached and all involved stakeholders sign a letter to state that they support the key planning decision. The deadline is effective; the speed of the process increased while there are no negative side-effects on budget, performance or support for the project. Context: This intervention was possible because already a majority of the stakeholders agreed about the preliminary plans. The pressure of this majority in combination with the deadline imposed from above was the right combination to gather support of all the stakeholders. Requirements for success The project manager has to clear objective to increase the speed of the project. The involved stakeholders invested in a process approach. The majority agrees with the concept appointments, uncertainty of goals is low. The last remaining opponents have no ability to block the process. Explanation The explanation for the success of this mechanism is the use of a critical mass. If a critical mass perceives advantages in achieving a specific goal, such as signing a contract or meeting a deadline, those parties will not accept that a minority is blocking this achievement. Therefore the initiative for the project-oriented intervention in this mechanism can be derived from the project manager, but he has no need to enforce the intervention. The intervention is pushed through by the critical mass itself. For the management of spatial development projects this means that a project manager does not have to focus on achieving full support for a plan but much earlier in gaining the support of a critical mass of stakeholders. This can be sufficient to attain objectives. March 2010 89

7.5.1.2 Project-oriented interventions based on process agreements Description In large projects the important stakeholders often make process agreements and thereby commit themselves to the process. With the process agreements stakeholders promise to undertake efforts for a positive process outcome. If the continuation of the process itself is in danger, the project manager can fall back on these process agreements and temporarily use project-oriented interventions to guarantee continuation of the project. This intervention mechanism is applied in situations with uncertainty in methods but clear goals. If the stakeholders failed to reach agreement about a successful method to realize the defined goals, it is possible for the project manager to impose a method. Thereby these interventions are specifically deep and temporary to increase the quality of the project. This intervention can only be applied expost if the stakeholders first tried to attain success with a process approach. Box 7-14: Example project-oriented intervention based on a process agreement Issue: A group of 5 different governmental bodies had to cooperate in the authorization of a large spatial development project. In a short time they had to formulate responses on the objections made against 13 permissions that were needed for the project. But the sense of urgency was missing. The authorities didn t cooperate well and this caused the risk that the process would face serious delays and that the quality of the responses would be poor. Objective: The project manager wanted to achieve that the authorities were going to cooperate and he wanted to increase the speed of formulating the responses on the presented objections. Intervention: The process manager composed a temporary project office and forced the 5 authorities to temporarily delegate their specialists for the current task to the project office. During a short period of time in this project office sufficient capacity and knowledge was gathered to formulate responses on the objections. Result: Because a large group of specialist was forced to work together on one location and they could devote all their time to this project, both the speed and the quality of the process increased enormously. Context: In the beginning of the development all stakeholders signed a management agreement in which they committed themselves to the process. Before he made this intervention, the process manager remembered the stakeholders on their promise to show their best efforts for this project. Also he confronted them with the moderate results so far. In particular the threat that it would be publicly known that these governments are not able to meet their promised commitment ensured that the stakeholders were willing to work with this intervention. Requirements for success A group of stakeholders has undertaken a process to achieve the project objectives. All involved stakeholders have committed to this process and should commit efforts to make the process successful. The stakeholders already formulated jointly agreed goals; the uncertainty in goals is low. Behaviour of one or more stakeholders threatens the achievement of these objectives. March 2010 90

Breaking the made process agreements has negative implications for the obstructive stakeholders. Explanation The explanation for the success of this mechanism is that stakeholders opt for the least of two evils. Stakeholders in a network situation are often not inclined to accept project management interventions. It reflects their loss of influence or freedom. However, in this case not accepting the intervention does present an even greater loss, namely the breaking of process agreements. This can cause the picture of this stakeholder as an unreliable partner. For the management of spatial development project this means that it can have major benefits to dispose a cooperative process of its permissiveness. By making process agreements a project manager can exert more control on the involved stakeholders. 7.5.1.3 Project-oriented interventions because process failed Description This mechanism can be applied if stakeholders had the possibility to cooperate but after a significant period of time the results of their cooperation are still insufficient. Despite of the process the actors did neither succeed in decreasing the uncertainty of goals or the uncertainty of methods. This failure of the process legitimizes that one of the stakeholders takes a leading role and switches to a projectoriented management style. Typically these interventions are aimed to increase the speed and/or to strengthen the quality of the preliminary project plans. The interventions can be qualified as intense and narrow, aimed at the group of stakeholders that failed to cooperate. Box 7-15: Example of a project-oriented interventions because process failed Quote: De managers doken teveel in de inhoudelijke details en waren te weinig bezig met tempo sturing en het binden van partijen Issue: During the development of a large spatial development project the cooperation between three governmental authorities is moderate. Stakeholders focus mainly at their own scope and responsibility and do not pay enough attention to collective interests. As a consequence the process slows down. Objective: Increase the speed of the process and meet a deadline for a allowance request Intervention: One of the governmental authorities adopted a new and much more active role. They chose for a project-oriented approach and started to manage the project on speed and substance. Result: The stakeholders were able to increase the speed of the process and meet an important deadline. Because they submitted a qualitative good plan before the deadline, the central government awarded a grant of several millions to the project Context: This intervention was possible because the process was facing a huge slowdown. The stakeholder that adopted a leading role was the only party able to keep overview over the project. Requirements for success There is invested in a process approach, but the results are disappointing. March 2010 91

As a result of the failing process, achieving preliminary project objectives in terms of time, money or quality is under pressure. As a result of the failed process, there is a high uncertainty of goals and methods. The project manager has the capacity, whether or not temporary, to take the lead in the project. Explanation The explanation of the success of this mechanism is the lack of legitimate resistance capabilities. If a collaboration process achieves clearly insufficient results, the legitimacy of the argument, that process management leads to better decision making process and that stakeholders should be extensively consulted in making decisions, expires. The failure of the process creates a breeding ground for a counter movement, which is project management. For the management of spatial development projects this means that a project manager should not have an exaggerated fear that a process approach harms the achievement of project goals. If the process fails, than a better opportunity arises for the project manager to use project management. 7.5.2 Process-oriented interventions based on project results 7.5.2.1 Process-oriented interventions based on project success Description Based on successful implementation of a project and the achievement of project objectives, processoriented interventions can be implemented. An example is that if it becomes clear that a project achieved good results; this could lead to an extension of the project or a raise of the quality aspirations. This process-oriented change in scope can ultimately increase the support for the project again. The example in box 7-16 shows a project manager who took advantage of positive economic circumstances to improve the quality of his project. Requirements for success The project manager identifies favourable conditions allowing timely realization of project goals that goes beyond expectations. The project manager perceives potential to further improve the project conditions and to further support the realization of project goals. Relevant stakeholders have an interest in achieving the original project objectives or achieve other benefits from the intervention. Explanation The explanation for the success of this mechanism is that stakeholders like to repeat successes. Success in achieving project objectives reflects on all involved stakeholders. These stakeholders would like to expand these profits and thereby assume that the positive development will continue. Stakeholders are therefore prepared to use the opportunity and to support adaptation of the plans. For the management of spatial development this means that project managers can try to exploit situations in which relevant stakeholders judge positively about the achieved results. This can be ideal times to restart processes and to improve the conditions for further performance. March 2010 92

Box 7-16: Example of process-oriented intervention based on project success Quote: Sommige mensen willen de oude plannen weer uit de kast halen. Maar we noemen de structuur met 3 eilanden nu de basiskwaliteit en daar gaan we niet aan tornen Issue: A great urban development location in the water was achieved by creating islands and polders. The so-called Port Island and Centre Island were tied together as a large polder in the original design. Objective: The project office would like the Centre Island to function as heart of the district. Therefore, the district should have a separate identity, spatially distinct from other districts and have a strong relationship with the surrounded water. Intervention: When the time was right and the economy prospered, the project office went with a revised plan to the council to change the design from a 2-island model to a 3-island model. This was risky, because the proposal lacked a financial foundation. Yet they went to the alderman and the city council asking for support for the new model to increase the spatial quality. Result: Politicians agreed fairly easily with this proposal and it had an incredible positive impact on the final quality. The polder structure is changed into an island and moreover the centre Island is placed separately from the other islands. In the current economic crisis some opponents want to restore the old plans. But the project manager defined the new structure with 3 islands as basic quality and is not willing to change this basic quality. Context: In the late nineties there was a period of economic prosperity. This brought windfalls for the project. It was customary that these profits could be used to achieve more quality in the project. The final decision to change the plan was taken in 2001, on top of the economy in a period where everything seemed possible. 7.5.2.2 Process-oriented interventions based on project failure Description Process-oriented interventions can also be applied if a project faces setbacks. For example the withdrawal of funders can lead to the situation in which the realization of the project within budget becomes impossible. In worst cases this leads to a complete standstill of the project or a permanent shut down of the project. The challenge for project managers is to recognize the failure to meet project objectives in an early phase. Then successful process-oriented interventions can be implemented. If the project manager can show that by adjusting the scope or working method the performance can be improved, many involved stakeholders might support this intervention. Box 7-17 shows an example of a project manager who deals creatively with a financial setback and succeeds in finding a new way to realize his project. Requirements for success The project manager points out timely that the achievement of project objectives is in danger. A creative approach to adapt the scope or working method offers opportunities to still achieve original project goals. Relevant stakeholders have an interest in meeting the original project objectives or achieve other benefits from the intervention. March 2010 93

Box 7-17: Example of process-oriented intervention based on project failure Issue: In a spatial development project three beaches had to be made in conjunction with an island for water sport. These beaches were paid with public funds but the island needed to be funded in a public-private partnership. But there was no developer who wanted to participate at risk. Objective: The challenge was to get the project done one way or another because the quality was desired Intervention: The project manager made a plan whereby the required sand for both the island and the beaches was delivered during a 1 time spraying. Also the reclamation of the island would be paid from public budgets. To enable the municipality to pay this, the realisation of facilities on the beaches was delayed. Result: The municipality accepted the revised plan and the beaches are completed. Also new plans are made for the establishment of facilities on the beaches. Because near the beach a new housing area will be developed, there is also more support to achieve facilities. Context: The project manager realized in an early stage that it was impossible to attract private investors for the project. By using creativity and his contact within the municipality, the project manager was able to find a viable solution. The municipality is convinced to support this plan by the picture that otherwise no island at all would be realized. Explanation The explanation for the success of this mechanism is the awareness that anything is better than doing nothing. If stakeholders are faced with the clear failure of a project, it becomes more logical to consider alternatives. The alternatives function as opportunities to turn losses into profits. For the management of spatial development projects this means that project managers should value failure to achieve project objectives not only as a problem but also as an opportunity. These conditions often provide opportunities to take a new direction. 7.6 Conclusions appropriate interventions In this chapter an overview is presented of different types and styles of intervention mechanisms. First a closer look is taken at pure project and process management interventions. Afterwards descriptions are given of intervention mechanisms that combine project and process management. On the basis of these descriptions an answer is formulated on the fourth sub-question: 4 Given a specific issue and context in spatial development projects, which interventions should be applied to increase the success of the overall project? According to the interviewed managers, they have the ability of several intervention opportunities whereby they can significantly influence the outcome of their projects. The success of these interventions depends for a significant proportion on the situation in which they are applied. Although this chapter seems to provide a clear answer to the fourth research question, the analysis and the used data also have some limitations. March 2010 94

Limitations of conceptual analysis During the analysis practical examples from observed projects are translated into a conceptual framework. Disadvantage is that thereby the complexity and diversity of reality are partially lost. Two examples illustrate this limitation of the analysis: In reality there is an enormous diversity of project situations. Therefore only applying the most appropriate intervention mechanism is not sufficient. A successful intervention should also contain elements that correspond to specific features of the project situation. A project cannot be managed by a framework, indeed the quality of the project manager to apply effective interventions in unique situations continues to be important. In the analysis there is little opportunity to draw attention on this aspect. The categorization of management approaches in project and process management is an artificial separation, based on theory. Although, in the context of this study, it is considered the best possible separation, sometimes the desire to classify all observed interventions into a format does not fit completely with the ambiguous reality. Some interventions are difficult to assess either as a project-oriented or a process-oriented intervention. In those cases translating practice into theory includes the risk that the definitions of project and process management are over-stretched. Also interventions are observed that can be classified in several categories because multiple mechanisms are combined. This shows that classifying the interventions into a schedule also includes inherent drawbacks. Limitations of interview data Also the collected data itself causes limitations for this research. The analysis is based on data obtained in interviews with project managers. They are asked about their perceptions of successful interventions that had a crucial impact on project results. As a consequence the obtained data might show a distorted picture. First, the data shows opinions and perceptions rather than facts. In the context of this research, it was impossible to control all the interview results among other stakeholders. The findings therefore only reflect the opinion of a group of experienced project managers. Second, it is expected that successful interventions are overrepresented because many of the respondents might prefer to talk about their successes. Therefore, based on these data in particular it can be concluded why interventions succeed, but it cannot be concluded why interventions fail. Third, there is possibility that the respondents overestimate their own role in the success and underestimate the role of the context. As a consequence the manageability of projects might be overestimated. It can be concluded that, although the knowledge and experience of project managers is considered the best information source for this research, this causes inherent drawbacks. This undermines the certainty of the formulated conclusions. Pure project and process management interventions A small part of the observed interventions are qualified as pure project management or pure process management interventions, fully consistent with the definitions used in this study. The pure project management interventions focus on achieving goals by controlling time, money and quality. Project managers have to look carefully in which situations the use of pure project management is still possible, because it is not appropriate for dealing with uncertainty. Project management March 2010 95

interventions are mainly applied in situations with hierarchical relations between stakeholders and in situations where interdependence complexity is low or absent. Also a project manager with a clear vision on the scope of the project is important for successful appliance of a pure project management intervention. The pure process management interventions focus at increasing acceptance, feasibility and support and this has become an indispensable element in realizing projects to deal with complexity and collaboration. This process approach is most appropriate in network environments with high interdependence complexity. Process management is also suitable in situations with uncertainty regarding the scope and in a dynamic context. Pure process management also has drawbacks because project managers emphasize it is a challenge to maintain progress despite a process approach. Project situations are often ambiguous, containing both elements that require project management and elements that require process management. Pure process and pure project management are less suitable in these situations. Intervention mechanisms Many project situations require for a combination of project and process management. Three types of intervention mechanisms are identified that combine project and process management. These mechanisms can be further divided into mirrored project-oriented interventions and process-oriented interventions. These intervention mechanisms could be applied in ambiguous project situations. It is striking that all these mechanisms, including the project-oriented interventions, are applied by project managers in a network environment, which is normally related to process management. The application of these mechanisms is briefly explained below: 1 Mutually reinforcing interventions Project-oriented interventions to support process objectives This mechanism is successful because these interventions create profit for involved stakeholders, and therefore they will support the intervention. There can be direct profit, if the interventions succeeds in meeting specific objectives of the stakeholder. But also indirect gains are possible if the intervention offers the potential of influence. Process-oriented interventions to support project objectives In specific situations a flexible attitude and changing made decisions are necessary to realize project objectives. Thereby this mechanism shows that processes can contribute to achieving project objectives. It is important that there is an incentive for stakeholders to invest in these processes. Therefore the process intervention must generate a profit or help to avoid certain losses for the involved stakeholders. 2 Mutually compensating interventions Project-oriented interventions complemented with process conditions This mechanism is successful because the process conditions compensate the adverse affects of a project management intervention and thereby avoids objections. In applying this intervention the project manager offers the stakeholders a combination of profit and loss and this makes the intervention acceptable. March 2010 96

Process-oriented interventions complemented with project conditions This mechanism can be successfully applied when the project conditions do result from previous processes and thereby are accepted by all stakeholders. Capturing intermediate products of a process allows the project manager to apply project conditions, and thereby compensates excessive openness of a process approach. 3 Mutually allowing interventions Project-oriented interventions based on process results The success of this mechanism is that, due to an earlier process, it becomes unattractive to protest against a project-oriented intervention. Both failure and success of a process approach can provide reference points for a project manager to apply project management interventions. Process-oriented interventions based on project results Both achieving project success and large setbacks can provide conditions for the successful appliance of process-oriented interventions. In these situations, stakeholders are willing to invest in processes to further expand the profits or to diminish the expected losses of the project. Influence of issues The type of management issues influences which type and style of interventions could successfully be applied. The most remarkable influences of issues are: To accelerate the project, project management interventions are the most appropriate. If a project manager applies an intervention related to the project organization, this often needs lengthy attention. Interventions related to the project organization often last long. If a project manager wants to improve the project quality, the diverse options at this point should be carefully considered, because often quality improvements are at the expense of speed and budget. It is concluded that for many problems both project-oriented and process-oriented interventions can be a successful approach. In those cases the context of the project as a whole is of more importance than the specific issue. Influence of project context The project phase influences the required proportion of project and process management. The proportion of process management interventions is reducing during the project, but most of the crucial interventions remain of process-oriented nature, even during the realisation phase. Together with the progress of the project, the focus of the project manager is changing. The involvement of stakeholders primarily takes place during the exploration phase. Building support is at place in the planning phase, while interventions to control the budget are observed mainly in the implementation phase. The presence of different components of complexity has a significant impact on the interventions that can be applied. If project complexity is higher, the situation is more suitable for process management. In situations with low project complexity, project management interventions can be applied. However, complexity is often not high or low, but varies depending on the dimension of complexity. The described intervention mechanisms show that a specific form of complexity requires a specific intervention mechanism. And these mechanisms are not clearly project-oriented or process-oriented but are a combination of both. March 2010 97

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8 Conclusions and recommendations 8.1 Introduction Successful achievement of complex spatial development projects is a challenge for project managers. Both project management and process management are required to successfully complete these projects. A framework that shows how both management approaches should be combined is not available in literature. This is a relevant gap in the scientific literature, because an overview of available management interventions and the situations in which they are applicable could support project managers in their work. This leads to the following research objective: Box 8-1: Research objective Develop a scientifically based framework that presents a categorised and extensive overview of project and process management interventions to project managers. This framework should support managers to successfully apply these managerial interventions in the management of infrastructure and urban development projects. In order to realize this objective a research question is defined and divided into four sub-questions. Literature research is performed and interviews are conducted to answer these sub-questions. In this chapter first the conclusions by sub-question are presented (paragraph 8.2). Second an answer on the main research question is formulated (paragraph 8.3). Third the scientific value of these results is discussed (paragraph 8.4). Finally recommendations are formulated to improve the management of spatial development projects (paragraph 8.5). 8.2 Answers on the sub-questions 8.2.1 Question 1: Management interventions The first sub question is: 1 Which project management and process management interventions can be applied by project managers? Interventions are conscious interferences of a project manager, aimed to change the current project situation. Project and process management are constructed of managerial interventions. Therefore the identification of interventions provides a further operationalization of these management approaches. Managers of spatial development projects have the availability of a large range of managerial interventions. These can be divided in seven subjects: 1 Scope / quality 2 Cost / budget 3 Planning 4 Project organization 5 Stakeholder involvement 6 Stakeholder management 7 Conflict management March 2010 99

Distinctive interventions Based on the literature study, 60 different interventions opportunities are listed, divided over the subjects mentioned above. For all these 60 opportunities a pure project management approach and a pure process management approach are defined 1. In the interviews, interventions are discussed with a decisive influence on the project results. These interventions are defined as crucial interventions. Among the 77 discussed crucial interventions, 20 distinctive intervention opportunities are observed. These 20 interventions were not always applied following a pure project-oriented or a pure process-oriented approach. Instead many interventions were applied between these two extremes. The 20 crucial intervention opportunities for a project manager in a spatial development project are listed in table 8-1. Table 8-1: The 20 crucial intervention opportunities Interventions related to scope / design Intervention option Pure process-oriented approach Pure project-oriented approach Determination of scope Offer flexibility in scope, support problem shifting Freeze scope during project, assume stable problem Range of scope Broaden the project, search for multiissue coupling Focus at one single issue, unravel in small solvable problems Basis of design Design along a general vision Design along clear constraints and on basis strict problem solution Quality control Focus on acceptation and feasibility Focus on technological and spatial quality Interventions related to planning Intervention option Pure process-oriented approach Pure project-oriented approach Flexibility Use a flexible planning to handle an irregular sequence of process rounds Operate a stringent planning with a regular sequence of project phases Dealing with delays Temporarily set issues aside Increase time pressure, give priority to certain aspects Interventions related to cost Intervention option Pure process-oriented approach Pure project-oriented approach Financing structure Search possibilities for public-private Stand alone financing partnership Interventions related to the project organisation Intervention option Pure process-oriented approach Pure project-oriented approach Position of manager Employ an independent manager; Facilitating and coordinating role Employ a manager with a substantial vision and a steering role Hierarchy / structure Create horizontal relations in organization, focused on process Create hierarchical relations in an organization, focused at the scope Division of tasks Offer freedom to operate in an organization Define stringent and clear tasks for team members 1 These interventions can be found in the tables 3-1 to 3-8. March 2010 100

Interventions related to stakeholder involvement Intervention option Pure process-oriented approach Pure project-oriented approach Local actors Involve local intelligence Exclude local unpredictability Public vs. private Involve private stakeholders to connect public and private interests Avoid conflict between public and private interests Commitment Ask for commitment on process Ask for commitment on result Interventions related to stakeholder management Intervention option Pure process-oriented approach Pure project-oriented approach Dealing with regulation Informal organization of process, effectively breaking the rules Formal organization of project, the royal way Substantial knowledge Joint fact finding to establish negotiated knowledge Every actor responsible for own knowledge position Influencing actors Indirect steering, external stimuli Direct steering from manager Dealing with politics Prepare for political dynamics, constant search for commitment Assume political support as stable, external factor Communication Pro active, search for exposure Passive and limited communication Interventions related to conflict management Intervention option Pure process-oriented approach Pure project-oriented approach Planning of conflict Organize conflict deep in the process, try to postpone conflicts Start project with focusing on main problems and conflicts Framing conflict Frame conflicts as solvable dilemma s, exploit opportunities Focus on substantial differences, try to diminish losses Categorization of interventions Examples of the 20 selected crucial interventions options contain significant differences. It appears that the identity of an intervention is dependent on the project manager and the project in which it is applied. To make a further distinction between interventions, they are categorized based on three important criteria, for which substantial differences between individual interventions are observable. The first criterion is intensity, qualifying the depth of an intervention on a sliding scale between superficial and deep. This criterion focuses on how intense an intervention interferes in the behaviour of the stakeholders or how intense an intervention interferes in the operation of a system or project. The second criterion is dimension, qualifying the intervention width varying between narrow interventions and comprehensive interventions. This criterion describes the number of stakeholders that are affected by an intervention. The third criterion is the duration, qualifying the intervention length on a gliding scale between temporary measures and constant measures. This criterion focuses on the length of the period in which the intervention takes place. 8.2.2 Question 2: Complexity and management issues Interventions are a reaction on a specific issue and applied within a certain context determined by complexity. Therefore the second sub-question is: March 2010 101

2 Which types of complexity and issues do project managers face during spatial development projects? 8.2.2.1 Complexity The context in which project managers operate is characterized by project complexity existing of the following four components: Size complexity, related to the number of parts, such as stakeholders or sub-projects. Interdependence complexity, related to the interdependencies between these parts. Uncertainty in goals, which means objectives or scope of the project are uncertain. Uncertainty in methods, which means there is uncertainty on how project goals will be achieved. Complexity is present in several dimensions. Important dimensions of complexity are the technological dimension and the social dimension. The presence of the various components and dimensions of project complexity varies for each project and for each phase of a project. The interviews provided examples of the major dimensions of complexity, as experienced by project managers. Technical complexity is relatively low in the end phase of urban development projects, because inferior quality of sub-projects only has limited impact on the functioning of the whole product. This distinguishes urban development from other large engineering projects where small problems in sub-projects, can have a major impact on performance of the whole product. The social complexity in spatial development projects is high, this is mainly caused by political involvement. In both infrastructure and urban development projects the involvement of various governmental levels is greatly complicating. Often three to four levels of the government are involved, such as a municipality, an urban region, the province and the national government. Moreover, within these governmental levels often multiple stakeholders are involved, for example several municipalities or several departments of the national government. Significant differences are observed between urban development and infrastructure projects related to financial complexity. Financial complexity of urban development projects is high because earnings are vulnerable to market developments. Infrastructure projects are mainly funded by the government which causes a lower level of uncertainty of benefits. By contrast, even urban development project which are already in the realisation phase can be heavily affected by an economic crisis. Revenues from land sales and home sales might fall strongly in these situations. 8.2.2.2 Management issues In spatial development projects many different issues might occur and give cause to an intervention. An important distinction among the issues can be made between risks and uncertain events. In the case of a risk, the probability of the issue can be determined and a project manager can take action on forehand. In the case of an uncertain event, the issue is unpredictable and project managers have to react after the event. Based on the interviews practical examples of important issues are described: Achieving the high ambitions with respect to spatial quality is one of the major issues for project managers in spatial development projects. For urban development projects it can be difficult to measure quality because subjective elements play an important role and the question whether a project contributes to the quality of the environment is difficult to answer. The realization of the project within the defined planning is as perceived even more important in infrastructure projects compared to urban development projects. Although still important, in ur- March 2010 102

ban development projects the planning is often reviewed as a derivative of the desired quality and the financial capabilities. This is in contrast with the realization of infrastructure projects where planning is usually one of the most important criteria. Not only should infrastructure capacity be increased on short notice, moreover there is a great political pressure to deliver infrastructure projects on time. Project managers especially perceive increasing the speed of the planning phase as one of the biggest challenges, because during the planning phase decision making procedures are restrictive to making progress. Unexpected political interventions can significantly disrupt the progress of a project. Therefore reaching agreement with all involved governmental stakeholders and strengthening their commitment, is one of the major issues for project managers. However, the challenges in achieving support and acceptation are not limited to dealing with politics. Many spatial development projects face a strong interest from society. Also dealing with residents, interest groups and the media are crucial elements. Involving and informing the appropriate stakeholders is qualified as one of the key issues for many project managers. 8.2.3 Question 3: Possibilities and limitations Managing issues in spatial development projects requires a combination of project and process management interventions. Therefore the third sub question is: 3 What are the possibilities and limitations in combining project and process management interventions? The different assumptions behind project and process management cause intrinsic discrepancies and limitations for the combined appliance of both approaches. Project management is based on control and reducing complexity, while process management is based on flexibility and coping with complexity. As a consequence of these discrepancies, applying a project management intervention can have negative consequences for the possibility to apply a process management intervention. And conversely, process management interventions can also raise a blockade for subsequent project management interventions. Despite of these discrepancies, there are several possibilities to combine project and process management. The relationship between project and process management varies between projects due to project specific characteristics and circumstances. A more complex and innovative project scope or more dynamic project environment requires a larger share of process management. Complex environments with many interdependencies are generally better suited for a process management approach. In complex environments the demand for project and process management is subject to greater and stronger fluctuations. The behaviour and habits of the project manager and project partners also influence the share of project and process management. Stakeholders in spatial development projects often have a preference for a specific management approach. People might have a strong tendency to address problems with project management, while others are used to a process-oriented approach. Personal preferences and habits affect the way project and process management are applied. Project managers consider the chart in figure 8-1 the best visualisation of the relationship between project and process management in spatial development projects. The chart shows that the quantitative share of process management is declining during the project but a small amount of process management remains required. The decrease of process management is experienced to be capricious, which means that the decrease is interrupted by a temporary renewed attention for the process. This March 2010 103

renewed attention for process management is visualized by peaks in the graph. The process management peaks in the chart indicate two different events, which are discussed below. Figure 8-1: The development of the proportion of project and process management First, a peak can indicate an important decision. In the phase previous of decision making, process management plays an important role. Together with stakeholders discussions take place to increase support for a specific choice. This causes a peak in the share of process management. After the decision is made, specific issues are settled and can be transferred from the process-oriented approach to the project-oriented approach. This explains why the graph shows a valley after the decision has been made. A second explanation for the peaks in the graph is the emergence of unexpected issues. In order to resolve problems, often additional process management is needed. This could mean that designs need to be adjusted or new discussions with stakeholders have to take place. If the issue is solved, project management obtains greater prominence and the graph changes again from a peak to a valley. The capricious graph indicates that project managers should be able to switch between different approaches because at one moment a project management intervention is required, but shortly thereafter a process approach might be desirable. 8.2.4 Question 4: Appropriate interventions Answers on the first three questions form the basis for answering the fourth sub question: 4 Given a specific issue and context in spatial development projects, which interventions should be applied to increase the success of the overall project? To increase project success, project managers can use specific intervention mechanisms that combine project and process management. Before explaining how and when these mechanisms should be applied, the following observations must be taken into consideration: In pure project-oriented situations and pure process-oriented situations it is relatively easy for project managers to choose an appropriate intervention. But most interventions with a decisive influence on the success of projects are applied in situations that require both project and process management. Therefore this paragraph focuses on intervention mechanisms that combine project and process management. An overview of the observed intervention mechanisms is shown in Figure 8-2. Interventions are applicable in various situations and the diversity of projects situations is enormous. Therefore no framework is created which links interventions to exact project situations. In- March 2010 104

stead a number of demands is formulated. A situation must at least meet these demands to apply an intervention mechanism successful. There is a certain tension between the ambiguous reality of managing complex projects and the desire to classify all observed interventions in a format with intervention mechanisms. Most interventions that are observed during the interviews can be classified in the schedule shown in figure 8-2. However, there are interventions that do not fit in this scheme and are hard to label without overstretching the concepts of project and process management. Also interventions are observed that can be classified in several categories because multiple mechanisms are combined. This shows that classifying the interventions into a schedule also includes inherent drawbacks. Project managers emphasize that it is crucial for project success to apply unique interventions. Therefore the description of the interventions does not focus on the content but rather on the mechanism whereby project and process management are combined. The content of on intervention may indeed be unique, but the mechanism is applicable in several situations. Figure 8-2: overview of different intervention mechanisms 8.2.4.1 Pure interventions Pure interventions are process management interventions and project management interventions that are completely consistent with the used definitions of these approaches. These pure interventions are also applied in a situation completely in line with this management style. Pure project management To successfully apply pure project management interventions, interdependence complexity should be absent or limited. This applies specifically to the social interdependencies. Also the uncertainty of goals is absent or low. This does not mean that the final product of the project is always completely March 2010 105

defined. In these situations the project manager has a clear objective, but this can also be the delivery of an interim product. The pure project management interventions are more often observed in the realization phase, since more information about goals and methodology of the project is available at that time. In the current network society usually stakeholders have to work together to achieve their goals, which means social interdependence complexity is ubiquitous. Situations without interdependence complexity are mainly observed in the project organization. In those situations the project manager still has options to enforce measures based on hierarchy. Pure project management interventions are therefore mainly used for organizational issues which could include the establishment or the change of the organizational structure. Summarizing, pure project management interventions should be applied in situations where the project manager has a clear vision, the power to enforce this vision and a stable environment with limited complexity. Pure process management Pure process management is mainly applied in a network environment with high interdependence complexity. Interdependence complexity is mainly present in the social dimension, which means that different stakeholders are interdependent and need to cooperate to reach their goals. Pure process management interventions are mainly applied in situations when both the uncertainty in goals and the uncertainty in methods are high. In these cases, cooperation with stakeholders is important to determine a scope of the project which has broad support. Therefore process management interventions are suitable for the exploration and planning phase of a project when the scope is still discussable. During the realisation phase the uncertainty of goals is often lower, but uncertainty of methods is still present in a significant number of situations. In those cases process management interventions can be applied to determine a method of realisation which is supported by the stakeholders. Process management interventions are often applied as response to a lack of support or a poor relationship between stakeholders. Summarizing, pure process management interventions should be applied in situations where the exact problem or scope still has to be defined by involved stakeholders. The project is under constant influence of high complexity. 8.2.4.2 Mutually reinforcing interventions The first mechanism to combine project and process management is by applying mutually reinforcing interventions. These are project-oriented interventions that contribute to the objectives of process management and process-oriented interventions that contribute to the achievement of project goals. Two types of project-oriented interventions contributing to process goals are observed: 1 Project-oriented interventions to drive on the process. In this mechanism appliance of project management interventions is used as a threat to stakeholders. As a consequence investing in a process offers those stakeholders opportunities for profit. Thereby a project management intervention functions as a means to start a process 2 Project-oriented interventions to increase support and commitment. This mechanism shows that if the project manager is well informed of the wishes of stakeholders, it might be possible to use pro- March 2010 106

ject management to meet these requirements and thereby increase support. This mechanism is particularly effective because success is often measured by the realization within time and budget. Three types of process-oriented interventions contributing to project goals are observed: 1 Process-oriented interventions to support quality control. 2 Process-oriented interventions to support planning control 3 Process-oriented interventions to support budget control What are the possibilities of applying these process-oriented interventions to support the project? If stakeholders are interested in improving the performance in relation to the project parameters, they are willing to invest in a process to achieve these goals. Thereby a process approach is used to adapt plans or procedures and to achieve better results. When following a process approach support remains available to the changes that are made in the original plans. 8.2.4.3 Mutually compensating interventions The second mechanism to combine project and process management is by applying mutually compensating interventions. These are project-oriented interventions complemented with process conditions and process-oriented interventions complemented with project conditions. With these conditions the potential negative effects of the intervention are compensated. Three types of project-oriented interventions complemented with process conditions are observed: 1 Project-oriented interventions in combination with providing process-space. 2 Project-oriented interventions with a fallback process option. 3 Project-oriented interventions to control procedures. What are the possibilities for applying these interventions? Good process conditions ensure that protests against a unilateral project management intervention are avoided. The conditions are thus a compensation and may include providing extra process space, taking stakeholders core values into account by maintaining a fallback option or indirectly influencing the content through procedures. As consequence of the process-oriented addition, stakeholders are also offered an opportunity for profit and therefore opposition to the intervention becomes unattractive. Mirrored to these project mechanisms, also process-oriented interventions can also successfully be implemented when complemented with project conditions. These process-oriented interventions are suitable for situations where the project has clear substantive goals and these goals can either be enforced or all the stakeholders have already agreed on these goals. By capturing intermediate results of processes a project manager can demarcate the process space with project conditions. By seeking commitment on interim results, openness diminishes faster and the project manager can increase control over the project. 8.2.4.4 Mutually allowing interventions The third mechanism to combine project and process management is by applying mutually allowing interventions. These are project-oriented interventions that are possible through the outcomes of an earlier process and process-oriented interventions that are possible by the results of previous project phases. Three types of project-oriented interventions based on process results are observed: 1 Project-oriented interventions based on a process majority. 2 Project-oriented interventions based on process agreements 3 Project-oriented interventions because a process failed. March 2010 107

What are the possibilities for applying these interventions? First, a project manager can focus on achieving support of a critical mass of stakeholders and apply project management interventions based on this majority. Second, process agreements can form a basis to effectively apply project management interventions if stakeholders do not respect these agreements. Third, the failure of earlier processes can legitimize the use of project management interventions. Two types of process-oriented interventions based on project results are observed: 1 Process-oriented interventions based on project success 2 Process-oriented interventions based on project failure. What are the possibilities for applying these interventions? Satisfying project results may lead to processes in which the conditions for performance can be further improved, because stakeholders want to further increase these profits. Failure to achieve project goals is also an opportunity to start a process approach and to adapt current plans, because stakeholders want to prevent further losses. 8.3 Answer main research question Based on the sub-questions an answer is formulated to the main question of this study: How can managers of spatial development projects, given the context and management issues in these developments, properly apply project-oriented and process-oriented interventions and by that increase the success of their management? Project managers can increase their success by applying interventions that match the context and specific problems of their project. Because the context and issues are constantly changing and are different for each project, project managers should be able to apply new and unique interventions. Some findings from this study may be of added value in this challenge. Project managers have the availability of a range of intervention opportunities to steer their project and achieve change in a project situation. In empirical research 20 distinctive intervention opportunities are observed whereby managers achieved a crucial impact on project results. Therefore project managers are expected to achieve the greatest impact on their projects, if they focus on these opportunities. The appliance of an intervention, related to these opportunities, can vary between a pure process management approach and a pure project management approach. Recognizing the elements that determine if a project situation requires project management or process management is expected to increase management success. The objective to realize a defined scope within time and budget, a hierarchical power position, a stable environment and limited complexity are elements that require the appliance of project management. The objective to increase the support and feasibility of a discussable scope, cooperation with interdependent stakeholders, a dynamic environment and high complexity are elements that require the appliance of process management. Hardly ever all these elements are combined in one specific project situation. Therefore a project situation is almost never purely suited for project management or purely suited for process management. Instead, most project situations contain a mix of these elements. This means that in those situations interventions also have to combine aspects of project and process management. Several mechanisms to combine project and process management in interventions are observed during empirical research. Depending on the project characteristics, project managers should choose one of these mechanisms and give a substantive meaning to it. Applying these combining mechanisms is required to intervene successfully in ambiguous project situations. March 2010 108

Project situations are difficult to conceptualize, because different components and dimensions of complexity are present and because these situations can change rapidly. Moreover, a large diversity of possible project situations exists. As project managers stated, this makes it difficult to determine the most appropriate intervention. However, conditions can be created to support the choice of an appropriate intervention as much as possible. To make the best possible choice for an intervention the project manager and the project organization should posses: A good analytical ability to assess the presence of various components of project complexity. The degree of complexity is crucial to the success of an intervention and should therefore properly be investigated. Knowledge about elements that determine if a situation requires a project management or a process management approach. Characteristics of a project that require a pure project management or a pure process management approach can be found in literature and are discussed in this report. Knowledge on combining project and process management in intervention mechanisms. Applying these mechanisms is absolutely required to manage situations which contain both elements that require project management and elements that require process management. The quality to create and apply effective interventions that are appropriate to deal with unique situations which emerge in spatial development projects. This report has described particular types of interventions and intervention mechanisms. The actual content of these interventions should depend on the specific characteristics of a project. Project managers should posses the quality to make these intervention mechanisms applicable for their projects. 8.4 Discussion research results In previous paragraphs an answer is formulated on the sub-questions and the main question of this research. In this paragraph the results are discussed in relation to the scientific context. First an overview is presented of the findings based on the available scientific literature and the empirical research. A consideration is made how these empirical results can contribute to improving the existing scientific literature. 8.4.1 Theoretical findings As part of this research scientific literature on project and process management is studied. The findings based on this literature are listed in this section. Process management is a relatively new topic in the scientific literature. Only recently literature concludes that project and process management approaches are both required for the successful management of complex spatial development projects. Nevertheless, literature on project and process management are still relatively separate worlds, little attention is paid to the challenge to combine them. Project managers in spatial development projects are confronted with a wide range of issues that require an intervention. Literature suggests that the most appropriate intervention or most appropriate management approach is hereby for a significant part depended on the context of the project. It is recognized that different projects require different approaches. Several authors suggest that project management is most suited in situations with a demarcated and definite scope, a stable context and hierarchical relations between involved actors. On the other hand process management is expected to March 2010 109

be most appropriate in situations with a dynamic and discussable scope, high external dynamics and mutual interdependent actors. Literature on intervention management is also studied which describes that interventions are aimed to achieve change within a specific situation. Because new circumstances and situations might require a new management approach, it can be concluded that interventions affect the potential appliance of new interventions. Recently, several theories have been proposed to describe the relationship between project and process management in large projects. Based on this literature, different hypotheses are formulated for the required proportion of project and process management over time. However, there is not yet a generally accepted framework that describes the appropriate combination of project and process management. The scientific debate is still in development at this point. 8.4.2 Empirical findings In addition to the theoretical research, interviews are conducted. The main empirical findings based on these interviews are listed in this section. In accordance with the studied literature, project managers also widely acknowledge that a combination of project and process management is required to realize complex spatial development projects. It appeared that existing research has not yet led to a clear picture of process management among project managers. The image and concept of process management is still in development. All respondents use and recognize a uniform definition of project management; however the concept of process management is described in various ways. There are different opinions on the degree of openness that should be associated with process management. These different opinions could make it difficult for project managers to exchange experiences and to evaluate their management approaches. The use of a uniform definition is desirable to support the development of the scientific debate. As in the literature, project managers also have various views on the relationship between project and process management over time. Many of the respondents emphasize that the role of process management is experienced to be large at the beginning of a project, but during the project the share of process management decreases in favour of project management. Project managers associate the reduction of process management with a frequent temporary renewed attention for the process. In the preparation of decisions or in response to unexpected problems, process management is experienced to keep playing a crucial role, also in later stages of the project. It should be noted that this research collected perceptions of the project managers. Therefore it is possible the described relationship between both management approaches partly reflects the vision of the respondents, and is not completely in line with reality. It is possible that in reality the required amount of process management remains high till completion. The theoretical descriptions of situations suited for project management and situations suited for process management are confirmed by the empirical research. However, only a small amount of the project situations, as discussed with project managers, are suited to a pure process management or a pure project management approach. The empirical research reveals that many project situations are ambiguous and include a combination of project-oriented and process-oriented elements. Project managers seem to be able to handle these ambiguous situations and. According to their own perception, they posses the ability to apply effective interventions in these situations. A large share of the observed interventions contains a combination of project and process management. Project man- March 2010 110

agers combine elements from project and process management to increase the success of their projects. Several combining mechanisms that are observed are already extensively described in previous sections of this report. It is important to notice that not all project managers seem to be aware of the intervention mechanisms they apply. This is partly explained by the fact that these interventions are mainly based on personal views and experiences and not supported by a scientific basis. 8.4.3 Contribution to scientific literature Besides providing practical support to project managers, this research also aims to provide a relevant scientific contribution. This section discusses the elements of this research that can support the development of the existing literature on project and process management. Scientific relevance There still is limited scientific literature on combining project and process management but the empirical research shows that in practice project and process management are combined regularly. Interviewed project managers explain that they try to connect hard, project-oriented elements and soft, process-oriented elements into their management approach. A part of the project managers seems to be able to naturally combine project and process management. However, as was expected before this study, they often combine those approaches intuitional and not based on a theoretical foundation. The lack of a scientific justification or an explanatory framework complicates the ability to reflect and learn from these interventions. This observation demonstrates that there is a scientific relevance to further describe the combination of project and process management. Thereby first contribution of this research is a new confirmation that there is a relevant gap in the scientific literature. Combinations on two levels Besides demonstrating the scientific relevance, this study also tries to connect the separate worlds of project and process management. Small building blocks for the improvement of scientific theory are formulated at two levels. Links are established between project and process management at the project level and at the level of interventions. Connecting management approaches on project level At the project level, this research provides two possible contributions to the existing literature. First, the research describes how project managers perceive they can switch between project and process management. Second, the research describes how the required amount of both management approaches develops over time in complex spatial development projects. At the project level project managers perceive two types of events causing a switch between project and process management. These are decision-making processes and unexpected events. In the phase of decision-making, managers temporarily give most attention to process management and afterwards switch to a project-oriented approach during implementation. Unexpected events require the temporary suspension of a project-oriented approach. Project managers switch to a process-oriented approach to deal with these events. This leads to a temporary peak in the proportion of process management. March 2010 111

During a project, more and more aspects are tightly defined and therefore the required amount of project management grows over time. Nevertheless, managers experience that decision-making and unexpected issues temporary keep requiring additional process management. It is concluded that a proportion of both approaches is required throughout the whole project. These findings contribute to a number of issues in the scientific debate. It is shown that managers allocate specific roles to project and process management, but do not perceive these roles independent of each other. In contrast, according to their own experience, they are able to switch between both approaches when necessary. Thereby this research provides reasoned descriptions of linkages that can bring the separate worlds of project and process management closer together. Connecting management approaches on intervention level In addition to the combination of the two management approaches at the project level, next challenge is to interweave project and process management also on a lower scale, namely at the intervention level. First, this research demonstrates that making this connection is important, because a combination of project-oriented and process-oriented elements is required to intervene effectively in ambiguous project situations. Second, this research observed many interventions whereby managers actually succeeded to make this connection. Project managers perceive both management approaches as mutually reinforcing elements and appear to apply synergistic combinations. A contribution to the scientific debate is made by providing a conceptual description of three types of combining intervention mechanisms. Three conceptual mechanisms are introduced, namely mutually reinforcing, mutually compensating and mutually allowing interventions. These concepts indicate how project and process management can be linked and can influence each other on the interventions level. These descriptions are a clear opportunity to reflect on successful interventions and the benefits of combining project and process management. Moreover, these mechanisms show that in practice the separate worlds of project and process management are not only combined, but even reinforce each other. This may contribute to further research into the synergy between project and process management approaches. 8.5 Recommendations Based on the conclusions, three recommendations are formulated to support managers of complex spatial development projects. 8.5.1 Windows of opportunity The success of interventions is depended on the context in which they are applied. The period of time in which a suitable intervention can achieve success is called a window of opportunity. These opportunities seem to be rare and brief and therefore they should be recognized in time. It is important to pay sufficient attention to the context, because windows of opportunity are not easy to recognize. It is important to realize that windows of opportunity that give rise to a process management intervention differ from windows of opportunity that allow project management interventions. Process management interventions require cooperation. Therefore involved stakeholders should actively support an intervention and be willing to cooperate. Important in obtaining active support is a March 2010 112

sense of urgency among these stakeholders. Urgency may arise by dissatisfaction with the current situation or by the prospect of increased profits. Project managers can try to contribute to this urgency by making stakeholders aware of possible changes and the associated benefits. Project management interventions are applied by the project manager and his organization. Therefore mainly passive support from the involved stakeholders is required, which means resistance against an intervention should be avoided. Resistance can be avoided if the intervention provides a prospect of profit or if the legitimacy of resistance is low. The legitimacy of resistance can be low as a consequence of previously made agreements or because the failure of a process approach. It is recommended to use windows of opportunity, to successfully apply interventions A shared sense of urgency is required to apply process management interventions The lack of potential resistance is required to apply project management interventions 8.5.2 Connect project and process management Project situations contain both elements that require process management and elements that require project management. These elements often appear simultaneously and cause ambiguous project situations. To successfully intervene in these situations, project managers should not make a strict distinction between project management and process management. Instead, to intervene successfully in these ambiguous situations, interventions should contain a combination of project and process management. It is recommended to weave project and process management together in an individual intervention or in a series of linked interventions. Connections between project and process management can be applied in various forms, as is explained in paragraph 8.5.3. In ambiguous project situations, it is recommended to apply interventions that combine project and process management. 8.5.3 Combining intervention mechanisms In the previous recommendation, the need to combine project and process management is explained. How should these approaches be combined in interventions? As stated, an intervention must fit its context and this also applies to the way project and process management should be combined. There is not one ideal method to interweave project and process management in an intervention. However, there are three intervention mechanisms that successfully combine project and process management. It is recommended that project managers apply the following three intervention mechanisms: 1 Contribute to unexpected objectives The first mechanism whereby project and process management can be combined, is by contributing to the achievement of each other s objectives. Project management should not only be used for the realization of project-oriented goals, but it is also an approach to contribute to the achievement of process-oriented goals, such as increasing support. Conversely, process management should not only be used for the achievement of process-oriented goals. Process management is also an approach to contribute to the achievement of project-oriented goals, such as realization of the project within time or March 2010 113

budget. Through this mechanism project and process management can act as mutually reinforcing management approaches It is recommended to apply project and process management as reinforcing approaches Project management interventions should be applied to contribute to process-oriented goals Process management interventions should be applied to contribute to project-oriented goals 2 Compensate adverse effects The second mechanism whereby project and process management interventions can be combined is by compensating each others adverse or negative effects. Project management interventions could raise resistance among other stakeholders. Process management interventions can cause excessive openness and thereby increase uncertainty in relation to scope, schedule or budget. It is recommended to compensate these negative impacts by combining project and process management. Project management interventions that are complemented with process conditions can avoid resistance. Process management interventions that are complemented with project conditions can decrease uncertainty and excessive openness. Through this mechanism project and process management can act as mutually compensating management approaches It is recommended to apply project and process management as mutually compensating interventions: Project-oriented conditions can compensate negative effects of process management Process-oriented conditions can compensate negative effects of project management 3 Utilize each others results The third mechanism whereby project and process management can be combined is by utilizing each others results. By appointing and utilizing the achievements related to project-oriented objectives, a situation can be created which allows the appliance of a process management intervention. Conversely also the results of performed process management can be used to create conditions that allow the successful appliance of a project management intervention. Through this mechanism project and process management can act as mutually allowing management approaches, providing incentives for each other s application. It is recommended to apply project and process management as mutually allowing interventions: Process-oriented results can be used as an opportunity for project management interventions Project-oriented results can be used as an opportunity for process management interventions March 2010 114

9 Epilogue This final chapter is a reflection on the implementation and results of the research. First, in paragraph 9.1 critical remarks are made on the investigation. In addition to this paragraph 9.2 provides opportunities for further research on this topic. The epilogue is ended in paragraph 9.3 with a personal reflection of the author. Here the lessons learned from this study are compared to other experiences that the author has gained during his studies at the faculty of TPM. 9.1 Comments on research To determine the value of this research and the conclusions in this paragraph comments are made on this investigation. The paragraph does focus on both the research method and the substance of this research. 9.1.1 Comments on the research method The quality of a research can be assessed by looking at the reliability and validity (Van Aken et al, 2007). These two aspects will be discussed in this section. 9.1.1.1 Reliability The reliability of empirical research is depended on the consistency and replicability of the methods, conditions and results of the study. Replicability means that it is possible to determine how a study is conducted, so that a repetition of the research provides the same results. This study includes a research design, in which the selection of the research methods is explained. The selection of interview respondents is shown in this report. Finally, a bibliography and a list of interviewees are included. This information increases the reliability of the research. However, there are aspects that make the replicability of the research difficult. First, the data obtained in the interviews is influenced by the researcher. Although a fixed questionnaire has been used, the researcher had the possibility to ask additional questions based on the answers of the respondents. These additional questions are not put on paper. Second, the replies of the respondents are partly influenced by actual experience. If the study is repeated, possibly other experiences and interventions will be mentioned by the respondents. 9.1.1.2 Validity The validity of a research shows the relationship between the results of an investigation and how those results are achieved. This paragraph describes the content validity and external validity. Content validity Content validity describes the extent to which the research measures the construct in question. In order to achieve content validity, it is important to clearly communicate the various concepts of the research to the respondents. This is done by sending a questionnaire to the respondents prior to the in- March 2010 115

terviews. Also the used definitions of project and process management are presented to the respondents to avoid misunderstandings about these concepts. However, although interviews are rated as the most appropriate way to collect data to answer the research question, also drawbacks can be appointed. For two reasons, interviews can produce unreliable data (Baarda and De Goede, 2001:223) and thereby affect the content validity. First project managers are not always fully aware of their behaviour and the motives for this behaviour. This means that if project managers are asked to appoint crucial interventions, they are likely to have a selective memory. This means that project managers come up with more examples of interventions in which they stand out well and which positively confirms their self-image. In their answers project managers put more emphasis on their own role in the success of the interventions and the external influences might be relatively underestimated. Secondly, interviews often refer to giving socially desirable answers. Again, respondents are happy to show their strengths. It is therefore possible that respondents gave answers which they expected to make a good impression and to meet the expectations of the interviewer. This effect can be enhanced by the questions of the interviewer. By the way the questions are asked the interviewer exerts influence on the direction of the interview and the kind of answers the respondent gives. The above disadvantages are expected to have a relatively limited impact on the validity of this study. There is specifically searched for examples of successful management and the perception that project managers have of their interventions. While taking into account a possible underestimation of the external influences in the responses, it is not harmful to this research that project managers mainly focus on their best practices. External validity External validity refers to the degree to which results can be generalized. To increase the generalizability of this investigation a choice is made to perform interviews as research method instead of a case study. Through a case study only information about a small number of projects could be obtained. With the chosen research design it was possible to perform 31 interviews with project managers. The respondents were all experienced project managers who have worked in several large spatial development projects. With these respondents a total of 79 interventions are discussed. These interventions are carried out in 49 different projects. Hereby information is obtained about the most important interventions in a significant proportion of this type of projects in the Netherlands. Based on this extensive data collection the generalizability of the results is examined to be high. This generalizability is limited to the type of spatial development projects viewed in this study. In accordance with the empirical data, also the conclusions and recommendations focus on success factors. 9.1.2 Comments on substance of research. In addition to the remarks on the research method, there are also substantive comments on this research. First, this research aimed to present a categorized and extensive overview of successful interventions. However, the conclusions do not contain a complete catalogue of successful interventions in specific project situations. The research showed that the reality of complex spatial development projects contains an indefinite number of different situations. Specific project characteristics play a major role in determining which intervention is most appropriate at a specific time. Therefore, this research even- March 2010 116

tually led to a categorization of types of interventions, but not to a complete catalogue. Also a list of requirements is formulated which a situation should meet for an intervention mechanism to be successful. But the research did not present certainty to project managers in which exact situation which exact interventions should be used. Based on this research such a recommendation would only present false security. This is an important substantive limitation of this research. Second, this research is focused on the theory of project and process management. However as indicated by the respondents of this research, successful intervening is only possible if the project manager and his organization posses the right skills. Project and process management are performed on a basis of personal skills. Despite of all existing theories, the human factor seems to be decisive for a successful and effective tackling of spatial development projects. Examples of skills a project manager has to posses are leadership skills and teamwork skills. Some of the available personal skills will fit better to a project management approach while other might fit better to a process management approach. This is an important part of the management of complex projects which received relatively little attention in this research. This is a conscious choice within the limited available time and opportunities for this research. However, in the integral view on the management of complex projects the human factor should not be underestimated. 9.2 Further investigation Results of this research can complement existing research in the field of project and process management. But in addition to answering the research questions, this study also gave rise to new questions. Several possibilities for further research are briefly discussed in this paragraph. Relationship between project and process management A large amount of empirical data is gathered on the relationship between project management and process management in complex spatial development projects. Presumption is that the share of project and process management is associated with the project management and process management characteristics of the project. Therefore much attention is paid to the various project characteristics that affect this relationship. Relatively little attention is paid to opportunities for project managers to influence this relation. Is it possible that interventions from the project managers can influence the extent to which project and process management process are demanded? And how can project managers steer this relation? And to what extent does this add value to the management of spatial development projects? The further development of intervention mechanisms The identified interventions mechanisms raise several new questions. Therefore it would be interesting to select a limited number of those mechanisms for further research. This could contribute to a better description of the situations in which an intervention mechanism can be applied. It might be possible to extend the number and the quality of the formulated demands for success. Also the results of the intervention mechanisms can be discussed further. Do these mechanisms only have positive effects or do they create additional management challenges? And how can project managers apply these mechanisms best? March 2010 117

The different perceptions of crucial interventions In this study interviews are performed with integral project managers at the direction of spatial development projects. As a result only their perception of the observed interventions is discussed. For further research it would be interesting to select a smaller number of interventions and to interview more involved stakeholders about these interventions. This method can be used to examine whether there actually exist different perceptions on one intervention. Did other stakeholders also qualify the intervention as crucial to the project results or did they perceive other factors of greater influence to the project? And is the role of the project manager decisive at this intervention or are other persons or causes of greater importance instead? The challenges discussed above are not yet covered in this research and call for further theoretical and conceptual debate and empirical research. 9.3 Personal reflection For the author this research is the conclusion of his study at the faculty of Technology, Policy and Management at Delft University of Technology. In this last section of the report the author reflects on his personal experiences during this research and describes how they relate to the experiences with his study. A comparison between this research and study experiences is relevant because the subject of this research is consistent with the core of the TPM education programme. The master System Engineering, Policy Analysis and Management (SEPAM) is structured along two main perspectives; these are the actor perspective and system perspective. Along these perspectives a closer look is taken at respectively the soft and hard elements of socio-technical systems. Process management as examined in this research may be linked to the actor perspective and the system perspective is similar to aspects from project management. Theoretical experiences Are the experiences from this research comparable with the education within SEPAM? In several study projects within the SEPAM programme students have the assignment to connect the system and the actor perspective. Although the SEPAM student is familiar with both theories, the author experienced that combining them is a challenge for many students. This is perhaps explained by the fact that no single scientific theory is available at this point. This research has shown that various scientific theories exist about combining project and process management. Taking a closer look on these scientific concepts provided a clear added value to the author, in addition to his education in the SEPAM programme. Practical experiences This research was not only instructive for the author because the extension of his theoretical knowledge. In particular the practical appliance of these theories is clearly revealed during this research. Within the SEPAM programme students repeatedly have to practice to make process designs and to make technical-based system designs. However, developing an integrated design of a social-technical system and giving this practical interpretation is a big challenge for students. Combining actor and system perspectives often seemed constrained to listing a limited number of theoretical tricks. As a consequence the author and his fellow students were not always convinced of the practical applicability and relevance of their designs March 2010 118

For the author these sometimes unsatisfying experiences were a motivation to study the combination of project and process management more closely in his graduation project. The author was also looking for a better picture of the practical implementation of project and process management. After this research the author is relatively satisfied about the achievement of his personal goals. For the author the biggest value of this research are the discussions with project managers during the interviews. It was very challenging and instructive to compare scientific theories to the daily experiences of project managers in the largest Dutch spatial development projects. Moreover, those conversations were not only instructive but also fun because they offered a unique insight into the work of many experienced project managers. Based on these experiences the author also believes that a closer integration of practical experiences in the SEPAM programme would be appreciated by many students. March 2010 119

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Appendix I: Categorized interventions Table I-1: Categorized process management interventions related to scope Subject Process oriented Depth Width Length Problem perception Problem definition Determination of scope Range of scope Control of scope Problem vs. solution Develop joint problem perception with stakeholders Deep Comprehensive Temporary Realize that defining the problem definition involves winner and losers and behave according to that Superficial Comprehensive Constant Offer flexibility in scope, support problem shifting Deep Comprehensive Constant Broaden the project, search for multi issue coupling Deep Comprehensive Constant Perform regular re-assessment of progress and goals Superficial Comprehensive Constant Define a problem which can be solved by the available solution Deep Comprehensive Temporary Table I-2: Categorized process management interventions related to design Subject Process oriented Depth Width Length Focus of design Focus at process which is intended to lead to a solution Superficial Comprehensive Constant Basis of design Design along a general vision Deep Comprehensive Temporary Solution finding Design criteria Solution finding from variety to selection Deep Comprehensive Constant Focus on manageability and feasibility of product Deep Comprehensive Constant Quality of design Offer room for creativity Superficial Comprehensive Constant Design team Stimulate creative concurrence by using several design teams Deep Comprehensive Temporary Design approach Iterative design (spiral model) Superficial Comprehensive Temporary March 2010 125

Table I-3: Categorized process management interventions related to planning Subject Process oriented Depth Width Length General planning Make process agreements about planning Deep Comprehensive Temporary Start-up phase Flexibility Take time to make minds ready for new plans Deep Comprehensive Temporary Operate a flexible planning to handle an irregular sequence of process rounds Deep Comprehensive Constant Dealing with delays Temporarily set issues aside Deep Comprehensive Temporary Demarcation Leave start and end of project rounds open Superficial Comprehensive Constant Role of decisions Use decision to open a new process round Deep Comprehensive Temporary Speed Stimulate speed by showing prospects of gain Deep Comprehensive Temporary Table I-4: Categorized process management interventions related to cost Subject Process oriented Depth Width Length Financing structure Choose for private co-financing / PPP Deep Comprehensive Temporary Contract structure Award contract on quality and capability Deep Narrow Temporary Freedom Offer room within strict financial boundaries Deep Narrow Constant Table I-5: Categorized process management interventions related to the project organization Subject Process oriented Depth Width Length Position of manager Strength of manager Information Focus of organization Composition Term of appointment Employ a manager independent from all stakeholders Deep Narrow Temporary Employ a networker with capacity to connect people Superficial Narrow Temporary Prepare to work with subjective, contested and actor bounded information Superficial Narrow Constant Deal with important actors and keep them together Deep Comprehensive Constant Compose a diversified organization, people with different backgrounds Deep Narrow Temporary Keep one project director to maintain long-term relations Deep Narrow Temporary Hierarchy Create horizontal relations in organization Deep Comprehensive Temporary Division of tasks Offer freedom to operate in organization Deep Comprehensive Constant March 2010 126

Table I-6: Categorized process management interventions related to stakeholders involvement Subject Process oriented Depth Width Length stake- Involving holders Focus Openness: involve all motivated actors Deep Comprehensive Constant Focus on cooperation with maximum diversity Deep Comprehensive Constant Local actors Involve local intelligence Deep Narrow Temporary Public vs. private Involve private stakeholders to connect public and private interests Deep Comprehensive Temporary Planning Early involvement of public partners Deep Narrow Temporary Flexibility Make agreements about exit options, allow actors to come and go Deep Comprehensive Temporary Intensity Offer possibilities for loosely participation Deep Comprehensive Constant Commitment Ask for commitment on process Deep Comprehensive Temporary Table I-7: Categorized process management interventions related to stakeholder management Subject Process oriented Depth Width Length Stakeholder analysis Ongoing activity Superficial Comprehensive Constant Degree of formality Informal organization of process, effectively breaking the rules Deep Comprehensive Constant Basis of agreements Trust Deep Comprehensive Constant Transparency Focus on transparency and communication in network Deep Comprehensive Constant Hierarchy Create horizontal relation in network Deep Comprehensive Constant Knowledge Joint fact finding to establish negotiated knowledge Deep Comprehensive Temporary Values Invest in creating shared values Deep Comprehensive Constant Basis of support focus on external support (stakeholders) Deep Comprehensive Constant Generating support By allowing actors to influence the process Deep Comprehensive Constant Media Search for media exposure Deep Narrow Constant Role of politics Political autonomy to change decisions made Deep Narrow Constant March 2010 127

Table I-8: Categorized process management interventions related to conflict management Subject Process oriented Depth Width Length Speed Search for consensus in careful decisionmaking process, eventually postpone decision-making Deep Comprehensive Constant Planning of conflict Organize conflict deep in the process Deep Narrow Constant Framing conflict Position of conflict Remove conflict by Deadlock Commitment Frame conflicting interests as solvable dilemma s Superficial Narrow Constant Move conflict to outside of process, offer additional forums for negotiating Superficial Narrow Temporary Searching for underlying interest behind stakeholders positions Deep Narrow Constant Start a new process of discussion and negotiation Deep Comprehensive Temporary Offer stakeholders possibility to postpone commitment to decisions Deep Comprehensive Temporary Aftercare Invest in management of losers Deep Narrow Temporary Table I-9: Categorized project management interventions related to scope Subject Project oriented Depth Width Length Problem perception Problem definition Determination of scope Range of scope Control of scope Problem vs. solution Assume all stakeholders hold to same problem perception Superficial Comprehensive Temporary Assume that all actors are associated and loyal to the defined problem definition Superficial Comprehensive Constant Freeze scope during project, assume stable problem Superficial Comprehensive Constant Focus a one single issue and unravel in small solvable problems Deep Comprehensive Constant Hold on to original plan and persuade actors on chosen goals Deep Comprehensive Constant Define a solution that solves the actual problem Deep Comprehensive Temporary March 2010 128

Table I-10: Categorized project management interventions related to design Subject Project oriented Depth Width Length Focus of design Basis of design Focus at a thorough solution for the identified problem Superficial Comprehensive Constant Design along clear constraints and on basis strict problem solution Deep Comprehensive Temporary Solution finding Focus on one problem solution Deep Comprehensive Constant Design criteria Focus on technological performance of product Deep Comprehensive Constant Quality of design Design within strict (political) constraints Deep Comprehensive Temporary Design team Focus on one design team Superficial Narrow Temporary Design approach Classic design (waterfall model) Superficial Comprehensive Temporary Table I-11: Categorized project management interventions related to planning Subject Project oriented Depth Width Length General planning Impose project planning on stakeholders Deep Comprehensive Temporary Start-up phase Focus at problem with full speed Deep Comprehensive Constant Flexibility Operate a stringent planning with a regular sequence of project phases Superficial Comprehensive Constant Dealing with delays Increase pressure of time Deep Comprehensive Temporary Demarcation Define start and end of project phases Superficial Comprehensive Temporary Role of decisions Use decisions to give direction to the project Deep Comprehensive Temporary Speed Stimulate speed with stringent deadlines Deep Comprehensive Temporary Table I-12: Categorized project management interventions related to cost Subject Project oriented Depth Width Length Financing structure Stand alone public financing / construction by contract Deep Comprehensive Temporary Contract structure Award contract on cost Deep Narrow Temporary Freedom Implement a strict regime of financial accountability Deep Narrow Constant March 2010 129

Table I-13: Categorized project management interventions related to the project organization Subject Project oriented Depth Width Length Position of manager Strength of manager Information Focus of organization Employ a manager related to one of the stakeholders Superficial Narrow Temporary Employ a result-oriented and decisive manager Deep Narrow Temporary Assume information to be objective, robust and analyzable Deep Narrow Constant Substance of the project Deep Comprehensive Constant Composition Engage people based on substantial knowledge Deep Narrow Temporary Term of appointment Hierarchy Division of tasks Change project director on basis of competences needed in project phase. Superficial Narrow Temporary Create hierarchical relations in organization Deep Comprehensive Temporary Define stringent tasks and responsibilities for team members Deep Comprehensive Constant Table I-14: Categorized project management interventions related to stakeholder involvement Subject Project oriented Depth Width Length Involving stakeholders Manageability: constrain involved actors to maximum Deep Comprehensive Constant Focus Focus on cooperation with major actors Deep Narrow Constant Local actors Exclude local unpredictability Deep Narrow Temporary Public vs. private Avoid conflict between public and private interests Deep Comprehensive Temporary Planning Avoid risk of conflict with compulsory public contract law Deep Narrow Temporary Flexibility Solid composition field of actors Superficial Comprehensive Constant Intensity Intense cooperation with main actors Deep Narrow Constant Commitment Ask for commitment on result of project Superficial Comprehensive Temporary March 2010 130

Table I-15: Categorized project management interventions related to stakeholder management Subject Project oriented Depth Width Length Stakeholder analysis Once-only activity Superficial Comprehensive Temporary Degree of formality Formal organization of project, the royal way Deep Comprehensive Constant Basis of agreements Contracts Superficial Comprehensive Constant Transparency Only inform stakeholders when really necessary Deep Comprehensive Constant Hierarchy Create hierarchical relations in network Deep Comprehensive Constant Knowledge Make every actor responsible for its own knowledge position Deep Comprehensive Temporary Values Don't engage in stakeholders values Superficial Comprehensive Constant Basis of support Focus on internal support (project team) Deep Narrow Constant Generating support By content of the initiative Deep Comprehensive Constant Media Evade contact with media Deep Narrow Constant Role of politics Agreement is agreement Deep Narrow Constant Table I-16: Categorized project management interventions related to conflict management Subject Project oriented Depth Width Length Speed Planning of conflict Focus on rapid decision-making and decisiveness Deep Comprehensive Constant Start project with focusing on main problems and conflicts Deep Narrow Temporary Framing conflict Emphasize substantial differences Superficial Narrow Constant Position of conflict Organize central discussion with project direction Deep Narrow Temporary Remove conflict by Focusing on actual position of stakeholder Deep Narrow Constant Deadlock Explain the merits of the plan Superficial Comprehensive Temporary Commitment Ask for commitment on all major decisions Superficial Comprehensive Temporary Aftercare Focus on cooperation with winners Superficial Narrow Temporary March 2010 131

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Appendix II: Lijst met interview respondenten Respondent 1: Functie(s) eind 2009: Respondent 2: Functie(s) eind 2009: Eerdere relevante functie(s): Respondent 3: Functie(s) eind 2009: Eerdere relevante functie(s): Respondent 4: Functie(s) eind 2009: Respondent 5: Functie(s) eind 2009: Respondent 6: Functie(s) eind 2009: Respondent: 7 Functie(s) eind 2009: Eerdere relevante functie(s): Respondent: 8 Functie(s) eind 2009: Respondent 9: Functie(s) eind 2009: Respondent 10: Functie(s) eind 2009: Eerdere relevante functie(s): Dhr. Hans Beekman Projectdirecteur Stadshavens, Gemeente Rotterdam Dhr. Stef Fleischeuer Directeur/eigenaar PLAN-F / Projectdirecteur Rijksvastgoed- en Ontwikkelingsbedrijf (RVOB) voor Schaalsprong Almere en Westflank Haarlemmermeer Procesmanager Gebiedsontwikkeling Moerdijk, directeur Ontwikkeling bij Ontwikkelingsbedrijf Rotterdam Dhr. Leon van Hoof Senior proces- en projectmanager P2 Managers / procesmanager regionale knooppunten Stadsregio Rotterdam Project/procesmanager voor de projecten Rijnboog Arnhem, Waalfront Tiel en Spoorzone Gouda Dhr. Pieter Hordijk Projectdirecteur Zuidplaspolder, Provincie Zuid-Holland Dhr. Albert Hutschemaekers Projectdirecteur Stationsgebied Utrecht, Gemeente Utrecht Mevr. Bernadette ter Huurne Projectmanager VINEX-locatie De Eschmarke, Gemeente Enschede Dhr. Richard Jorissen Projectdirecteur A4 Delft-Schiedam, Rijkswaterstaat Regisseur Project Mainportontwikkeling Rotterdam, Ministerie van Verkeer en Waterstaat Mevr. Eveline Kokx Projectmanager VINEX-locatie Oosterheem en herstructurering Palenstein, Gemeente Zoetermeer Dhr. Erik van der Kooij Senior Consultant bij APPM / Progammamanager Almere A6, procesmanager HOV verbinding Huizen-Hilversum Dhr. Bart-Jan Kouwenhoven Directeur WB Consulting / directeur Ontwikkelingsbedrijf Spoorzone Delft Projectmanager HSL Zuid, Rijkswaterstaat March 2010 133

Respondent 11: Functie(s) eind 2009: Respondent 12: Functie(s) eind 2009: Eerdere relevante functie(s): Respondent 13: Functie(s) eind 2009: Respondent 14: Functie(s) eind 2009: Respondent 15: Functie(s) eind 2009: Eerdere relevante functie(s): Respondent 16: Functie(s) eind 2009: Eerdere relevante functie(s): Respondent 17: Functie(s) eind 2009: Respondent 18: Functie(s) eind 2009: Respondent 19: Functie(s) eind 2009: Eerdere relevante functie(s): Dhr. Cees van der Kreeke Projectmanager VINEX-locatie De Groote Wielen, gemeente Den Bosch Dhr. Lucien Kuijsters projectdirecteur Spoorzone Tilburg, gemeente Tilburg Gebiedsmanager Binnenstad, gemeente Tilburg Dhr. Hans Luiten Plv. hoofd afdeling Kennismanagement, Projectdirectie Ruimte voor de Rivier, Rijkswaterstaat Dhr. Ton Massaro, Directeur/eigenaar Massaro Interim + Advies / directeur projectbureau W4 Leiderdorp Dhr. Fons Meijer Programmamanager Rotterdam Central District, gemeente Rotterdam Projectmanager bij PMB Gemeente Rotterdam Dhr. Alex Miggelenbrink Senior adviseur procesmanagement bij AT Osborne / projectmanager herstructurering Amsterdam Noord Project/procesmanager Spoorzone Gouda, Hart van Dieren en Stationsgebied Utrecht Dhr. Ronald Paul Projectdirecteur Maasvlakte 2, Havenbedrijf Rotterdam Dhr. Jan van der Perk Projectdirecteur Integrale Inrichting Veluwe Randmeren Dhr. Louis Prompers Directeur projectorganisatie A2 Maastricht Directeur Stadsontwikkeling, gemeente Maastricht Respondent 20: Dhr. Bart Raaijmakers Functie(s) eind 2009: Directeur/eigenaar Gideas / procesmanager Gemeente Heerlen Eerdere relevante functie(s): Procesmanager Buitenring Parkstad Limburg, Projectmanager A73- Zuid Respondent 21: Functie(s) eind 2009: Eerdere relevante functie(s): Dhr. Geurt van Randeraat Directeur/eigenaar Site Urban Development, projectdirecteur GEM Bergsche Haven Directeur Projecten Randstad, BPF Bouwinvest March 2010 134

Respondent 22: Functie(s) eind 2009: Respondent 23: Functie(s) eind 2009: Eerdere relevante functie(s): Respondent 24: Functie(s) eind 2009: Eerdere relevante functie(s): Respondent 25: Functie(s) eind 2009: Eerdere relevante functie(s): Respondent 26: Functie(s) eind 2009: Respondent 27: Functie(s) eind 2009: Eerdere relevante functie(s): Respondent 28: Functie(s) eind 2009: Eerdere relevante functie(s): Respondent 29: Functie(s) eind 2009: Respondent 30: Functie(s) eind 2009: Eerdere relevante functie(s): Respondent 31: Functie(s) eind 2009: Eerdere relevante functie(s): Dhr. Huib de Ridder Integraal projectmanager Westrandweg, Rijkswaterstaat Dhr. Peer Rooijmans Directeur/eigenaar PEERR / Projectdirecteur RijnGouwelijn Directeur Divisie Techniek, RET Dhr. Igor Roovers Projectdirecteur IJburg en Zeeburgereiland, Gemeente Amsterdam Projectmanager herstructurering Amsterdam Zuidoost. Dhr. Jan-Pieter van Schaik Senior projectmanager bij AT Osborne / projectmanager Proef Betaald Rijden Metropoolregio Amsterdam Projectmanager N23 Westfrisiaweg en Projectmanager N201 Aalsmeer-Uithoorn Dhr. Herman Schartman Projectdirecteur Schaalsprong Almere, Gemeente Almere Dhr. Jan Slager Projectdirecteur Schiphol-Amsterdam-Almere, Rijkswaterstaat Directeur Infrastructuur en Vervoer, Rijkswaterstaat Noord-Brabant Dhr. Bart Spaargaren Integraal projectmanager Omlegging A9, Rijkswaterstaat Omgevingsmanager planstudie SAAL, Rijkswaterstaat Dhr. Wim van Veelen Directeur Ontwikkelingsbedrijf Vathorst Dhr. Boreas Zandberg Projectmanager Realisatie Infrastructuur, Rijkswaterstaat Projectmanager Maaswerken en Projectmanager Ruimte voor de River Dhr. Huub van Zwam Kwartiermaker Deltaprogramma Directeur projectorganisatie ProSes, Projectdirecteur PMR, Projectdirecteur PMZ March 2010 135

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Appendix III: Interview protocol 1. Achtergrond Dit interview protocol is bestemd voor de interviews in het kader van het afstudeeronderzoek van Pelle de Wit, Master student Technische Bestuurskunde aan de faculteit Techniek, Bestuur en Management aan de TU Delft. Het afstudeeronderzoek richt zich op het management van complexe ruimtelijke projecten. Dit protocol is geschikt om inzicht te krijgen in de interventies die projectmanagers in deze projecten plegen en de afwegingen die zij maken bij de keuze voor deze interventies. Alle interviews worden afgenomen door de afstudeerder, Pelle de Wit. Geïnterviewden worden tevoren geselecteerd op basis van enkele criteria. Hierbij spelen onder andere de ervaring, het veronderstelde kennisniveau, de huidige functie in het werkveld en de beschikbaarheid een rol. 2. Doel van het interview De primaire doelstelling van het interview is het verzamelen van empirische data die bijdraagt aan het volledig beantwoorden van de in het kader van het afstudeeronderzoek gestelde onderzoeksvragen. Deze onderzoeksvragen richten zich op het feit op welke wijze projectmanagers dienen te schakelen tussen projectmatig en procesmatig georiënteerde interventies om het succes van het management te verbeteren. Door beantwoording van de onderzoeksvragen kunnen de interviews op de lange termijn bijdragen aan het verhogen van het algemene kennisniveau over het managen van complexe ruimtelijke projecten. 3. Resultaat van het interview Het interview levert informatie op over de beleving die geïnterviewde als professional heeft van: Belangrijke vraagstukken die spelen bij het managen van complexe ruimtelijke projecten en de context waarin deze vraagstukken optreden Cruciale interventies die projectmanagers in deze situatie kunnen plegen om succesvol met deze vraagstukken om te gaan. Een indicatie van factoren die het succes of falen van specifieke interventies in het management van complexe projecten bepalen. Een overzicht van de afwegingen die projectmanagers maken in situaties waar zowel een meer project- als procesgeoriënteerde aanpak van het project tot de mogelijkheden behoort. De interviews worden verwerkt in het kader van het afstudeeronderzoek. De belangrijkste resultaten zullen in de hoofdtekst van het rapport zijn terug te vinden. 4. Werkwijze per interview 1 De te interviewen personen worden benaderd of zij bereid zijn mee te werken met het interview. Bij deze uitnodiging behoort ook een toelichting op de context van het interview. Als de benaderde persoon positief staat tegenover het interview, wordt er een afspraak gemaakt. 2 De omschrijving van de context voor het interview wordt tevoren toegestuurd. Bij de afspraak worden een aantal belangrijke kenmerken van het interview gemeld: March 2010 137

Het betreft een semigestructureerd interview, waarbij vragen zullen worden geïntroduceerd aan de hand van een aantal thema s en belangrijke situaties. Het gaat om een inventarisatie van persoonlijke visies en afwegingen en niet om formele standpunten van een organisatie. Het gaat om het verkrijgen van informatie over afwegingen die managers in een specifieke context maken en er wordt niet gezocht naar informatie over één specifiek project. Uitgangspunt is dat het interview maximaal 1,5 uur in beslag neemt. In de opbouw van het interview wordt uitgegaan van 75 minuten, om enige speling in te bouwen. Het interview zal, indien de geïnterviewde hier geen bezwaar tegen maakt, opgenomen wordt ten behoeve van de rapportage in het kader van het afstudeeronderzoek. Opnames en aantekeningen zullen niet in een andere context gebruikt worden. Een conceptuitwerking van het interview zal aan de geïnterviewde worden toegestuurd, waarop deze nog correcties kan aanbrengen. De geïnterviewde zal na afronding van het onderzoek een management samenvatting met belangrijkste resultaten opgestuurd krijgen. Het interview zelf bestaat uit vier onderdelen: Introductie interviewer. (+/- 10 minuten) Eerste gedeelte cruciale situaties (+/- 45 minuten) Tweede gedeelte relatie project en procesmanagement (+/- 15 minuten) Afsluiting interview (+/- 5 minuten) 3 Alle interviews worden opgenomen op geluidsdrager. Deze opnames worden naderhand uitgewerkt tot een interview verslag. Een concept van dit interview verslag wordt ter controle aan de geïnterviewde voorgelegd en deze krijgt een redelijke termijn om de tekst te corrigeren. Weergaven van het interview in het afstudeerrapport worden geanonimiseerd. Ook de aanduidingen van eventueel besproken projecten worden verwijderd. 5. Introductie van interview Belangrijk onderdeel van het interview is een goede introductie met wederzijdse kennismaking tussen interviewer en geïnterviewde. Een checklist met aspecten de aan de orde moeten komen tijdens introductie is: Voorstellen door de interviewer Waardering uitspreken voor medewerking en aangeven waarom dat voor de voltooiing van mijn onderzoek van belang is Achtergrond van het interview toelichten, checken of informatie bij afspraak ontvangen is en checken of context duidelijk is. Gang van zaken gedurende interview toelichten Check of locatie geschikt is voor interview (rust / tijdframe ) Uitleggen hoe rapportage over interview plaatsvindt Geluidsopname uitleggen, toestemming checken. Vertrouwelijkheid benadrukken Vragen of de geïnterviewde zichzelf wel introduceren Korte introductie huidige functie en project Werkervaring, in het bijzonder drie meest recente projecten Achtergrond / opleiding March 2010 138

6. Inhoudelijke vragenlijst interview De vragenlijst bestaat uit twee onderdelen: Cruciale interventies in management van ruimtelijke projecten Verhouding tussen project en proces management bij ruimtelijke projecten Uitgangspunt bij onderdeel A is dat de projectmanagers vrijuit kunnen vertellen over belangrijke momenten die zij in hun projecten ervaren hebben, zonder dat ze zich hoeven te verdiepen wat de vraagsteller precies in zijn hoofd heeft. De insteek is om de projectmanagers zelf aan het woord te laten over hun werk. De door hun vertelde ervaringen worden later door de interviewer gekoppeld aan zijn theoretische kader. De onderdelen van het theoretische kader die in dit onderdeel van de vragenlijst aan bod komen zijn de begrippen project- en procesmanagement, de dimensies en componenten van project complexiteit en de issues in ruimtelijke projecten. Dit is het belangrijkste onderdeel van het interview. In onderdeel B worden de respondenten meer gestuurd door definities voor te leggen en een beperkt aantal grafieken die de verhouding tussen project en proces management over de tijd weergeven. Onderdeel van het theoretisch kader dat bij deze vragen aan bod komt zijn de geformuleerde hypotheses voor de verhouding tussen project- en procesmanagement gedurende de tijd. De resultaten van onderdeel B zijn op deze wijze beter generaliseerbaar. 6.1. Cruciale interventies in ruimtelijke projecten In dit gedeelte van het interview wordt ingegaan op cruciale interventies die bepalend zijn geweest voor het succes/falen van projecten waarin de geïnterviewde actief is geweest. De interviewer vertelt hoe een interventie wordt gedefinieerd in het kader van dit onderzoek: een bewuste actie van de project/proces manager om een verandering te bewerkstelligen in het project/proces. Let op: de actie kan ook bestaan uit niets doen! Het is de bedoeling per cruciale interventie informatie te verkrijgen over de kenmerken van de interventie, de uitdaging of het probleem waarin de interventie verandering wil bewerkstelligen, het resultaat van de interventie en de context waarin dit plaatsvindt. Dit is weergegeven in onderstaand figuur. Als u terugkijkt op uw laatste drie projecten als projectmanager, kunt u: Eén of twee interventies benoemen die u tijdens een project/proces heeft gepleegd en cruciaal zijn geweest voor het succes van het desbetreffende project De interventie benoemen die u tijdens een project/proces heeft gepleegd en waarvan u het meeste geleerd heeft? March 2010 139

Vervolgens wordt met (een deel) van onderstaande vragen doorgevraagd om alle gewenste informatie over de interventies te verkrijgen. Interventie Waarop was de keuze voor deze actie/interventie gebaseerd? Op wie/wat was de actie/interventie gericht? Was het een kortstondige/langdurige actie/interventie? Bij procesmatige interventie: heeft u risico gezien dat dit ten koste zou gaan van realisatie binnen budget, planning, kwaliteit en zo ja, wat heeft u hier aan gedaan? Bij projectmatige interventie: heeft u risico gezien dat dit ten koste zou gaan van draagvlak en steun voor project en zo ja, wat heeft u hier aan gedaan? Waren er potentiële andere interventies voorhanden? Hebt u die overwogen? Probleem / uitdaging Op welk probleem / kans / uitdaging reageerde u met deze interventie Welke verandering heeft u proberen te bewerkstelligen Zou u achteraf in het begin van het project iets anders hebben willen regelen om dit probleem te voorkomen? Context In hoeverre speelde dit aspect/probleem ook in uw andere recente projecten? En waarom speelde het dan niet in andere projecten In hoeverre hebben externe factoren invloed gehad op de ontwikkeling van het project in deze fase? Was er relatie tussen ingreep op deze specifieke uitdaging en andere projectonderdelen? Resultaat Wat was het resultaat van de actie/interventie en bent u tevreden met dit resultaat? Zou u terugkijkend op dezelfde wijze reageren? Zo ja/nee, waarom wel/niet? Waaraan meet u het succes van uw handelen in deze situaties af? Hoe schat u in dat de toenmalige acties/stappen beoordeeld worden door omwonenden / bestuurders / opdrachtgevers? 6.2 Verhouding tussen project- en procesmanagement In het laatste kwartier wordt nog doorgepraat over de verhouding tussen project- en procesmanagement in ruimtelijke projecten. De zojuist besproken interventies worden gekoppeld aan de theorie over project- en procesmanagement. In aanvulling op de belangrijke interventies en situaties de we besproken hebben, wil ik graag het laatste kwartier gebruiken om dit te koppelen aan de theorie over project- en procesmanagement die ik in mijn onderzoek gebruik. Mijn veronderstelling is dat het managen van complexe ruimtelijke opgaven vraagt om een integrale aanpak met zowel projectmatige sturing, projectmanagement al met procesmatige sturing, procesmanagement. Bent u het met deze veronderstelling eens? De volgende twee definities worden voorgelegd aan de geïnterviewde: Projectmanagement richt zich op het gestructureerd uitvoeren van een vastgestelde en afgebakende scope en stuurt hierbij op beheersing van tijd, geld en kwaliteit. Procesmanagement richt zich op het gezamenlijk mogelijk maken van een dynamische en open scope en stuurt hierbij op het vergroten van draagvlak, acceptatie en haalbaarheid. March 2010 140

Er bestaan diverse definities van project- en procesmanagement. Ik wil u graag de definities voorleggen zoals ik die gebruik in mijn onderzoek. Herkunt u zich in deze definities? Of hebt u een andere visie op deze begrippen? De 5 onderstaande grafieken worden door middel van kaartjes voorgelegd aan de geïnterviewde. Vervolgens worden naar aanleiding daarvan de onderstaande vragen gesteld: Ik ben benieuwd naar de wijze waarop project- en procesmanagement zich verhouden tot elkaar gedurende de looptijd van een project. Hebt u hier een beeld bij en herkent u zich in een van de voorgelegde grafieken? Of hebt u een andere visie op deze verhouding, dan nodig ik u van harte uit om deze te tekenen Kunt u uitleggen waarom u kiest voor deze grafiek of waarom u de verhouding zo tekent? Kunt u aangeven waar de zojuist besproken interventie zich bevinden in deze grafiek? Zijn deze volgens u projectmatig of procesmatig? Hoe schakelt u tussen beide aanpakken, of hoe verbindt u project- en procesmanagement binnen u project? De verhouding tussen project- en procesmanagement wordt niet alleen beïnvloed door de tijd, wat speelt volgens u nog meer een rol? Ervaart u een bepaalde spanning tussen project- en procesmanagement in uw projecten? En zo ja, waar openbaart die spanning zich dan? March 2010 141

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Appendix IV: Summary of interviews in 150 quotes Inleiding Vanwege de vertrouwelijkheid van de interviewverslagen kunnen deze niet worden opgenomen in het onderzoeksrapport. Om de lezer toch een indruk te kunnen geven van de oorspronkelijke interview resultaten is in deze bijlage een overzicht gemaakt door middel van 150 quotes. Deze geanonimiseerde quotes zijn een selectie uit de uitspraken die de respondenten tijdens de interviews hebben gedaan. Doel is om op een luchtige manier inzicht te geven in de mening van de respondenten over de diverse belangrijke aspecten van het managen van ruimtelijke opgaven. De quotes zijn gerangschikt naar acht onderwerpen die in de interviews aan bod zijn gekomen. Per onderwerp is cursief gedrukt eerst een samenvatting gegeven van de quotes op dit onderwerp. Deze samenvatting komt voor rekening van de onderzoeker en weerspiegelt niet per definitie de mening van alle respondenten. Hoewel de quotes uit hun context zijn gehaald en daardoor de onderbouwing ontbreekt, zijn ze uitgekozen omdat ze op een aansprekende manier de mening van de desbetreffende respondent weerspiegelen. 1. Samenwerken Voor je gaat samenwerken is het belangrijk de juiste partijen te betrekken. Samenwerken is belangrijk en heeft voordelen maar is ook een grote uitdaging. Samenwerken wordt mede mogelijk door vertrouwen en door ruimte om te onderhandelen. De samenwerking tussen opdrachtgever en opdrachtnemer is een specifieke uitdaging. De samenwerking met de politiek is soms belemmerend maar bestuurlijke steun speelt ook een cruciale rol zolang je de goede timing bewaard. Conflicten kan je proberen te vermijden maar zijn soms onvermijdelijk. Conflicten kunnen veel kapot maken maar kunnen ook voordelen hebben als je maar de juiste insteek kiest. Voor je gaat samenwerken is het belangrijk de juiste partijen te betrekken. Als door een partij een probleem wordt gezien, dan zeg ik: haal hem binnen. Krijg ik te horen dat deze partij een risico is, dan zeg ik: haal hem nog sneller binnen Hoewel het soms lijkt of je de complexiteit groter maakt, kan je door private en publieke belang te verknopen wel je probleem oplossen. Je kunt niet iets met macht en kracht erdoor heen duwen, als iemand gaat tegenwerken moet je hem naar binnen halen. Samenwerken is belangrijk en heeft voordelen Ik vind dat je zwaar moet sturen op gezamenlijkheid. Ik verkies een samenwerking in een alliantie boven een continue spanning en vechtcultuur tussen opdrachtgever en opdrachtnemer. Door het opzetten van een goed samenwerkingsmodel zorg je dat je niet hoeft in te grijpen. Als je escalatie nodig hebt om bij te sturen, ben je eigenlijk te laat. March 2010 143

maar is ook een grote uitdaging. Het is een grote uitdaging in projecten om samen te werken met veel partijen, die allemaal verschillende belangen hebben en toch onderling afhankelijk zijn. Het samenwerken met de markt heeft ook een risico, namelijk dat je rol als controleur ondersneeuwt. Samenwerken wordt mede mogelijk door vertrouwen Je moet niet de hele dag met het contract zwaaien, dat is geen basis voor samenwerking. Ik geloof in de kracht van mensen die een gezamenlijk doel zien en elkaar beïnvloeden om daar te komen. en door ruimte om te onderhandelen. Als je, binnen een zekere bandbreedte niet de ruimte geeft aan onderhandelende partijen, dan is het lastig om met private partijen samen te werken. De samenwerking tussen opdrachtgever en opdrachtnemer is een specifieke uitdaging. De relatie die je als onafhankelijk projectmanager hebt met je opdrachtgever is een continu spanningsveld Mijn opdrachtgever heeft later nog gezegd dat hij me toen wel op mijn smoel wilde slaan. De uitdaging is om handig te opereren in een opdracht waar de opdrachtgever niet de complexiteit begrijpt van de opdracht, een ander kennisniveau heeft. Als je merkt dat je politieke en/of bestuurlijke opdrachtgevers twijfel hebben over het project of geen goede argumenten hebben, dan moet je daar iets mee. Niets beter dan duidelijkheid tussen opdrachtgever en opdrachtnemer. Als je opdrachtgevers niet weten wat de opdracht is, dan heb je een probleem. De samenwerking met de politiek is soms belemmerend Ik vind dat bij locatieontwikkeling het politieke compromis te vaak richtinggevend is voor de portemonnee en de plannen. Als projectmanager wil je dingen duidelijk hebben, terwijl het de politiek goed uitkomt als iets niet helemaal duidelijk is. Daar zit spanning tussen. Door het werken met privaatrechtelijke overeenkomsten beperken wij als projectorganisatie permanent het democratisch recht van de raad. maar bestuurlijke steun speelt ook een cruciale rol Bestuurlijk commitment is basis van alle projecten. Als je een project succesvol wilt uitvoeren dan heb je bestuurlijke steun binnen de gemeente nodig, de rijen moeten gesloten zijn. Een aanbesteding en dialoog met marktpartijen vraagt ook een bestuurlijk politieke context die hiertoe bereid is. Politieke interventies die het project op zijn kop zetten moet je vermijden. Urgentie bij de verantwoordelijke bestuurder is belangrijk, een wethouder die er voor gaat en elke week hamert op voorgang helpt enorm. Overtuigen van onderaf is soms niet mogelijk en dat blijkt dat je bestuurlijke powerplay moet inzetten om mensen mee te krijgen. zolang je de goede timing bewaart. Er zijn situaties waarbij men kort voor de verkiezingen geen besluiten meer neemt. Dat speelt vooral bij besluiten voor de lange termijn in de beleidsfase of planvorming van projecten, men kan dan veilig tegenstemmen. March 2010 144

Conflicten kan je proberen te vermijden De uitdaging is om niet vast te lopen in intrinsieke tegenstellingen en conflicten maar die juist zoveel mogelijk weg te halen zodat mensen energie kunnen stoppen in het zo goed mogelijk neer zetten van hun eigen prestatie. Je kunt elke keer als er niet geleverd wordt de leverancier met een boete om de oren slaan, maar dan gaat je leverancier misschien failliet en ben je nog niets opgeschoten. Iemand moet wel gemotiveerd blijven om het product te leveren. Het was heel belangrijk om de zaak bij elkaar te houden en een werkomgeving te creëren waarbij eruit gehaald wordt wat erin zit. maar zijn soms onvermijdelijk Nu ik weet dat escaleren uiteindelijk onontkoombaar was, had ik het eerder moeten laten gebeuren. Conflicten kunnen veel kapot maken Rationele processen kunnen totaal om zeep worden geholpen door weerstanden, veto s, deelbelangen, of partijen die elkaar willen terugpakken. maar kunnen ook voordelen hebben Een crisis maakt het mogelijk en noodzakelijk om elkaar recht in de ogen te kijken en de samenwerking te evalueren. als je maar de juiste insteek kiest. Ik ben ervan overtuigd dat als er problemen zijn je de oplossing niet bij de ander moet zoeken of de ander verwijten moet maken. Hoe gelijk je ook denkt te hebben, het gaat om een duurzame relatie met je partner. In conflicten moet je, je inleven in je partner, het schiet niet op om alleen je eigen gelijk te zien. Mijn overtuiging is dat als de spanning tussen betrokkenen het grootste is, je moet zorgen dat ze niet verzanden in onderlinge discussie maar dat je ze vanuit een onafhankelijke positie hiermee moet confronteren. Ik denk dat je problemen zakelijk moet kunnen oplossen zodat je daarna weer verder kan met de samenwerking. Je mag, moet zelfs hard zijn op de inhoud, maar zacht op de relatie. In het geval van moeilijke onderlinge verhoudingen is het makkelijk als je een externe partij hebt om de problemen op af te schuiven. Je kunt jezelf dan als partij een beetje verstoppen en soms helpt dat om het proces op gang te houden March 2010 145

2. Draagvlak Bij ruimtelijke projecten gaat het niet alleen om de inhoud want ook draagvlak is belangrijk en dat kan je onder andere vergroten door participatie, goede communicatie en door openheid. En dat wordt door projectmanagers goed begrepen. Bij ruimtelijke projecten gaat het niet alleen om de inhoud Het gaat er niet om dat je een briljant idee hebt maar het gaat erom dat anderen overtuigd raken dat je met de goede dingen bezig bent. Soms moet je eigen probleem iets minder goed oplossen om een haalbare oplossing te vinden die op voldoende draagvlak kan rekenen. ook draagvlak is belangrijk Ik vind dat je een project realiseert in relatie tot de maatschappelijke en bestuurlijke omgeving op verschillende lagen en dat je daar rekening mee moet houden. en dat kan je onder andere vergroten door participatie Er is actief meegedacht door burgers en dit heeft geleid tot een veel betere tekening waarmee ook het draagvlak aanzienlijk is verhoogd goede communicatie Als je wilt dat omwonenden de overheidsafweging begrijpen en hier begrip voor hebben, dan moet je heel helder communiceren. Onthoud dat communicatie meer is dan zenden. Vaak hoor je: we hebben toch prima gecommuniceerd? Dat is niet voldoende, vereenzelven met de ander, daar gaat het om. Wij doen ook bewust weinig aan communicatie maar laten andere partijen spreken. Je moet niet zelf zeggen dat je belangrijk bent, maar zorgen dat anderen dat zeggen. Ik heb wel geprobeerd deze harde boodschap op een zachte manier te laten landen. en door openheid. Ik heb niets te verbergen en daarom laat ik me ook diep in de kaarten kijken en vertel ik eerlijk als er nadelen aan een plan zitten. Je moet een evenwicht vinden tussen eerlijk rapporteren en ondertussen geen paniek zaaien maar continu werken in een wantrouwige onderhandelingsmodus werkt in ieder geval niet. Bij aanbestedingen moet je informatie geheim houden maar in een verkenning is dit flauwekul. En dat wordt door projectmanagers goed begrepen. Ik zit er niet voor mezelf maar voor de samenleving, dus dan probeer je de samenleving ook correct te behandelen. We hebben niet vanuit een ivoren toren plannen de maatschappij in geflikkerd om vervolgens iedereen af te kakken als ze ons niet begrijpen March 2010 146

3. Planning, tijdsdruk, voortgang Voortgang maken is moeilijk in ruimtelijke projecten en tijdsdruk kan je niet zomaar opbouwen dus snelheid maken vraagt om slim interveniëren en het tijdig identificeren van kansen. Voortgang maken is moeilijk in ruimtelijke projecten Ik merk dat het planningsaspect de moeilijkste opgave is van ruimtelijke projecten. Er is sprake van langdurige projecten die interfereren met de omgeving. Snelheid maken is bijna een onmogelijkheid in deze dynamiek. Het was een grote uitdaging om ondanks alle dialoog toch snelheid erin te houden. Het is altijd moeilijk om in een samenwerking met een grote hoeveelheid partners de snelheid in het proces te houden. en tijdsdruk kan je niet zomaar opbouwen Het is belangrijk dat als je de druk opbouwt dat je hebt nagedacht welke kant de partijen vervolgens opgaan. Alleen druk opbouwen werkt niet, dan zoekt ieder zijn eigen comfortzone en pakken ze allemaal een eigen vluchtroute. Bij projecten is er vroeger of later sprake van tijdsdruk en als je niet oppast, leidt die tijdsdruk tot bewustzijnsvernauwing. Dan zie je geen kansen meer en ben je niet meer bewust van je omgeving. Je kunt niet alles onder druk zetten, dus gebruik druk alleen voor essentiële dingen dus snelheid maken vraagt om slim interveniëren Steeds meer weerhaakjes slaan is een methode om de snelheid erin te houden en tot een product te komen. Als je een deadline stelt om 12 uur, ga dan niet pas om 5 over twaalf vragen waar het resultaat is. Probeer dan wel tussenstappen te nemen en het proces goed te monitoren. Voortgang maken in processen is afhankelijk van het verbinden van gemeenschappelijke en afzonderlijke belangen. en het tijdig identificeren van kansen. Risico s zijn prima om te zorgen dat je project niet uitloopt maar risico s gaan je project nooit versnellen. Dan moet je willen denken in kansen en dat is wezenlijk iets anders. Kansen zijn niet afdwingbaar, maar de kunst is om er open voor te staan en ze te herkennen. In het begin goed nadenken en kansen pakken, vermijd stress in een later fase. March 2010 147

4. Scope en kwaliteit Het bereiken van kwaliteit vraagt om ambitie en het integraal bekijken van de opgave. Hoewel projectmanagers proberen de kwaliteit te verbeteren, is het behouden ervan tijdens vaak al moeilijk genoeg Ruimtelijke ontwikkelingen vragen om flexibiliteit, soms moet je besluiten uitstellen, of gemaakte besluiten weer ter discussie stellen. Het bereiken van kwaliteit vraagt om ambitie Ambitie, visie, plan, dat is de volgorde. Ik zou het rampzalig vinden als in complexe projecten het gemiddelde wordt gezocht om het haalbaar te maken, dat is de dood in de pot! Als projectdirecteuren zitten we in een positie waarin we omgevingen van mensen bouwen die 40, 50 jaar blijven staan. In die positie is er maar één criterium en dat is kwaliteit van de leefomgeving. en het integraal bekijken van de opgave. Door scope overstijgend te denken kan je veel problemen vermijden. Het integraal bekijken van de ontwikkeling van een gebied heeft zeker meerwaarde bij grote ruimtelijke projecten. Integreren van gebiedsontwikkeling en infrastructuur kost vast meer tijd maar ik heb de stellige overtuiging dat je tot betere oplossingen komt. Als je plan niet haalbaar is moet je jezelf altijd afvragen of je door vergroting het wel haalbaar kunt maken. Hoewel projectmanagers proberen met interventies de kwaliteit te verbeteren Door van buitenaf druk uit te oefenen en opinies te verkondigen, neemt het innovatieve karakter toe. Uitstellen van bepaalde aspecten biedt de mogelijkheid om de kwaliteit stap voor stap beter te maken. is het behouden ervan tijdens vaak al moeilijk genoeg Het blijkt verdomd moeilijk om het abstractieniveau uit de visie nu concreet te maken en dit te realiseren. Ik vind het heel link om bij gebiedsontwikkeling waarbij de omgeving nauw betrokken is bij de planvorming aan te besteden met functionele eisen. Als je niet oppast, gaat het verworven draagvlak verloren bij innovatief aanbesteden. Ruimtelijke ontwikkelingen vragen om flexibiliteit, soms moet je besluiten uitstellen Als je alles van te voren wil regelen was het waarschijnlijk helemaal niet gelukt om een akkoord te sluiten In complexe projecten kan je niet alles aan de voorkant dichttimmeren, je moet flexibel blijven maar wel de basis behouden. March 2010 148

of gemaakte besluiten weer ter discussie stellen. Een handtekening onder dat convenant is van heel veel waarde maar misschien zijn bij het zetten van die handtekening dingen niet voorzien. En daarom moet je bereid zijn om de discussie over de gestelde randvoorwaarden opnieuw te voeren als de consequenties duidelijk worden. Ik vind dat je altijd besluiten ter discussie moet durven stellen. Stopzetten gaat soms ten koste van gedane inspanning maar je kunt ook veel erger voorkomen. Ik heb wel geleerd dat het niet verstandig is om in een zo vroeg stadium een handtekening te zetten onder lengte en breedte maten van een weg. Eisen moeten functioneler of desnoods conceptueler, anders timmer je jezelf vast. March 2010 149

5. Structuur en werkwijze van de projectorganisatie Een goede projectorganisatie is belangrijk voor het succes van een project, bepalend hierbij is dat de projectleiding voor langere tijd bij een project betrokken is en dat een organisatie met de juiste omvang wordt samengesteld waarbij goede medewerkers de vrijheid krijgen om te functioneren. Een goede projectorganisatie is belangrijk voor het succes van een project, De organisatiestructuur is heel bepalend voor het succes van het project. Je moet weten wie beslissingen mag nemen. Een succesvolle kwaliteitsborging wordt mede mogelijk gemaakt door een goede projectorganisatie. bepalend hierbij is dat de projectleiding voor langere tijd bij een project betrokken is Als je het proces echt goed wilt inrichten moet je eigenlijk van begin tot eind bij het project betrokken zijn. Bij dit project moet ik nu wel blijven omdat bij de stap naar de uitvoering een wisseling van persoon het opgebouwde geloof en vertrouwen kan breken. Een shift van projectleiding leidt tot verlies van informatie en de persoonlijke rol van een projectmanager is groot. Dus veelvuldig switchen van leiding is niet goed. en dat een organisatie met de juiste omvang wordt samengesteld De benodigde capaciteit voor het managen van de complexiteit van dit project wordt nog onderschat. Natuurlijk klemt het soms om met een kleine organisatie te werken en dan is niets makkelijker om extra mensen in te huren. Maar je moet het probleem aanpakken waar het zit. Dus als een partner niet op tijd zijn producten levert, dan moeten zij harder werken of mensen inhuren. Gunstig neveneffect is dat door de kleine projectorganisatie het ambtenarenapparaat niet wordt uitgehold. waarbij goede medewerkers de vrijheid krijgen om te functioneren. Het is essentieel dat medewerkers hun schroom overwinnen en dat we het durven zeggen als we zelf ergens iets hebben laten liggen. Voordat een ander onze fouten vindt, kunnen we dit beter zelf weten. Mensen moeten doen wat ze leuk vinden en waar ze goed in zijn. Dit betekent dat, ondanks dat sommige werkzaamheden in een vast stramien moeten, er daarnaast wel vrijheid voor werknemers moet zijn om bepaalde dingen zelf te kunnen invullen. Als ik aan mijn werk denk, denk ik niet aan de inhoudelijke voortgang van een project. Ik denk eraan of mijn collega s, teamleden nog een goed beeld hebben van waar we aan werken en of ze voldoende ruimte hebben om zichzelf te ontplooien en of ze door mij hierin gesteund worden. March 2010 150

6. Project succes Succes kan op verschillende manieren gedefinieerd worden en is niet eenvoudig te herhalen. Succes kan op verschillende manieren gedefinieerd worden Ter beoordelen van het succes vergelijk ik de uitkomsten van het project met de waarschijnlijke gevolgen of resultaten als we het niet op deze manier hadden gedaan. Ik zie succes in de kwaliteit op de lange termijn waarbij kwaliteit breder is gedefinieerd dan puur het rijksbelang. Om succes te hebben moet het eindresultaat in ieder geval waarde hebben en in een zorgvuldig proces tot stand gekomen zijn. Deze interventie leverde niet de uitkomst die je aan voorkant had gewenst maar was wel succesvol als interventie. Het liep slecht af maar was succesvol in benadering en aanpak. Ik zie het als uitdaging voor de BV Nederland de goede dingen te doen en is niet eenvoudig te herhalen. Probleem is dat men soms denkt dat ze dit succes eenvoudig kunnen herhalen. Het besef ontbreekt dat deze interventie alleen kon plaatsvinden door de enorme sense of urgency als gevolg van de maatschappelijke discussie en de aanstaande verkiezingen. March 2010 151

7. De verhouding tussen project- en procesmanagement Projectmanagement en procesmanagement zijn op vele manieren te definiëren. Projectmanagement speelt nog altijd een belangrijke rol in ruimtelijke projecten, maar met projectmanagement alleen kom je er niet, het proces heeft ook grote invloed gekregen. Project- en procesmanagement dienen gecombineerd te worden, dus managers moeten leren schakelen tussen beide aanpakken en dat levert soms spanning op. De rol van procesmanagement is vaak groter in de beginfase van een project en gedurende de ontwikkeling krijgt projectmanagement vaak een grotere rol, maar in de praktijk wordt deze theorie soms doorbroken en vraagt het proces om hernieuwde aandacht. Bovendien speelt niet alleen de tijd een rol bij het bepalen van deze verhouding. Managers zijn vaak gespecialiseerd in projectmanagement of procesmanagement en daarom moet je op het juiste moment de juiste mensen inzetten. Projectmanagement en procesmanagement zijn op vele manieren te definiëren. Ik vind project- en procesmanagement een gekunstelde splitsing, internationaal is projectmanagement ook meer het totale pakket. Hierin zitten dan zowel beheersmatige als procesmatige aspecten. Het benoemen van project en proces suggereert een heel groot verschil en daar geloof ik niet in. Bij procesmanagement zie ik te vaak een brede definitie, een te faciliterende insteek waarbij we wel zien wat haalbaar is. Maar bij goed procesmanagement weet je wel waar je heen wilt. Ik kies niet voor een vrijblijvende vorm van procesmanagement, ik zoek een duidelijke koppeling met projectmanagement. In theorie kan je volledig procesmatig zonder planningen sturen maar ik probeer het proces wel vanuit een afgesproken planning te beheersen. Goed procesmanagement is op het juiste moment projecten afronden, nieuwe projecten definiëren en zorgen dat je alle partijen die je nodig hebt bij de juiste projecten betrekt. Bij projectmanagement ben je aan het sturen op resultaat, bij procesmanagement stuur je op richting. Projectmanagement speelt nog altijd een belangrijke rol in ruimtelijke projecten De basis blijft projectmatig werken, ook het planproces moet je gestructureerd doorlopen. Als je dit niet duidelijk doet, wordt het improviseren in plaats van projectmatig werken. maar met projectmanagement alleen kom je er niet We hebben als projectmanagers allemaal geleerd te sturen op TGKIO, dit is leuk en noodzakelijk maar het kan alleen als er een groot hek om je project heen staat. het proces heeft ook grote invloed gekregen. Je project is een continu proces geworden, er zijn relaties met vele stakeholders en de projectfasen rollen over elkaar heen. Ik vind het moeilijk om aan te geven welk percentage van het projectsucces afhankelijk is van procesmanagement. Maar je kunt nog zulke goede projecten hebben, gelijk hebben blijft iets anders dan gelijk krijgen. March 2010 152

Project- en procesmanagement dienen gecombineerd te worden Zowel proces management als project management zijn nodig in complexe ruimtelijke projecten. De verhouding is afhankelijk van de complexiteit van het project. Simpelweg is projectmanagement van belang voor de afgesproken scope het procesmanagement voor de veranderende omgeving. dus managers moeten leren schakelen tussen beide aanpakken Het schakelen tussen project- en procesmanagement bestaat eruit dat je het speelveld voor je zelf scherp moet houden. Regelmatig de projectmatige en procesmatige aspecten op een rij zetten. Het schakelen tussen project- en procesmanagement is voor mij eigenlijk issuemanagement. Schakelen van proces naar project doe je door besluiten vast te leggen. en dat levert soms spanning op. Er kan spanning bestaan tussen de projectmatige en de procesmatige aanpak. Hoe meer proces en project in elkaar overlopen, hoe risicovoller en moeilijker het wordt om tijd en geld te beheersen. De projectmatige randvoorwaarden voor tijd en geld staan op gespannen voet met de kwaliteit en het proces. De rol van procesmanagement is vaak groter in de beginfase van een project Ik denk dat je moet beginnen met een 100% procesmatige insteek. In principe zie ik een verhouding waarbij het belang van procesmanagement gedurende de tijd afneemt. Bij grote complexe projecten moet je eerst gezamenlijk zoeken wat mogelijk en haalbaar is, dat is procesmatig werken. Je kunt niet direct een project opzetten, dat gaat fout. en gedurende de ontwikkeling krijgt projectmanagement vaak een grotere rol Er komt op een gegeven moment een overgang van procesmatig naar projectmatig werken. Maar ondanks dat je issues projectmatig vastlegt, houd je altijd procesaspecten omdat je wordt aangesproken op de afspraken die gemaakt zijn. Het gaat niet met grote stappen van proces naar project. Er is een lang onderhandelingsproces voorafgaand aan een besluit. Deze onderhandelingen zijn een raakvlak tussen project en proces, waarbij in mijn optiek het procesmatig denken leidend moet zijn. Ik denk dat de overgang van proces naar project bij infrastructuurprojecten het best vergeleken kan worden met een stapsgewijze grafiek. In gebiedsontwikkeling ligt dit vaak anders. Uiteindelijk moet het proces hier ook wel leiden tot een project, maar je kunt meer laveren omdat je niet gebonden bent. Dit leidt tot een meer grillige verhouding tussen projectmatig en procesmatig werken. maar in de praktijk wordt deze theorie soms doorbroken en vraagt het proces om hernieuwde aandacht. Je ziet een groot verschil tussen de ideale situatie en de praktijk, wat betreft de verhouding tussen projectmatig en procesmatig sturen. We streven er wel naar om het proces af te bouwen maar de wereld om ons heen staat niet stil. Er zijn veel externe invloeden die vragen om een nieuwe procesaanpak. Het teruggaan naar procesmatig werken is wel een risico. Er zijn inmiddels projectmatige mensen aan het werk gezet, die rationeel aan de slag zijn en geen verstoring willen van hun procedures. Dat kan botsen. March 2010 153

Bovendien speelt niet alleen de tijd een rol bij het bepalen van deze verhouding. De verhouding tussen project- en procesmanagement hangt niet alleen samen met de tijd, de complexiteit en je tegenspelers bij de partners in het project spelen ook een grote rol. Ik denk dat er niet een ideale verhouding of model is voor de verhouding tussen proces- en projectmanagement, dit hangt van het project af. Naarmate een project meer in de samenleving staat zal de verhouding tussen proces- en projectmanagement grilliger zijn van structuur. Wat niet blijkt uit een verhouding, is wat prevaleert in tijden van crisis, bij de aanpak van een probleem. Gaan we dan voor snelheid of voor draagvlak? De projectleiding moet juist op die momenten procesmatig sturen in mijn optiek. Managers zijn vaak gespecialiseerd in projectmanagement of procesmanagement Projectmanagement en procesmanagement zijn gebaseerd op een andere manier van kijken en dat kan je niet bij dezelfde mensen neerleggen. Sommige mensen worden zenuwachtig van een grillige verhouding tussen project en proces omdat je scherp moet sturen om het beheersbaar te maken. Maar men moet zich realiseren dat flexibiliteit helpt om de eindstreep te bereiken Een goede procesmanager hoeft geen goede projectmanager te zijn en andersom ook niet. en daarom moet je op het juiste moment de juiste mensen inzetten. Je moet per fase kijken welk team je nodig hebt en welke kwaliteiten daarin nodig zijn. De spanning zit dan in een fase overgang. Goede projectmatige en procesmatige mensen in een team bij elkaar maakt schakelen tussen project en proces tot dagelijkse praktijk. March 2010 154

8. De rol en invloed van de proces/projectmanager Veel managers zien een belangrijk deel van hun persoonlijke rol in het proces, zij proberen bescheiden en onafhankelijk te opereren en richten zich vooral op het organiseren van processen. Managers hebben verschillende rolopvattingen en de manier waarop ze interveniëren, hangt hier sterk mee samen. Ondanks dat projectmanagers soms niet begrepen worden vinden ze hun werk wel erg leuk. Veel managers zien een belangrijk deel van hun persoonlijke rol in het proces Voor mij persoonlijk is procesmanagement in alles de rode draad gezien mijn regisserende en faciliterende rol. Het projectmanagement is van anderen. zij proberen bescheiden en onafhankelijk te opereren Ik ben helemaal niet belangrijk, ik ben geen probleemeigenaar en ik ben geen bedreiging voor de partners. Ik ben slechts hun zetbaas en doe wat zei zeggen. Ik kan niet elke keer zeggen dat de partners het fout doen. Dan wordt het heel vervelend samenwerken. Ik gun ze vooral de successen, geef ego s de ruimte en stel mezelf bescheiden op. Ik kan geen voor of tegenstanders hebben, want ik ben nergens van. De credits horen uiteindelijk bij de partners terecht te komen en niet bij de procesmanager. Zolang je iedereen in zijn recht en waarde laat, werkt een structuur met een onafhankelijke procesmanager goed. en richten zich vooral op het organiseren van processen. Ik moet ze niet vertellen wat er moet gebeuren, maar organiseren hoe het gaat gebeuren. Een proces managen is niet het uitdenken van de inhoud maar zorgen dat partijen zich daaraan binden. Ik heb helemaal niet het idee dat mijn werk gaat om interventies, ik heb het beeld dat je het proces zodanig vormgeeft dat je aan het eind met elkaar door één deur gaat. Het gaat mij niet om het object wat gerealiseerd moet worden maar het gaat mij erom dat er een proces komt met relevante informatie zodat de mensen die er op afgerekend kunnen worden hun werk kunnen doen. Managers hebben verschillende rolopvattingen Mijn sturingsfilosofie is dat je als partners gezamenlijk het project in het oog houdt. Ik wil niet alleen maar doorgeefluik zijn van een ontwerp. Dit heeft te maken met mijn rolopvatting, ik zie een meerwaarde in het organiseren van besluitvorming. Feitelijk ben ik als projectmanager voortdurend bezig om competenties te koppelen. Als projectmanager het overzicht bewaren en als leek de juiste vragen stellen, daar kun je heel veel ellende mee voorkomen. Ik denk dat bij complexe projecten het vooral belangrijk is om de raakvlakken tussen de deelprojecten scherp houden. Voor mij is het in dit complexe project altijd de zorg om de samenhang te laten zien aan buitenstaanders. March 2010 155

en de manier waarop ze interveniëren, hangt hier sterk mee samen. Mijn interventies zijn een logisch gevolg van denken vanuit besluitvorming. Vaak wordt er een rapport gemaakt en gaat men daarna nadenken hoe besluitvorming over dit rapport kan plaatsvinden. Ik geloof heilig in omgekeerd denken. Ik bepaal eerst welk besluit ik wel en op welke datum, vervolgens kijk ik wat daarvoor nodig is. Dat is veel efficiënter Een interventie is lastig te maken als je niet weet waar die toe moeten leiden. Interventies hebben daarom sterk te maken met hoe je stuurt. Interventies gebruik ik om bij te sturen, maar of we linksom of rechtsom bij het doel komen maakt mij niet uit. Het belangrijkste is dat je geen onnodige interventies pleegt en je bij je rol blijft. Ondanks dat projectmanagers soms niet begrepen worden Met mijn attitude wordt ik soms als een alien gezien. vinden ze hun werk wel erg leuk. Projecten bieden een combinatie van complexiteit en concreetheid en dat maakt het managen juist zo leuk! Het gaat om een complex project met een hoop invalshoeken en die eigenschappen maken het leuk om te managen! March 2010 156

Appendix V: Nederlandse samenvatting I Probleem formulering en onderzoeksopzet De realisatie van complexe ruimtelijke opgaven blijkt vaak moeizaam te verlopen. Het management van deze projecten wordt onder andere bemoeilijkt door de technische complexiteit, de ontwikkeling in een dynamische omgeving en de betrokkenheid van veel belanghebbenden. Om deze projecten toch succesvol te realiseren is een combinatie van projectmanagement en procesmanagement noodzakelijk. Echter, in de wetenschappelijke literatuur zijn project- en procesmanagement nog relatief gescheiden werelden. Een duidelijk framework of een algemeen aanvaarde wetenschappelijke theorie die de verbinding legt tussen project- en procesmanagement is nog niet beschikbaar. Projectmanagers lijken onvoldoende wetenschappelijke ondersteuning te krijgen om met succes project- en procesmanagement interventies toe te passen. Verwacht wordt dat project managers die een beter beeld hebben van mogelijke toepasbare interventies projecten efficiënter kunnen managen. Doelstelling van dit onderzoek is daarom het ontwikkelen van een wetenschappelijk onderbouwd kader dat een gecategoriseerd en uitgebreid overzicht biedt van project- en procesmanagement interventies en project managers ondersteunt om deze interventies met succes toe te passen in het management van infrastructuurprojecten en gebiedsontwikkeling. Om aan deze doelstelling te kunnen voldoen is een onderzoeksvraag geformuleerd en verder uitgewerkt in vier deelvragen. Hoe kunnen managers van ruimtelijke projecten, gezien de context en de uitdagingen in deze projecten, succesvol projectmatige en procesmatige interventies toepassen en daarmee het succes van hun management verhogen? 1 Welke project management en proces management interventies kunnen worden toegepast door project managers? 2 Met welke complexiteit en uitdagingen worden project managers geconfronteerd tijdens ruimtelijke projecten? 3 Wat zijn de mogelijkheden en beperkingen in het combineren van projectmatige en procesmatige interventies? 4 Gegeven de specifieke situaties en uitdagingen in ruimtelijke projecten, welke interventies moeten er worden toegepast om het succes van het totale project te vergroten? Om deze vragen te beantwoorden, zijn twee onderzoeksmethoden gebruikt. Eerst is een literatuurstudie uitgevoerd om een theoretisch kader op te stellen. Op basis van dit theoretisch kader zijn 31 interviews met ervaren projectmanagers uitgevoerd om informatie te krijgen over de toepassing van project- en procesmanagement en de mogelijkheden om invloedrijke interventies toe te passen. II Beantwoording deelvragen 1 Welke projectmanagement en procesmanagement interventies kunnen worden toegepast door projectmanagers? Managers van ruimtelijke projecten hebben de beschikking over een groot aantal interventie mogelijkheden. Interventies zijn gedefinieerd als bewuste ingrepen van een project manager in een project March 2010 157

of proces om de huidige situatie te beïnvloeden of bij te sturen en daarmee gericht op het bereiken van een verandering. Projectmanagement en procesmanagement in de pure vorm kunnen gezien worden als tegengestelde management aanpakken. Puur projectmanagement richt zich op gestructureerde voltooiing van een vastgestelde en afgebakende scope en stuurt hierbij op beheersing van tijd, geld en kwaliteit. Puur procesmanagement richt zich op het gezamenlijk mogelijk maken van een dynamische en bespreekbare scope en stuurt hierbij op het vergroten van draagvlak, acceptatie en haalbaarheid. Gedurende de interviews zijn 20 interventie mogelijkheden waargenomen waarmee projectmanagers in hun perceptie een doorslaggevende invloed kunnen uitoefenen op de project resultaten. Om deze beschikbare interventies verder te categoriseren zijn drie onderscheidende kenmerken van interventies beschreven: De interventie diepte, die de intensiteit van de nagestreefde verandering beschrijft. De interventie breedte, die het aantal door de interventie beïnvloede stakeholders beschrijft. De interventie lengte, die de lengte van de periode waarin de interventie plaatsvindt beschrijft. 2 Met welke complexiteit en uitdagingen worden projectmanagers geconfronteerd tijdens de ontwikkeling van ruimtelijke projecten? Complexiteit De context waarbinnen projectmanagers opereren in ruimtelijke projecten wordt gekenmerkt door vier componenten van complexiteit. 1 Omvang complexiteit, gerelateerd aan het aantal betrokken actoren of het aantal deelprojecten. 2 Interdependentie complexiteit, gerelateerd aan de mate van onderlinge afhankelijkheden tussen deze actoren en deelprojecten. 3 Onzekerheid in doelen, dit betekent dat de doelstellingen of de scope van het project onzeker zijn. 4 Onzekerheid in methoden, dit betekent dat er onzekerheid is over hoe de project doelstellingen gerealiseerd zullen worden. De interviews hebben enkele urgente voorbeelden van deze complexiteit opgeleverd. De financiële complexiteit van gebiedsontwikkeling wordt als hoog ervaren omdat de inkomsten kwetsbaar zijn voor marktontwikkelingen. Infrastructuurprojecten worden voornamelijk gefinancierd door de overheid waardoor de onzekerheid over de inkomsten lager is. De sociale complexiteit van ruimtelijke projecten is hoog en een belangrijke oorzaak hiervan is de politieke betrokkenheid. Betrokkenheid van verschillende overheidsniveaus is een complicerende factor en onverwachte politieke ingrepen kunnen de voortgang van projecten sterk verstoren. Uitdagingen Projectmanagers worden geconfronteerd met een groot scala aan uitdagingen die aanleiding kunnen geven tot het plegen van een interventie. Een onderscheid kan worden gemaakt tussen uitdagingen voortkomend uit onverwachte gebeurtenissen en uitdagingen voortkomend uit kansen. In het geval dat de kans op een gebeurtenis reeds bekend is, kan de projectmanager hier vooraf op inspelen en een interventie voorbereiden. Onverwachte gebeurtenissen vragen om een reactie achteraf. Het onderzoek heeft geleid tot een overzicht van uitdagingen die project managers als urgent ervaren. Het bereiken de gewenste ruimtelijke kwaliteit is een van de belangrijkste uitdagingen bij gebiedsontwikkeling. Het vasthouden aan de planning en het maken van snelheid is relatief minder be- March 2010 158

langrijk in de realisatie van gebiedsontwikkeling, zeker in vergelijking met infrastructurele projecten. De planning wordt vaak gezien als een afgeleide van de kwaliteit en het budget. Het verhogen van de snelheid van de planningsfase is wel een van de grootste uitdagingen voor projectmanagers in infrastructuurprojecten. Een van de belangrijkste vraagstukken in alle typen ruimtelijke projecten is het betrekken en informeren van de juiste belanghebbenden. 3 Wat zijn de mogelijkheden en beperkingen in het combineren van project- en procesmanagement interventies? Projectmanagement is gebaseerd op beheersing en het verminderen van complexiteit terwijl procesmanagement is gebaseerd op flexibiliteit en het omgaan met complexiteit. Als gevolg van deze intrinsieke verschillen kunnen projectmatige en procesmatige interventies elkaars mogelijkheden beperken. Het toepassen van een project management interventie kan negatieve gevolgen hebben voor de mogelijkheid tot het toepassen van een procesmanagement interventie. Procesmanagement interventies kunnen ook een blokkade opwerpen voor latere projectmanagement interventies. Toch zijn er wel degelijk mogelijkheden om project- en procesmanagement te combineren. De wijze waarop beide aanpakken in de praktijk worden gecombineerd varieert per project als gevolg van specifieke kenmerken of omstandigheden binnen dit project. De grafiek in figuur I wordt door de geïnterviewde projectmanagers beschouwd als de beste visualisatie van de benodigde combinatie project- en procesmanagement in de onderzochte ruimtelijke projecten. Uit deze grafiek blijkt dat het kwantitatieve aandeel van procesmanagement afneemt gedurende het project maar dat altijd een kleine hoeveelheid procesmanagement nodig blijft. De daling van het aandeel procesmanagement verloopt grillig, wat betekent dat de daling meerdere malen wordt onderbroken door een tijdelijke hernieuwde aandacht voor het proces. Deze hernieuwde procesmatige focus weerspiegelt zich in pieken in de grafiek. Figuur I: De verhouding tussen project- en procesmanagement Projectmanagers ervaren dat deze pieken worden veroorzaakt door twee verschillende gebeurtenissen. Ten eerste kan een piek duiden op besluitvorming. Voorafgaand aan besluitvorming speelt procesmanagement een belangrijke rol en dit leidt tot een procesmatige piek. Een tweede verklaring voor de pieken is de aanwezigheid van een onverwachte gebeurtenissen. In reactie op deze plotselinge uitdagingen is vaak tijdelijk extra procesmanagement nodig. De grillige grafiek geeft aan dat projectmanagers moeten kunnen schakelen tussen verschillende benaderingen omdat op het ene moment een projectmatige interventie vereist is terwijl kort daarna een procesmatige benadering wenselijk kan zijn. March 2010 159

4 Welke interventies moeten, gezien de specifieke context en uitdagingen in ruimtelijke projecten, worden toegepast om het succes van deze projecten te vergroten? Project managers en hun organisatie moeten op het juiste moment een interventie kunnen toepassen die goed aansluit bij de situatie in het project. Omdat elke projectsituatie weer verschillend is, betekent dit dat ook steeds unieke interventies toegepast moeten worden. Ondanks dat de exacte inhoud van een interventie uniek is, zijn wel een aantal interventiemechanismen worden geïdentificeerd die in meerdere situatie succesvol toegepast kunnen worden. Een overzicht van deze interventie mechanismen, waarmee managers een cruciale bijdrage kunnen leveren aan het project resultaat, is weergegeven in figuur II. Figuur II: Overzicht van interventie mechanismen Pure interventies verwijzen naar procesmanagement interventies en projectmanagement interventies die volledig in overeenstemming zijn met de definities van project- en procesmanagement zoals gebruikt in dit onderzoek. Elementen die vragen om projectmanagement zijn een vastgestelde scope, hiërarchische relaties, een stabiele omgeving en beperkte complexiteit. Elementen die vragen om procesmanagement zijn een bespreekbare scope, wederzijds afhankelijke stakeholders, een dynamische omgeving en hoge complexiteit. Elkaar versterkende interventies zijn projectmatige interventies die bijdragen aan het bereiken van procesmatige doelstellingen en procesmatige interventies die bijdragen aan de verwezenlijking van projectmatige doelstellingen. Elkaar compenserende interventies zijn projectmatige interventies aangevuld met procesmatige randvoorwaarden en procesmatige interventies aangevuld met projectmatige voorwaarden. Deze March 2010 160

randvoorwaarden zijn een compensatie voor de mogelijke negatieve effecten van de oorspronkelijke interventie. Elkaar faciliterende interventies zijn projectmatige interventies die mogelijk zijn door middel van de uitkomsten van een eerder proces en procesmatige interventies die mogelijk zijn door de resultaten van eerdere projectfasen. III Conclusies Beantwoording onderzoeksvraag Hoe kunnen managers van ruimtelijke projecten, gezien de context en de uitdagingen in deze projecten, succesvol projectmatige en procesmatige interventies toepassen en daarmee het succes van hun management verhogen? Projectmanagers kunnen invloed uitoefenen op het succes van hun project door het toepassen van interventies die aansluiten bij de kenmerken van de project situatie. Er zijn 20 onderscheidende interventie mogelijkheden waargenomen waarmee projectmanagers een cruciale invloed kunnen uitoefenen op het projectresultaat. Voor projectmanagers is het belangrijk om de elementen van een projectsituatie in het oog te houden die bepalen of de situatie vraagt om een projectmatige of een procesmatige aanpak. Situaties in ruimtelijke projecten vragen zelden uitsluitend om projectmanagement of uitsluitend om procesmanagement. Veel vaker worden zijn beide management benaderingen benodigd. Daarom moeten in interventies aspecten van de project- en procesmanagement worden gecombineerd en er zijn diverse interventiemechanismen die gebruikt kunnen om deze combinatie te realiseren. Ambigue en complexe project situaties bemoeilijken het kiezen van de meest effectieve interventie. Om toch de best mogelijke keuze voor een interventie te maken moeten een project manager en zijn organisatie beschikken over: Een goed analytisch vermogen om toekomstige uitdagingen in ruimtelijke projecten te herkennen. Een goed analytisch vermogen om de aanwezigheid van verschillende componenten en dimensies van project complexiteit te herkennen. Kennis over factoren die bepalen of een projectsituaties geschikt is voor het toepassen van een projectmatige of een procesmatige interventie. Kennis over het combineren van project- en procesmanagement in slimme interventie mechanismen. De kwaliteit om effectieve interventies te bedenken en toe te passen die aansluiten bij de kenmerken van unieke situaties die zich voordoen in ruimtelijke projecten. Wetenschappelijke waarde onderzoeksresultaten Er zijn drie mogelijke bijdragen van dit onderzoek aan het verbinden van de momenteel relatief gescheiden wetenschappelijke discussies over project- en procesmanagement. 1 Deze studie toont aan dat de combinatie van project- en procesmanagement in de praktijk regelmatig plaatsvindt. Project- en proces management worden door projectmanagers vaak als vanzelfsprekend gecombineerd om met hun interventies aan te sluiten bij de kenmerken van een project situatie. Ook in de wetenschappelijke literatuur zullen deze gescheiden werelden gekoppeld moeten worden. March 2010 161

2 Dit onderzoek biedt inzicht in de verbinding tussen project- en procesmanagement op het projectniveau. Projectmanagers schakelen tussen een projectmatige en een procesmatige aanpak in de fase rond besluitvormingsprocessen en in reactie op onverwachte gebeurtenissen. Deze werkwijze vertaalt zich in een grillige verhouding tussen de vraag naar project- en procesmanagement gedurende de ontwikkeling van ruimtelijke opgaven. 3 Er is een kader ontworpen dat conceptueel laat zien hoe interventies kunnen plaatsvinden op het raakvlak van project- en procesmanagement. Dit kader biedt een beschrijving van mechanismen waarmee managers van oorsprong tegenovergestelde management aanpakken combineren en elkaar ondersteunen. Kanttekeningen bij onderzoek Nadeel van dit onderzoek is dat door middel van interviews de perceptie van projectmanagers is gemeten en dat er geen mogelijkheid was om deze percepties ook objectief te controleren. Dit heeft diverse consequenties. De respondenten hebben mogelijk een te positief beeld geschetst van hun projecten waarbij met name successen zijn benadrukt. Bovendien bestaat de mogelijkheid dat de respondenten hun eigen rol in de projecten overschatten en onvoldoende reflecteren op de mogelijk grote invloed van de context. Hoewel interviews zijn beoordeeld als de beste methode voor het beantwoorden van de onderzoeksvraag, verzwakken deze elementen de stelligheid van de geformuleerde conclusies. IV Aanbevelingen Op basis van dit onderzoek zijn drie aanbevelingen geformuleerd waarmee projectmanagers de effectiviteit van hun management kunnen vergroten. Zoek windows of opportunity Het succes van interventies is sterk afhankelijk van de context waarin ze worden toegepast. Het toepassen van een interventie in de juiste context vraagt om een goede voorbereiding. Het wordt daarom aanbevolen om actief te zoeken naar zogenoemde windows of opportunity. Dit zijn de ideale mogelijkheden om met succes een specifieke interventie toe te passen. Hoe kunnen deze mogelijkheden herkend worden? Ten eerste gaat een window of opportunity altijd gepaard met ontevredenheid over de huidige situatie of een kans op een significante verbetering. Voor het toepassen van een procesmatige interventie is daarnaast de aanwezigheid van een hoge urgentie bij de betrokken stakeholders belangrijk, zodat men zich samen voor de interventie zal inspannen Voor het succesvol toepassen van een projectmatige interventie, die hoofdzakelijk door de projectmanager zelf toegepast zal worden, is het ontbreken van mogelijke weerstand cruciaal. Verbind project- en procesmanagement Situaties in ruimtelijke projecten bevatten tegelijkertijd zowel elementen die vragen om procesmanagement als elementen die vragen om projectmanagement. Om succesvol te interveniëren in deze ambigue project situaties moeten projectmanagers geen strikte scheiding tussen beide aanpakken hanteren. Er moeten juist interventies worden toegepast die aspecten van project- en procesmanagement combineren. Het verbinden van project- en procesmanagement kan door invulling te geven aan drie interventie mechanismen die tijdens dit onderzoek zijn waargenomen. March 2010 162

Gebruik interventiemechanismen Het combineren van project- en procesmanagement in één interventie kan op diverse manieren. Zoals een interventie moet passen bij de context, geldt dit ook voor de manier waarop project- en procesmanagement moeten worden gecombineerd. E zijn drie interventiemechanismen die, afhankelijk van de context, een succesvolle combinatie van project- en procesmanagement bieden. 1 Elkaar versterkende interventies: Projectmanagement hoeft niet alleen gebruikt te worden voor de realisatie van projectmatige doelstellingen, het kan het ook bijdragen aan de verwezenlijking van procesmatige doelen. Omgekeerd hoeft procesmanagement niet alleen gebruikt te worden voor het bereiken van procesmatige doelen, het kan het ook bijdragen aan de verwezenlijking van projectmatige doelen. Er wordt aanbevolen project- en procesmanagement te laten bijdragen aan elkaars doelstellingen zodat beide aanpakken elkaar kunnen versterken. 2 Elkaar compenserende interventies: Projectmanagement interventies kunnen weerstand oproepen bij betrokkenen en procesmanagement interventies kunnen overmatige openheid bevatten en daarmee extra onzekerheid veroorzaken over de scope, de planning en het budget. Het wordt aanbevolen om deze mogelijke negatieve effecten van interventies te compenseren door projectmatige randvoorwaarden toe te voegen aan procesmatige interventies en procesmatige randvoorwaarden toe te voegen aan projectmatige interventies. Op deze wijze compenseren beide aanpakken elkaars nadelen. 3 Elkaar faciliterende interventies: Het benoemen en gebruiken van projectmatige resultaten kan een basis vormen voor het toepassen procesmanagement interventies. Omgekeerd kunnen ook de resultaten van eerdere processen worden gebruikt om projectmanagement interventies toe te passen. Het wordt aanbevolen om project- en procesmanagement interventies toe te passen op basis van elkaars resultaten. Op deze wijze faciliteren beide aanpakken elkaar toepassing. March 2010 163