Course Code and Title ODC 028: The Nature of Student Support Services in Distance Education and Open Learning Course Description In the first part of the Programme, you learnt about education in general, history and philosophy of distance education and open learning in particular. You also studied about communication and the development of study materials in different media. In this second part, you are going to study about learner support services as well as research and evaluation. You will also study about management and the basis for sustainable distance education and open learning programmes/institutions. Furthermore, this part will empower you with knowledge and skills for carrying out an Independent Study. The essence of this task is to enable you to do a specific project in an area of interest to you. We hope that the project will assist you to write and submit a comprehensive academic paper at the end of the Programme. Any distance education and open learning system must have provisions for developing study materials and providing learner support services. These are the fundamental activities of such a system. In this Unit, you will learn about learner support services. We will attempt to define learner support services and also explain why it is essential for any distance education and open learning system to provide them to its learners. However, the Unit will introduce you to types of learner support services, their cost - factor and ways of providing them cost - effectively. At the end of the Unit, you will be exposed to different models of Regional and Local Study Centres. You will also study about the kind of support services such Centres organize and provide to their respective learners. Course Objectives After studying this Unit, you should be able to: Define learner support services, Explain the nature and importance of learner support services, Analyse the cost - factor in the provision of learner support services,
Discuss ways of providing learner support services cost- effectively., Organise provision of support services through Regional and Local Study Centres, and Analyse organization of Regional and Study Centres in different distance education and open learning institutions, Pre-requisites Mode of assessment The course is graded at a total of 100%. The following is the breakdown of your compulsory assessment tasks and grading of the tasks. 1. Main Timed Test: It carries 30%. 2. Annual Examination: It carries 70%. Pass Mark: The pass mark for the course is 40%. Course content This Unit is structured into six parts: Part 1: What are Learner Support Services? Lecture 1: Defining Learner Support Services Part 2: Identification and Provision of Learner Support Services Lecture 2: Identification of Learner Support Services Lecture 3: Conditions for Appropriate Learner Support Services Part 3: The Nature and Importance of Learner Support Services Lecture 4: Distance and Traditional Education Systems: Any Differences? Lecture 5: Distinctive Features of Distance Education and Open Learning. Part 4: Characteristics of a Poor Distance Education and Open Learning System Lecture 6: Characteristics of a Poor Distance Education and Open Learning System Part 5: Cost Factor in Providing Learner Support Services Lecture 7: Cost Structure of Distance Education and Open Learning Lecture 8: Ways of Controlling Cost Part 6: Organisation of Regional and Local Study Centres Lecture 9: Roles of Regional and Local Study Centres Lecture 10: Organisation of Regional and Local Study Centres
Part 1: What are Student/Learner Support Services? Lecture 1: Defining Student/ Learner Support Services Introduction One of the major objectives of distance education and open learning is to democratize access to education by taking it to the doorsteps of willing learners. To achieve this objective, distance education and open learning institutions prepare and provide to learners self-instructional study materials. Furthermore, such institutions enroll learners on an open entry system. However, not everyone enrolled on a distance education and open learning course completes it successfully. In practice, a very high percentage of learners do not complete the course(s) successfully. They drop - out. Who are drop outs? Drop - outs are not failures. While failures complete the course requirements and qualify to sit for the final examination, they fail to clear it. On the contrary, drop - outs either do not start the course or do not complete the course work as a result of which they cannot do the final/term- end examination. Given these circumstances, distance education and open learning institutions provide learners with special services in order to enable them complete their courses successfully. What is the name given to such services? The name given to such services is student/learner support services. In this Lecture, we will define learner support services and identify three types of distance learners namely successful, non starters and mid course drop outs. Support services make successful learners. Naturally, support services can transform non starters and even mid course drop outs into active and eventually successful learners. Provision of learner support services is an essential measure for controlling drop- out or attrition rates which are often quite high in distance education and open learning systems. Furthermore, in this Lecture, we will learn about different kinds of support services which can be provided to distance learners. Support services may be divided into three categories:
Administrative support, Tutorial support, and Emotional support. Finally, in this Lecture, we will identify and discuss in detail essential conditions for providing appropriate support services to learners in a distance education and open learning system. Objectives After studying this Lecture, you should be able to: Define learner support services. Identify three types of distance learners. Discuss characteristics of distance learners. Classify challenges which distance learners face. Defining Learner Support Services In this part of the lecture, we will define learner support services and discuss specific problems which different types of distance learners face. We will start by defining learner support services. What are learner support services? Special services which distance education and open learning institutions provide to learners to enable them complete their courses successfully are called learner support services. They involve learner- centred actions or interventions made by the institution to ensure that a learner admitted to a course fulfills the objectives of the course and achieves the required standard. Learner support services involve delivery of study materials and provision of strategies for motivating and guiding learners to overcome problems which may jeopardize their chances for successful learning. Can you identify some of these problems? In order to answer this question correctly, it is essential to identify types of distance learners.
Types of Distance Learners In a study carried out at IGNOU (ES-313:1), three types of distance learners were identified: Successful distance learners, Non-starters, and Mid- course dropouts. The IGNOU study analyzed the characteristic features of each type of distance learners in terms of its: Reaction to various situations and issues e.g. need for additional study materials, need for changes in the syllabus and content of the programme, problems of learning at a distance, etc. and Attitudes, behaviour to challenges/difficulties of distance learning. The findings from the study were as follows: (i) Successful Distance Learners It was found that successful distance learners: Expressed the need for additional and supplementary reading materials, Did not feel the need for bringing about any changes in the syllabus and the content of the training programme, Had completed a number of assignments under pressure of time, Had discontinued their studies for varying periods of time at varying occasions during the academic sessions for difficulties posed by social commitments (64%); occupational commitments (26%) and difficulties posed by the study units (10%), Accepted that there were hardly any postal delays, and Accepted that in general there were no delays in receiving the study units and the evaluated assignments from the institute.
(ii) Non-Starters Who are non - starters? These are admitted learners who either do not register for the course or do not submit a single assignment after registering for the course. The IGNOU study found that learners in this category apply for the course in order to: Learn a new discipline, Benefit from a suitable mode of instruction, Obtain professional training, and Obtain an additional qualification. It is, therefore, quite possible that non-starters find their course of interest unsuitable to successful pursuit of the foregoing objectives. However, where this is not the case, what other reasons may lead to the rise of this category of learners? In the specific case of the IGNOU study, it was found out that besides high difficulty level of the study materials, learners fail to attempt assignments due to: hostile circumstances (7%) heavy responsibilities at home (30%) heavy official responsibilities (27%) non-availability of time (36%) (iii) Mid-course dropouts Admitted learners (including those who complete the training programme successfully) think of dropping out at one or the other stage of the course work. Those who complete the programme state the following two reasons for having thought of dropping out: difficulty level of study units. Non-availability of time. However, important reasons which help them not to drop out include the support they get from home, the institute and self-motivation. It may, therefore, be emphasized that difficulties pertaining to time-availability, study units and support account for drop - out cases in distance education and open learning. For example, in the case of the IGNOU
Study, while both the successful learners and drop - outs found tutor- comments useful, purposeful, adequate and encouraging; drop outs considered face-to-face teaching as their most preferred mode of instruction. Similarly, while those who completed the programme felt that the grades awarded were mostly up to their expectations, the dropouts felt that the grades did not help them in their studies adequately. Other interesting findings on drop-outs from the IGNOU study may be summarized as indicated below: Some drop - outs enroll in more than one programme at the same time. They drop - out from the programme they find to be more demanding, and Other drop- outs claim that their main objective is not certification but to obtain knowledge/experience from the training programme. They are not, therefore, drop - outs. Review Questions (i) Define the following terms: Student Support Services Drop - outs (ii) Are there drop outs, successful learners and non starters in a distance education and open learning programme familiar to you? (iii) Which category of learners is the most predominant? (iv) Mention challenges which distance learners face in their studies.
Part 2: Identification and Provision of Learner Support Services Lecture 2: Identification of Learner Support Services Introduction In the previous lecture, we defined learner support services and identified three types of distance learners namely successful, non starters and mid course drop outs. We pointed out that support services make successful learners. Naturally, support services can transform non starters and even mid course drop outs into active and eventually successful learners. We also emphasized that provision of learner support services is an essential measure for controlling drop- out or attrition rates which are often quite high in distance education and open learning systems. In this lecture, we will learn about different kinds of support services which can be provided to distance learners. Objectives After studying this lecture, you should be able to: Explain the need for providing learner support services in distance education and open learning Discuss types of learner support services. List down services provided under each type of learner support services. Identification of Learner Support Services In a distance education and open learning system, a variety of support services are provided in order to address the identified problems. Sewart (1993) has mentioned the following: Timely delivery of study materials, Counselling and guidance, Tutorials/practical sessions at study- centres or in study groups, Correspondence with part-time tutors, Groups telephone tutorials, Broadcast/recorded media tutorials, Learners registration for tests and examinations, Record keeping,
Social events such as open days and graduation ceremonies and Learners newsletters. Types of Learner Support Services It is important to note that learner support services can be classified into three categories: Administrative support, Tutorial support, and Emotional support. Which services constitute each type of leaner support services? i. Administrative support The following services constitute administrative support: Dispatch of study materials to learners in complete and timely fashion. Information of different kind: - Institutional profile, - Enrolment procedures, - Course profile, - Who to contact under different circumstances, - Fees and mode of payment, - When and how assignments are to be submitted, and - Examination procedures. Dispatch of the right examination to the right candidates, location and time, as well as Accurate and complete record keeping systems. ii. Tutorial Support It is also known as intellectual support or tuition. It provides supplementary teaching to distance learning as certain areas of knowledge and skills e.g. science practicals, drama, language practices, etc; can only be taught effectively through face to face, broadcast and recorded media. There are, therefore, a variety of ways of providing tutorial support. They include:
Occasional face to face sessions at study - centers, week- end schools and in study groups, By telephone. By e-mail. By post, By broadcast and recorded media, and By audio and video conferences. iii. Emotional Support/Counseling and Guidance You will learn more about this support service in ODC 030: Counselling and Guidance in Distance Education and Open Learning. However, you should bear in mind that the essence of this service is to assist learners to solve both social and even academic problems in the course of their studies in order to be able to complete the studies successfully. Counselling and guidance are defined as: a process which is concerned with change and growth, but it is not the counselor who seeks to change the client. It is the client who seeks change and development within himself and the counsellor s role is to aid such change, not by taking over direction from the client, but by enabling him to clarify goals and feelings to the point where he confidently assumes selfdirection. A learner is normally provided with counseling and guidance services in three phases: Pre enrolment phase, Enrolment Phase, and Post enrolment phase. Pre enrolment phase The first phase is the pre-enrolment phase during which a prospective learner is provided with background information on the institution, courses being offered, enrolment requirements, learning procedures and prospects. Besides verbal presentation, this information may be available in a prospectus, learners guide, handbook for learners, learners newsletters, etc.
Enrolment Phase The second phase is the enrolment phase during which the learner is assisted to overcome social and even academic problems which may interfere with his/her studies. This entails provision of services like mail and phone contacts with part-time tutors, registration for examinations, counseling sessions/clinics, organization of open days and graduation ceremonies, accurate and complete record keeping, etc. Post enrolment phase The third phase is the post- enrolment phase. In this phase, besides successful learners, efforts are also made to follow-up the drop - outs. While the former are provided with career counselling and advice on further or alternative study opportunities, the latter are counseled in order to re-activate them. Let us now proceed to discuss issues which you need to be aware of in order to be able to provide appropriate support services to learners. This is the scope of the following lecture. Review Questions (i) Mention three types of leaner support services. (ii) Identify specific services provided under each type of learner support. (iii) Mention the three stages of providing counseling and guidance services to distance learners. (iv) Identify and discuss services provided under each stage of counseling and guiding distance learners.
Lecture 3: Conditions for Appropriate Learner Support Services Introduction In lecture 2, we learnt about different kinds of support services which can be provided to distance learners. In this lecture, we will discuss issues which you need to be aware of in order to be able to provide appropriate support services to learners. Objectives Identify conditions for providing appropriate support services to learners. Explain how different issues influence the planning and provision of learner support services. Mention typical problems of distance learners. Analyse implications of providing learner support to different categories of distance learners. Conditions for Providing Appropriate Support Services to Learners It is generally agreed that knowledge on the following issues is essential for this purpose. The issues are: i. Characteristics of adult learners, ii. Demographic factors, iii. Motivation orientation, iv. Learning factors, v. Subject background, vi. Resource factors, and vii. Typical problems of distance learners. (i) Adults as learners According to Brookfield (1986), adult learners have the following nine characteristics: Adults maintain the ability to learn, Adults are a highly diversified group of individuals with widely differing preferences, needs, backgrounds and skills, Adults experience a gradual decline in physical/sensory capabilities, The learner s experience is a major resource in learning situations,
Self-concept moves from dependency to independence as individuals grow in responsibilities, experience and confidence, Adults tend to be life-centres in their orientation to learning, Adults are motivated to learn by a variety of factors, Active learner participation in the learning process contributes to learning, and A comfortable, supportive environment is a key to successful learning. It is important to realize that adults past experiences of learning may act against them as well as acting in their favour. For many adult learners, their previous studying career was marked by lack of success, exclusion and frustration. Coming back to studying as an adult against such a psychological and possibly social background can be a challenging task. In addition, as adult learners generally have wider commitments than children, the place studying takes in their lives is therefore quite different. This can be a positive factor, in that it enables some adult learners to keep the stresses of studying in better perspective; or a negative factor, in that studying has to compete with essential life maintenance activities such as keeping a family, growing food, holding on a job and finding enough money to get on (COL and IEC, 1997). However, if you exploit carefully factors above, you will be able to control significantly all the negative factors undermining the progress of adult learners. (ii) Demographic factors In developing learners support service systems, you should consider the following issues and questions with regard to the demographic characteristic of the learners:
How many learners are you likely to have? What age(s)? Gender status? Family status? Number of children? Geographic location (rural/urban)? Previous education? Language(s) read and spoken? and Employment status. (iii) Motivation orientation Questions to raise here include: Why are they learning? How might your programme relate to their lives or work? What do they want from the programme? and What are their hopes and fears? It is important to stress that availability of accurate information on learners motivations is extremely crucial as adult learners always learn with specific motives. Once we are aware of these motives, we can easily assist them to realize their goals during the learning process. (iv) Learning factors Here, you need to collect information on the following questions: What are their beliefs about learning? What learning styles do they prefer? What learning skills do they have (reading ability)? and What experience do they have of distance learning?
It is always tempting for educators to assume that learners are aware of correct learning skills. Often, this is far from being the case. As a matter of fact, learners tend to be even more limited in the area of correct learning skills at a distance. For this reason, some distance education institutions provide their learners with study guides containing guidelines or essential distance learning skills. (v) Subject background As far as this area is concerned, questions to consider include: How do they feel about the subject of the programme? What knowledge and skills do they already have in that subject? What misconceptions of inappropriate habits do they have? and What personal interests and experience might they have that are relevant? Knowledge on the subject background is essential in ensuring that supplementary information through relevant support media is provided only in those areas of the subjectmatter which have not been covered adequately through the lead medium. For example, a point which is well treated in print need not to be repeated in a face to face tutorial or in a laboratory experiment. (vi) Resource factors Questions to consider here are as follows: Where, when and how will they be learning? Who will be paying their fees and other expenses? How much time will they have available for study? What access will they have to facilities such as study centres? What access will they have to the equipment and media required for the course? What access will they have to human support from tutors, mentors, colleagues, other learners?
As already indicated, provision of support services is a costly activity. Among other things it may require learners to pay for the services and acquire access equipment such as computers, television and radio sets. It is, therefore, essential to ensure that the majority of the learners have the required resources to following instructions in other media. Otherwise, it may be difficult to treat all the learners in terms of equality and equity. (vii) Typical problems of distance learners Besides answers to the questions already raised, it is still essential to be aware of the following problems of distance learners: Family pressures, Worries about work and money, Lack of books and libraries, Lack of own study space; Isolation, Lack of transport to get to tutorials, Lack of confidence, No undisturbed study time, Low levels of reading ability, and Too busy to attend tutorials. We have already emphasized that one of the objectives of providing support services to distance learners is to enable them study successfully. However, successful learning is a product of both academic and non-academic factors. Non-academic factors as those outlined above should also be catered for in the provision of support services in order to promote successful learning. It is within the context of counseling and guidance that these non-academic factors may be tackled. It is, therefore, essential to collect information on the above areas, through for example, registration forms, questionnaires and interviews, as these characteristics of your learners
have implications on the way you design your learners support services. See an example in Table 1 Table1: Implications of learner support services If my learners Are paying for the course themselves Have a fixed amount of time available Will not see any obvious reason why they should send in assignments regularly for correction and feedback Have considerable experience in the subject covered by the course Differ from me in the way they use certain key terms and ideas, and in their attitude to studying Are women and men. Have to travel a long distance to reach study centres. I must Try to avoid expensive media Be restrained in how much time I expect them to commit to tutorial attendance and to completing assignments Emphasise how doing the assignments and receiving their tutors feedback/comments might benefit them Exploit that experience by using examples suggested by learners Begin by laying bare and exploring the differences Make sure that arrangements for tutorials, the language, examples and behaviour used by all support personnel are equally welcoming to and inclusive of men and women. Be careful to make the tutorial programme as convenient, effective and useful as possible. Source: COL & IEC (1997) p. 26 Review Questions (i) Mention and discuss different ways which the OUT employs in providing tutorial support to its learners. (ii) Outline issues you need to consider in planning for the provision of learner support services. (iii) Discuss any three typical problems facing distance learners in an ODL institution familiar to you. (iv) Using three relevant examples, analyse the implications of providing learner support to different categories of distance learners.
Part 3: The Nature and Importance of Learner Support Services Lecture 4: Distance and Traditional Education Systems: Any Differences? Introduction In the previous lecture, we noted that learner support services may be classified into three categories namely: Administrative support. Tutorial support, and Emotional support. We also noted that provision of learner support services is an essential measure for controlling drop- out or attrition rates which are often quite high in distance education and open learning systems. This lecture will explore further the nature and importance of learner support services. This will be done within the context of the differences between traditional and conventional education systems. Objectives After studying this lecture, you should be able to: Identify and discuss distinctive features which differentiate distance and traditional education systems. Illustrate Holmberg s view of distance education and open learning as guided didactic conversation. Identify and discuss the distinctive features of distance education and open learning. Distance and Traditional Education Systems: Any Differences? It is generally acknowledged that distance education and open learning command a higher level of openness in access to education and training opportunities than traditional education. However, this is not the significant difference between the two systems. One expert has written:.some people, although they agree that greater openness in education is good, do not agree that the goal is a new phenomenon. In their view traditional educators have always tried to extend opportunities to more people (Mood, 1995:22).
In this regard, Mood has concluded that distance education is seen as a continuation of traditional education and not as a separate development (Ibid). Distinction between the two systems has been identified in the following areas: Learners autonomy Learners autonomy. Industrialization, Interaction and communication, Guided Didactic conversation, Two-way communication, and Interaction and Independence. Learners autonomy refers to the separation between the tutor and learners. The separation requires learners to set their learning objectives, select study methods and evaluate their performance. However, learners are able to realize these objectives depending on the extent to which the separation is compensated by the availability of learner support services. Industrialization Otto Peters (1971:42) has always stressed that distance education and open learning are products of industrialization and technological development in human societies. According to Peters, conventional education which is mainly characterized by oral and group-based practices is a pre-industrial from of education. Keegan (1996:78) shares the same views: In the universities of the Middle Ages, the ancient rhetorical form of education was replaced by the lecture, the seminar and the lesson and these have remained permanent characteristics of traditional education ever since. These can all be regarded as preindustrialized forms of education. Much as the genesis of this system is linked with the invention of the art of writing, its institutionalization cannot be divorced from the developments of the industrial era. Industrialization which brought in the development of technology made it possible for distance education to depend on facilities such as postal services, modern means of
surface, marine and air transport as well as modern forms of communication including ICTs. Interaction and Communication These are central to the concept, theory and practice of distance education and open learning. The role of the teaching institution does not end after developing and distributing study materials to learners. It must also provide effective/satisfactory learning experiences to the leaners in order to promote interaction and communication. To achieve this objective, provision should be made for support services which will promote two-way communication, guided didactic conversation and a balance between interaction and independence. For example, efforts should be made to encourage and support active learners, revive dormant ones and remind slow learners to stick to schedules. In practice, however, it is mostly active and promising learners who are catered for. Two-way Communication Besides developing and distributing study materials to learners and correcting and assessing their assignments, tests and examinations a distance education and open learning institution should communicate more frequently with the learners in order to get feedback. Communication can take the form of face-to-face sessions, mail, telephone, ICTs, etc. Continuous support in terms of communication between the tutor and the learners is essential in boosting motivation and linking the learning materials to learning. Guided Didactic Conversation The originator of the guided conversation theory, Borje Holmberg, characterizes distance education and open learning as a self-study system. However, he adds that it is not private reading as the learner is not alone. The learner benefits from having a developed course and also draws a lot of experience from supporting services. Keegan (1996:94) maintains the relationship between the supporting organization and the learner is described as a guided didactic conversation. Holmberg (1998:117) outlines the main characteristics of guided didactic conversation as follows: Easily accessible presentation of study materials; clear, use of familiar language, easily readable, moderate density of information,
Explicit advice and suggestions to the learner regarding what to do and what to avoid, what to pay particular attention to and consider and the reasons for the same, Invitation to an exchange of views, to questions, to decisions on what is to be accepted and on what is to be rejected, Attempt to involve the learners emotionally so that he or she takes a personal interest in the subject and its problems, Personal style including the use of personal and possessive pronouns, and Demarcation of changes through explicit statements, typographical means, or in recorded, spoken communication, through a change of speakers. Holmberg s view of distance education and open learning as guided didactic conversation can be illustrated thereafter: By mail Real By Telephone Guided Didactic Conversation By face to face Internalized conversation by a study of text Simulated Conversational style of course authors Source: Mcharazo,A.A.S.(2000)
It is quite apparent from the illustration that guided didactic conversation can be real or simulated. Furthermore, each type of guided didactic conversation can be provided in different forms. However, while forms of presentation of real guided didactic conversation include mail, telephone and face to face sessions, forms of presentation of simulated conversation are incorporated in the instructional materials. They include: Easily accessible presentation of study materials; clear, use of familiar language, easily readable, moderate density of information, Explicit advice and suggestions to the learner regarding what to do and what to avoid, what to pay particular attention to and consider and the reasons for the same. Invitation to an exchange of views, to questions, to decisions on what is to be accepted and on what is to be rejected, Attempt to involve the learners emotionally so that he or she takes a personal interest in the subject and its problems, and Personal style including the use of personal and possessive pronouns. The different forms of presentation can be regarded as learner support services; more specifically tutorial support services. Interaction and Independence Activities which a learner in a distance education and open learning system is required to engage in can be divided into two main groups. First, those activities which require the learner to work alone like reading, listening to a radio broadcasting, watching television, carrying out experiments, writing an assignment, thinking, etc. These are referred to as independent activities. Secondly, there are those activities which require a learner to contact other people such as tutors, colleagues and even other institutions. A good distance education and open learning system should balance the two types of activities. However, in order to realize economies of scale, emphasis should be placed on the independent learning activities.
Review Questions (i) Outline the distinct features between traditional education and distance education and open learning. (ii) Identify features of simulated conversation in ODL study materials familiar to you. (iii) Discuss the essence of learner support services in a distance education and open learning system. (iv) Analyse the need for interaction and independence in distance education and open learning. (v) Distinguish between real and simulated guided didactic conversation. Lecture 5: Distinctive Features of Distance Education and Open Learning. Introduction It is apparent from the account provided in the previous lecture that a common feature of issues which distinguish a distance education and open learning system from a conventional education system is that they are dominated by support services. For example, learners autonomy or the separation between tutors and learners requires compensation by appropriate support services. In this lecture, we will explore further, the essence of learner support services and the impact of ICTs in ODL. Objectives After studying this lecture, you should be able to: (i) Assess the impact of ICTs in the provision of learner support in ODL. (ii) Discuss the essence of providing learner support in ODL. The Nature of the Distinctive Features of Distance Education and Open Learning A common feature of issues which distinguish a distance education and open learning system from a conventional education system is that they are dominated by support services. Learners autonomy or the separation between tutors and learners requires compensation by appropriate support services. Transportation and communication facilities engendered by industrialization postal services, surface, marine and air transport, ICTs etc; enhance the capacity of distance education and open learning system
in providing appropriate and more affordable support services to learners. Besides promoting interaction and communication, appropriate and affordable support services constitute a firm foundation for two-way communication and guided didactic conversation. Furthermore, it creates a balance between interaction and independence which any good distance education and open learning system should strive to achieve. We can, therefore, conclude that it is not possible to imagine of a distance education and open learning system without support services. In other words, a distinctive feature of the system is the existence of a learner support services sub-system as one of its integral parts. In both distance and conventional education systems, four important elements exist namely a teacher, a learner, a communication system or mode and a programme to be taught or learned. We can, therefore, conclude that the essence of learner support services in a distance education and open learning system may be summarized as follows: (i) To minimize and where possible, eliminate completely drop-out and failure cases, (ii) To promote dialogue in the learning process in order to enhance effective learning and suppress indoctrination in knowledge transmission, and (iii) To ensure learners are provided with personal attention in an otherwise mass learning system.
Part 4: Characteristics of a Poor Distance Education and Open Learning System Lecture 6: Characteristics of a Poor Distance Education and Open Learning System Introduction It is useful to analyze costs in distance education and open learning in order to be aware of the specific areas in which the system has comparative advantages over the conventional education method. Incidentally, an area where the system does not enjoy comparative advantages over the conventional education method is in the provision of learner support services. For example, while the system benefits from economies of scale with increasing levels of study materials production, particularly print and broadcast; unit costs remain fixed with increasing levels of support services. In other words, the higher the number of learners provided with support services, the higher the total cost. For example, the cost of marking one assignment does not fall with the rise of the total number of assignments submitted. Similarly, the total cost of organizing a face to face session, will necessarily increase with the rise of attendance beyond the optimal level. In spite of the pedagogic, social, economic and other advantages of learner support services, it is essential to exercise great care in providing the services otherwise issues of equality and equity will be greatly compromised. On the other hand, inability to provide even a minimal level of learner support services may give rise to a poor distance education and open learning system whose characteristic features will include high drop - out and failure rates, rote learning or indoctrination and lack of personal care to learners. Objectives After studying this Lecture, you should be able to: (i) Identify features of a poor distance education and open learning system, (ii) Discuss the nature and demands of a poor distance education and open learning system,
Characteristics of a Poor Distance Education and Open Learning System Characteristic features of a poor distance education and open learning system include lack of equality and equity, high drop - out and failure rates, rote learning or indoctrination and lack of personal care to learners. Let us discuss in detail these issues Equality and Equity Provision of education in general and basic education in particular as a basic human right is enshrined in Constitutions of all Nations that are signatories to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights Convention proclaimed by the United Nations General Assembly on 10 th October, 1948. Tanzania is one of the signatories of the Convention. In 1961, the Addis Ababa Conference on Education resolved to ensure that UPE is achieved in Africa by 1980. However, the target was not realized. In 1990, at the Jomtien Conference in Thailand, the attainment of basic education for all was set to be achieved by 2000. It was emphasized that access to basic education was essential in both quantitative and qualitative terms. This is the context within which issues of equality and equity are relevant. Equality means the state of being equal for all members of a society. It means that all members are treated equally irrespective of group, class, ethnic, racial or any other background differences. In education, the concept of equality has mainly been confined to access. However, the concept needs to extend beyond mere access. It has to cover (Schiefelbain and Farrel (1978): (a) Equality of survival The extent to which learners from different background have equal chance to survive the whole cycle for given level. Issues for consideration include drop - outs, truancy, poor performance, etc; due to unequal treatment once enrolled. (b)output The extent to which the learners will achieve the same learning outcomes - knowledge, scope, attitudes, values and skills from a given curriculum or programme.
(c)outcome The extent to which the learners who have acquired same or similar attitudes will live relatively similar lives subsequent to and as a result of successful participation in a given educational programme. This is related to the external efficiency of the programme. Have learners after a given cycle equally acquired knowledge values and skills that make them more or less equally useful citizens socially and economically? In order to be realized, the modes of equality elaborated by Schiefelbain and Farrel, greatly rely on distance education and open learning as a delivery mode of education and training opportunities as well as on equality in the provision of support services. In other words, the extent to which they will be realized, will be determined by the provision of the same quantity and quality of support services to all the learners. On the other hand, equity means fairness of operating environment for all peoples. In education, if some groups or districts are deprived, sufficient resources should be availed to offset the deficit. Equal access to schooling will remain ineffective where prevailing conditions are inequitable. Once again, support services can reduce substantially inequitable conditions in a learning environment. Educational reforms in developing countries have been strongly conditioned by the need to promote equity in the education system, national unity and greater economic and social equality. In Tanzania, policy measures taken to address equity issues include the use of quota systems, integration of schools, introduction of a core curriculum, lowering entrance qualifications for disadvantaged groups and using Kiswahili as a medium of instruction. The costs of these measures include cultural alienation, undermining quality and frustrating the expectations of the advantaged groups. We have already pointed out that an important objective of any distance education and open learning system is to open up access opportunities to successful mass learning. Support services are indispensable in the pursuit of this objective.
High drop-out and failure rates In the previous lectures, we pointed out that these are engendered by provision of inappropriate and inadequate support services. Provision of appropriate and adequate support services can reduce substantially drop-out and failure rates. Rote Learning or Indoctrination A process of spoon feeding learners with knowledge without giving them the opportunity to interact, dialogue and eventually assimilate/adapt it in order to consciously accept and reject some of its aspects. Support services provide learners with the opportunity to digest and dialogue with knowledge availed to them through their study materials. Lack of Personal Care As a post-industrial era learning system, distance education and open learning is a mass learning system. Preparation of study materials is, therefore, done for mass rather than individual learners. In spite of efforts which are made to identify and establish needs of individual learners in Needs Assessment Survey (NAS), study materials cannot be prepared to cater for specific needs of a handful of individual learners. Individual learning and emotional needs are catered for at the level of the provision of support services. Without these services, the system will deprive learners of personal care. Unfortunately, however, learner support services are costly as they are normally provided to every individual learner. In other words, each learner is attended to individually during marking, counselling and face to face sessions. In spite of the constraint of cost, deliberate measures should be taken to provide personal care to distance learners. Review Questions (i) Mention and discuss characteristic features of a poor distance education and open learning system. (ii) Explain how distance education and open learning can promote equality and equity in education. (iii) Rote learning or indoctrination can be tackled by provision of appropriate learner support in ODL. Do you agree? Give reasons for your answer.
Part 5: Cost Factor in Providing Learner Support Services Lecture 7: Cost Structure of Distance Education and Open Learning Introduction In the previous lecture we cautioned that learner support services are costly as they are normally provided to every individual learner. In other words, each learner is attended to individually during marking, counselling and face to face sessions. However, we stressed that in spite of the constraint of cost, deliberate measures should be taken to provide personal care to distance learners. In this lecture, we shall discuss the cost structure of distance education and open learning. Once we are aware of the cost structure, we will be able to recommend measures to take in order to provide personal care to distance learners cost effectively. Objectives Classify costs in a distance education and open learning system, Calculate costs in a distance education and open learning system, and Recommend measures for controlling costs in a distance education and open learning system. Classification of costs in ODL High costs of providing learner support services are self - evident from the cost-structure of distance education and open learning. The framework developed by François Orivel (1987) offers a technical classification of costs in the system as follows: (i) Production costs, (ii) Diffusion costs, (iii) Reception costs, and (iv) Administrative costs. (i) Production costs They include costs for: Planning the curriculum, and Developing and producing instructional materials. (ii) Diffusion costs They include costs for:
Distributing educational materials and providing education services to learners, Duplicating print materials, audio and video cassettes, computer disks and home experimental kits, as well as their storage prior to dispatch to learners, Distributing instructional materials to learners through the post or by other courier services, Correspondence, telephone, computer-based and face-to-face tuition; payment of fees, honoraria and other expenses to tutors. Accommodation and equipment expenses, Establishing a broadcasting network, maintaining and operating it; or paying for the right to transmit programmes on the network, and Establishing a computer network, maintaining and operating it. (iii) Reception costs They include all the costs for receiving instructional materials. These include: Costs incurred by learners in buying or renting the equipment necessary to receive instructional materials (radio and audio receivers, television sets, satellite dishes and computers), or by the institution in providing such equipment to learners, Costs incurred by learners in studying, including the cost of travel to a local study center, postage and telephone costs and incidental costs like those of buying stationeries and batteries, and Institutional costs incurred in building, buying or renting local study centres facilities. (iv) Administrative Costs These include: Administrative cost of providing learner support services like - Costs for advertising courses to learners. - Dealing with potential learners inquiries.
- Allocating learners to courses, tutors and specialist services. Educational counseling, career counseling and assisting learners with disabilities or other problems, Maintenance of learners records, Costs for organizing graduation ceremonies and prevailing transcripts and certificates, Costs for the recruitment, training and assessment of part-time staff, Costs of managing permanent tutors force (payment of salaries, allowances, honoraria and maintenance of records, and Costs of the administrative directorate and its specialist support functions (planning, projects control, institutional evaluation), public relations, personnel, general and administrative building costs including the cost of utilities (power, water, waste disposal), estate costs, accounts, supplies, legal costs and secretarial functions. In my view, it may be noted that at least 75% of the costs in such a system may be charged under learner support services cost-centres. For example, while production costs may not fall directly under learner support services cost- centres, diffusion, reception and administrative costs fall directly under learner support services cost- centres. We can, therefore, conclude that provision of learner support services account for the largest share of the total cost of managing a distance education and open learning institution. This fact provides the justification for ensuring that appropriate measures are taken which will minimize costs in the provision of learner support services without compromising the quality and effectiveness of the distance education and open learning system. This will be the scope of the following lecture. Review Questions (i) Mention the four categories into which costs in distance education and open learning are classified.
(ii) Show cost centres of each category of costs in distance education and open learning. (iii) Identify diffusion and reception costs in an ODL institution familiar to you. Lecture 8: Ways of Controlling Cost Introduction In the previous lecture, we discussed the cost structure of distance education and open learning. In this lecture, we will study measures we can take in order to provide personal care to distance learners cost effectively. Objectives After studying this lecture, you should be able to: Recommend measures for controlling costs in a distance education and open learning system. Discuss how you will control costs in ODL through simulated learner and face to face support. Organise effective face to face tutorial support. Calculate costs in a distance education and open learning system. Real and Simulated Learner Support Services We have already noted that learner support services may either be real or simulated. Although real support services are more attractive and hence desirable, they are more costly than simulated support services. Furthermore, it is not easy to provide real support services to learners on the basis of equality and equity. Privileged learners tend to access such services more readily than their disadvantaged colleagues. On the contrary, as simulated support services are built in printed study materials, they are readily accessible to all learners on the basis of equality and equity. We may, therefore, conclude this discussion by noting that simulated support services constitute a form of support services which is both accessible and affordable to each learner in a distance education and open learning institution. However, for learners to benefit from this form of services, they should be assisted to study successfully instructional materials provided to them. Well
structured and written instructional materials provide learners with hints on how to study successfully. Such hints can also be availed to learners in face to face sessions. Similarly, science practicals, group discussions, clarification of difficult areas, field work, etc may be provided in face to face sessions. One way of reducing the cost of providing support services is to concentrate on the provision of simulated services and organization of face to face sessions. Given the importance of face to face sessions, the rest of this lecture will focus on the importance and ways of organizing effective face to face sessions in distance education and open learning. Face to Face Sessions The core of most distance education and open learning courses is the instructional materials. These may include audio, video cassette materials, radio or television broadcasts or written materials presented in the form of study modules or units, Braille or web materials on the internet. Instructional materials for use in a distance education and open learning system are designed and prepared to provide both the course content and the learning activities needed to consolidate learning and practice skills. In this way, learners can do most, if not all their learning from the materials alone. Do you agree? However, even well written instructional materials may be misinterpreted or misunderstood by learners. As a Tutor, you can use face to face sessions to assist the learners to understand well the instructional materials. On the other hand, for science and other practical areas of application in other subjects, face to face sessions provide opportunities to learners to engage themselves in areas of knowledge requiring practical demonstrations. These may range from science practicals in laboratories to language oral practices, seminars and teaching practice sessions. Let us now see how you will assist learners to understand the instructional materials. You can assist learners to understand instructional materials through: One-to-one contact, either face to face, by mail or by telephone, Group tutorials, and Your written feedback on assignments
One-to-one contact Learners may want to meet with you on a one-to-one basis to discuss special problems they are experiencing with the instructional materials. Individual face-to-face tutorials are ideal opportunities for you to help learners become more independent. It is important to listen carefully to what learners say and to help them discover their own solutions. Follow these tips in order to achieve this objective. Be sensitive to learners doubts and anxieties, Probe to discover what the problem is, and Help learners to find their own solutions. In order to be able to probe and discover what the problem is, you should learn to be a good listener. One common mistake Tutors make is to make judgments about their learners questions too quickly. In order to avoid this mistake, do the following: Let learners talk without interrupting them, Make brief notes on the key points raised, Ask learners to refer to specific pages, sections or paragraphs when they ask questions, Ask probing questions for clarification or additional information in case you do not understand something, and Repeat the problem in your own words to make sure you have not misunderstood it. Study the example below: Learner: What are the differences between real and simulated support services? Tutor: In which part of the instructional materials are you referring to? What are support services? Can you mention types of support services? Tutor: You know types of support services but you do not know when support services are real or simulated. Learner: Yes, that is my problem. Once you have agreed on the problem, do not rush to provide the answer. On the contrary:
- Ask the learner to guess or explain what he or she thinks the answer might be, - Use specific examples to illustrate your points wherever possible. Good examples encourage learners to visualize explanations, a strategy that promotes understanding, and - Ask the learner to repeat or paraphrase your answer. This is a way of checking whether you have been understood. Alternatively, test the learner s understanding. Avoid the common question do you understand? Even if the learner does not understand, the answer will be Yes! Instead, use questions starting with what, how, when, where, which or why. For example: Tutor: When are support services real/simulated? Learner: Support services are real when they are provided directly to learners. They are simulated when they are incorporated in instructional materials. Learners need time to think, so do not be afraid of having complete silence for a few minutes. If you do not know the answer to a question, do not pretend that you do. Admit that you do not have the answer, note the question down, and arrange when and how you will get the answer to the learner. Refer to visual and other clues (phrases, pictures, diagrams, etc) in the instructional material as much as possible when you are explaining a problem or concept. This approach will improve learners study skills and build their confidence on the instructional materials as credible source of knowledge and skills. If your learners have access to a telephone (mobile or landline), you should consider ways of using it in order to maximize its benefits to yourself and your learners. Of course, teleconferencing or two way audio, is the best mode of organizing group tutorials or
counseling sessions for distance learners. However, when it is essential to talk to individual learners, collect contact details of your learners and phone them first. Give your contact number to your learners at the beginning of the course and discuss with them preferred contact times. Although tutoring learners over the telephone requires the same communication skills as face-to-face tutoring, it is more difficult. The major limitation to using the telephone for tutoring purposes is that, you cannot see your learners faces to assess their level of comprehension. Similarly, you cannot use diagrams and other visual learning aids. Of course, this limitation can be overcome by substituting teleconferencing with the more costly option of video conferencing. However, to make a telephone tutorial effective, you should use the following strategies: When you expect learners to telephone, have the instructional materials, a pen and paper next to the telephone. Ask the learners to do the same, Ask the learners to write a list of the questions they want to ask before they phone. This saves time and helps to ensure they do not forget anything, and Make sure you know whom you are talking to. Clarify the course on which the learner is registered and the topic of the last discussion you had or assignment you marked. Before proceeding further, we should point out that face to face tutorials should account for about 10% of the study time of the course. For example, if a course requires 200 hours of study time to complete, tutorials should occupy 20 hours of that time. This proportion of self-study and face-to-face support is essential to keep intact the flexible nature of learning underlying open and distance learning. If too much time is spent conducting face-to-face tutorials we may disadvantage learners who will not be able to participate in such learning activities. Organizing a Group Tutorial We have already pointed out that group tutorials provide learners with opportunities to:
Clarify areas of difficulties in the instructional materials through discussions with other learners and Tutors facilitation, Carry out science practicals, Practice oral skills in language learning, and Organize seminar discussions and other practical applications of knowledge and skills. Steps in Planning a Group Tutorial As learners needs and expectations change as the course progresses, you should find out what learners want to get out of every tutorial before you start planning it. You may know what learners need from: Telephonic tutorials, Face to face individual tutorials, and Feedback from assignments, timed tests and examinations. The following steps will guide you in planning a group tutorial. (a) Setting Tutorial Objectives Bearing in mind learners needs and expectations, write down the objectives or learning outcomes to be attained by the learners at the end of the tutorial. Outcomes based education is an approach to education that focuses on what education enables the learners to do or understand. It moves away from traditional content based approaches to education in which the focus was on the learner being able to remember and repeat by rote everything the teacher or textbook taught, without necessarily understanding it. In outcomes based education, learners are encouraged to play an active role in the learning process and to assess their own progress against given criteria as they go along. (b) Setting Your Own Aims Besides learning outcomes, you should also set your overall aim in the tutorial. For example, you may want to clarify learners concerns in assignments, tests and examinations. You may also want to help them to do a specific science practical or to answer essay questions.
(c) Identify Key Points of Emphasis Read the section in the instructional material that is giving learners difficulties. On your tutorial planning sheet, write down the key points you want to set across to the learners. (d) Decide on the Facilitation Methods You will use and sequence them logically The tutor is not a teacher in the conventional sense of the word but a facilitator. Unlike a teacher, a facilitator has the following qualities: Acknowledges learners life experience in the learning process, He/She is sensitive to the needs and circumstances of learners, Builds a relationship of trust with learners, Treats learners with respect and as equals, and Makes the learning process interactive and learner- centred. Facilitation methods include: Ice-breaker, Group-work, Role-play, and Brainstorm. In order to sequence the learning activities logically, it is a good idea to follow the experiential learning cycle. Learning starts from what learners know, and then moves on to what they do not know and need to learn. The new information is then integrated with the old information through a variety of learning activities that give learners a chance to use and think about the new information practically and critically. See the diagram thereafter.
Start with experience: What learners already know, think and feel about the topic Reflect: Learners think about these questions: what did we do? What did we learn? What does this mean to us/to me? Add new information: Introduce new information and ideas about the topic based on what learners already know Work with this information: Learners discuss, practice and use this new information in a variety of ways that help them remember and understand it Source:SAIDE(1998) (iii)your written feedback on assignments You will learn in detail about this task in the following Unit. However, it should be stressed that feedback on assignments is an effective forum for facilitators to provide personal care to a learner. This may take the forms of advice, suggestions on how to improve the work, grading, guidelines for further reading, corrections, etc. Total Cost of a Distance Education and Open Learning System In this part of the lecture, we will discuss how to work out the total cost in a distance education system. With this knowledge, it will be easier for you to advise and even take viable measures for controlling unnecessary costs in a distance education and open learning system. The total cost (T) of an educational enterprise is made up of both fixed
(F) and variable (V) costs. In traditional education systems, costs are generally either fixed or variable with learner numbers (S). The basic cost function (formula) here is therefore: T=VS+F In a distance education system, the basic cost function needs to be extended to take account of the development of materials and presentation of courses. Similarly, it has to take into account the number of learners and their direct costs (postage, tuition, examinations, incidentals). The basic cost function for a distance education system is therefore: T=Sa+Cb+Pd+F Where T is the total cost, S is the number of learners, C is the number of courses which are being developed, P is the number of courses being presented, F is the fixed cost of the system (administrative costs and other overheads), a is the direct cost per learner, b is the direct cost of developing a course, and d is the direct course related cost of presenting a course.? What important lessons can we draw from the basic cost function of a distance education Important lessons to be drawn from the basic cost function of a distance education system are important in guiding distance education institutions to take deliberate management decisions for reducing cost. Four important lessons may be drawn (Rumble, op.cit). First, all the costs on the right hand side of the equation (underlined) (T=Sa+Cb+Pd+F) are dependent on management choice. The cost per learner (a) goes up when learners are given more rather than less materials, while the tuition cost (d) varies depending on the amount of tuition given and the tutor learner ratio.
Secondly, the direct costs of developing a course (b) will depend on the amount of materials developed and how they are developed. For example, it is more expensive to hire full-time authors than contract authors. One way of reducing the development costs of a distance education system is to ask traditional teachers to turn their lessons or lectures into distance teaching materials. Thirdly, the production costs of media vary enormously. For example, radio is much cheaper per hour s programming than television, video, audio cassette or computer. In low-technology countries, print tends to be the cheapest and most user-friendly medium. Fourthly, the more sophisticated the management and control system, the greater the fixed costs (F) of the institution are likely to be. Hence, the choice of media can affect costs considerably. Moreover, the use of media and the problems of managing costs of developing a course and the course-related costs of presenting courses are in general higher in distance teaching institutions than in traditional institutions with comparable learner numbers. To overcome this problem distance education institutions should always strive to have larger learner populations than conventional institutions (see Fig.2 below).
Cost per Student Traditional system is cheaper AC (Distance system) AC (Traditional system) Distance system is cheaper Students Figure 2: Average Costs of Traditional and Distance Education Systems Source: Rumble, 1991. If you study carefully Fig. 2, you will notice that it is only beyond the point of intersection of the carves showing the average cost (AC) of the two educational systems that distance education becomes cheaper than traditional education. You can also notice that this is happening as the system s total enrolment is rising. This means that in order to reap economies of scale, a distance education and open learning programme should always attract high learners enrolment. Review Questions (i) Analyse the cost structure of a distance education and open learning institution familiar to you. (ii) Discuss the measures you will take in order to control costs in a distance education and open learning institution. (iii) Identify measures you will employ in order to assist learners to understand well instructional materials.
(iv) Mention and discuss every step you will follow in organizing group tutorials. Part 6: Organisation of Regional and Local Study Centres Lecture 9: Organisation of Regional and Local Study Centres Introduction Normally, learner support services are provided in Regional Centres. A Regional Centre in distance education and open learning, is intermediate between the central institution and local or community study centres. This means that below Regional Centres, there are Local or Community Study Centres. At the Open University of Tanzania, they are normally referred to Students Learning Centres. However, not all distance teaching institutions have Regional Centres. Objectives After studying this lecture, you should be able to: (i) Discuss functions of Regional Centres, (ii) Distinguish Regional Centres from Local or Community Study Centres. Roles of Regional Centres Regional centres have important administrative functions, in particular organizing the operation of the study centres and the teaching at the local level. The degree of responsibility will depend on the level of autonomy granted by the central institution to the regional centres. This may well include staff recruitment and the all important briefing and training in distance education of such staff. Regional centres may also have a role in handling learner enrolments, distributing study materials, serving as examination and marking centres, processing and keeping records. In large universities like IGNOU, regional centres organize graduation ceremonies for learners they register and serve. Regional centres may further have a number of academic functions. Apart from the briefing and training of tutors implied above, their academic staff may also serve as a
source of specialist tutors for study centres. Regional academics additionally are in a good position to feedback information to course teams on how the courses are received by learners, highlighting areas of difficulty, points which need further elaboration and problem areas. Such feedback is an essential aspect in helping course teams to produce courses which are user friendly and readily accessible to those studying at a distance. Besides roles already referred to, Regional centres have an important role in learners counseling and guidance. They can act as the reference point for serious problems, sometimes resolving the problems themselves, sometimes sending them to the central institution. For example, the UK Open University employs senior counsellors at its regional offices each with overall responsibility for counselling and guidance services. Finally, regional centres can offer consultancy services in the areas of their location. For example, at Allama Iqbal Open University, regional centres fund their operations from resources generated from consultancies carried out in their areas of jurisdiction. Last but not least, regional centres normally act as the channel of communication between the central institution and local study centres or learners study groups. Most study centers try to provide services to fulfill the functions described on the previous part, but they do so in different ways. Major differences relate to how far attendance is strongly encouraged, even compulsory, or optional. Naturally, the degree of supervision tends to be greater when attendance is compulsory. Review Questions (i) (ii) (iii) Assess the importance of Regional Centres in an ODL institution. How do ODL institutions finance activities carried out by Regional Centres? Explain how the Open University of Tanzania (OUT) runs its Local/Community Study Centres.
Lecture 10: Roles and Functions of Regional and Local Study Centres Introduction Large open universities have generally chosen to establish them for greater administrative efficiency. Regional centres are established to look after clusters of study centers. The UK Open University, for example, has 13 regional centres, the smallest of which has 9 study centers catering for approximately 8000 learners. Besides Coordination Centres, the Open University of Tanzania (OUT) has 29 Regional Centres. There is a Centre in each Region in the country, with the exception of Dar es Salaam Region which has a Centre in each of its three Districts namely Ilala, Kinondoni and Temeke. To give you a better understanding of the variety and functioning of regional centers we present models from the OUT in Tanzania, Zambia Correspondence College, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Sukhothai Thamathirat Open University (STOU), Thailand, China and others from India and Britain. Information and statistical data on the OUT are drawn from the Brochure of the Directorate of Regional Services (2006) and other publications of the University. We are indebted to IGNOU for information and statistical data on the remaining institutions. Objectives After studying this section, you should be able to: (i) Discuss functions of specific Regional Centres, (ii) Explain how different institutions organize their Regional Centres, and (iii) Analyse experiences which institutions may adopt from each other in organizing Regional Centres, Local/Community Study Centres. (i) The Open University of Tanzania (OUT) The Open University of Tanzania (OUT) was established by an Act of Parliament No.17 of 1992 which became operational on March 1 st, 1993. Effective January 2007, the University is operating under the Universities Act No. 7 0f 2005 and the OUT Charter. The OUT offers its degree and non-degree programmes through the open and distance learning mode. The headquarters are along Kawawa Road, Adjacent to Biafra Grounds,
Kinondoni in Dar es Salaam where the Division of Regional Services (DRS), headed by the Deputy Vice Chancellor (Regional Services), is located. It coordinates all 25 regional centers scattered all over the country. Directorate of Regional services (DRS) Mission To coordinate operationalization of OUT programmes through the provision of quality services to staff and learners in Regional Centres so as to facilitate the attainment of OUT s Vision to be a leading world-class University in the delivery of affordable, quality education through Open and Distance Learning, dynamic knowledge generation and application. What DRS Does Specifically, the Division of Regional Services does the following: Holds coordination meetings of Directors of Regional Centres, Receives orders of study materials from the Regional Centres and ensures that supplies reach the Centres, Encourages and facilitates the acquisition of permanent offices in the Regional Centres. Sends assignments, tests, examinations questions and results to the Regional Centres, Monitors and advises on financial matters to Regional Centres, and Strengthens Regional Centres through ICT connectivity. Why Regional Centres! Originally OUT operated through zones but a need for closer proximity to the prospective learners necessitated the establishment of centres. Since its inception, the University has managed to expand its coverage and inaugurated 25 regional centers scattered all over the country. There are 23 centres in Mainland Tanzania and one in Zanzibar and Pemba respectively. Study centres or learners learning centres have also been established countrywide. By May 2005, there were over 70 Study Centres. These study centres form informal clusters of learners within the different Regional Centres where the respective
Directors of Regional Centre s make a few visits a year to meet learners and at times provide them with study materials. Table1: Establishment of Regional Regional Centres and Respective Contacts Name Established in Address Email Mwanza 1995 P.O. Box 2281 drcmwanza@out.ac.tz Morogoro 1995 P.O. Box 2062 drcmorogoro@out.ac.tz Dodoma 1995 P.O. Box 1944 drcdodoma@out.ac.tz Mtwara 1995 P.O. Box322 drcmtwara@out.ac.tz Tabora 1995 P.O. Box 1204 drctabora@out.ac.tz Kilimanjaro 1995 P.O. Boc 517 drckilimanjaro@out.ac.tz Zanzibar 1995 P.O. Box 2599 drczanzibzr@out.ac.tz Mbeya 1996 P.O. Box 2803 drcmbeya@out.ac.tz Ruvuma 1996 P.O. Box 338 drcruvuma@out.ac.tz Kinondoni 2006 P.O. Box 13224 drckinondoni@out.ac.tz Ilala 2006 drcilala@out.ac.tz Temeke 2006 drctemeke@out.ac.tz Iringa 1998 P.O. Box 1458 drciringa@out.ac.tz Mara 1999 P.O. Box 217 drcmara@out.ac.tz Kigoma 1999 P.O. Box 566 drckigoma@out.ac.tz Arusha 2000 P.O. Box 15244 drcarusha@out.ac.tz Kagera 2000 P.O. Box 1954 drckagera@out.ac.tz Lindi 2000 P.O. Box 742 drclindi@out.ac.tz Shinyanga 2000 P.O. Box 1203 drcshinyanga@out.ac.tz Singida 2000 P.O. Box 617 drcsingida@out.ac.tz Rukwa 2000 P.O. Box 255 drcrukwa@out.ac.tz Tanga 2000 P.O. Box 5467 drctanga@out.ac.tz Coast 2000 P.O. Box 30420 drccoast@out.ac.tz Manyara 2003 P.O. Box 271 drcmanyara@out.ac.tz
Pemba 2004 P.O. Box 277 drcpemba@out.ac.tz Njombe 2010 drcnjombe@out.ac.tz Katavi 2010 drckatavi@out.ac.tz Geita 2010 drcgeita@out.ac.tz Simiyu 2010 drcsimiyu@out.ac.tz Tasks of Directors of Regional Centres Manage day-to-day activities of the Centre, Take stock of study materials distributed to learners and those yet to be supplied, Register learners, collect fees and coordinate invigilation of exams and tests, Take stock of Part-time Tutors required per programme as well as the financial requirements related to the number of the required staff, Ensure effective administration of tests and examinations as well as the conduct of face-to-face sessions, Play the role of counselor to staff and learners, who find themselves in difficulties, Sensitize the population within their respective Regional Centres to enroll with OUT programmes, and Play public relations role for OUT in the relevant Region, in close collaboration with OUT headquarters. (ii) The Zambia Correspondence College Supervised Study Groups The Ministry of Education in Zambia set up a government correspondence college in 1964. One of its major tasks was to provide secondary education for large numbers of adults and young people who had completed primary school but were unable to obtain places in secondary school. The National Correspondence College of Zambia now provides a range of secondary-level correspondence courses, supported by radio programmes, for around 30, 000 learners each year. About one third of these attend special study centres. These evolved because the correspondence mode of study proved unsuitable for some learners:
It seems that the original plans were for a correspondence college which would teach simply by sending lessons through the post to individual learners. This model, in which the learner s sole educational support is the correspondence lessons, is the one developed in Europe, America and Australasia for small minorities of highly motivated learners who have already an inappropriate model in Zambia, as elsewhere; many learners at secondary level need more support than that. For this reason the College has, since 1972, been providing courses both to individuals and to groups of learners who come together in supervised study groups. The Ministry of Education hoped that this arrangement would help the College meet the needs of learners who had finished the seven-year primary course but could not find a place in secondary school. The learner at the college fall into three groups: primary school leavers who cannot get into secondary school: secondary leavers who have failed some subjects, and adults who want to obtain or improve qualifications. Many learners study by correspondence at home individually. Others work in supervised study groups, as an alternative either to working at home or to attending a regular school. Children who do best in the primary school leaving examination enroll in regular secondary schools. Those who do not do as well are encouraged to join a supervised study group. They meet in the morning or afternoon, usually at a primary school, but in some cases at a secondary school. Here they work individually on their correspondence lessons under the guidance of a supervisor. The supervisors maintain registers, supervise the learners work, and look after communication between the study center and the College. But they do not teach the students. At most they will try to help learners who have difficulty in understanding their correspondence lessons. The teaching has to come from the printed lessons, and from the radio programmes. Many of the supervisors are primary school teachers and, in general, they do not have the qualification required for secondary teaching. At the supervised study group programme has developed, some centers have been able to offer rather more support to their learners, so that the centre is run more as part of the school than as an extra, outside activity. What is a study group like? Tonny Dodds, who visited a number of them around Lusaka, gave this description:
Of course they vary, and those I saw in Lusaka may not be typical of the whole country. Some are in primary schools and some in secondary, although working at different times of the day. These is an urge-which comes from parents and learners-to make them as like schools as possible, so some of them have uniforms and they ve started branches of the Learner Christian movement and so on. The learners are mostly in their mid teens but with quite a wide age range. Often the schools run two separate groups, one for form I and one for form 2. Classes are generally quite large, with 30 to 40 learners. The supervisors vary. They are mainly primary school teachers. All of them spend some time sitting, keeping the register, and maintaining order. The better ones spend and lot of time walking round, helping learners with individual problems. Some of them do call the whole group together, to work out a problem on the board, when it s clear everybody needs help with the same thing.. The delivery system was working alright. Learners had got their lessons and the supervisor usually had a cupboard in the staff room to keep their things. Most seemed to have the supervisors handbook at the ready. On the whole we were impressed more so than I d expected. Most of it seemed to work, with some quite good supervisors, interested in doing something, and many very enthusiastic and hard-working learners. (Extracts from Hilary Perraton, The National Correspondence College of Zambia and its costs, International Extension College, Cambridge, 1983, pp 2 and 6-7.) The extract describes a system where all teaching (preparation of lessons and broadcasts and marking of assignments) is centrally done, while learners have full-time supervision. As this is no-specialist supervision, and as learners meet in empty school buildings, the cost is low; if 14% or more of the learners pass their examinations, the cost per learner is lower than the cost of those attending a school. Failure and attrition rates amongst college learners are high; up to two-thirds may fail examinations, and 25% are likely to dropout. While low pass rates in some subjects are still reported from some supervised study groups, recently some centers have produced pass rates of up to 50%. It seems that the support provided to young people in study
centres gives them a better chance of passing their-examinations than their peers studying by correspondence alone. (iii) The Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM) Off-Campus Programme The Universiti Sains Malaysia is the only Malaysian university which offers a distance education programme to home-based adult learners. It now has an annual intake of 500-600 learners studying for first degrees. It uses the dual-mode system, that is, the distance learners study the same syllabus and sit the same examinations as the internal learners. The programme was launched in 1971, and is unusual in that from the start it introduced degrees in science. This meant laboratory facilities were important and the University has thus built up a national system of study centres. The system is described below by one of the former coordinators of the programme. From the beginning of its off-campus programme, the University made an unequivocal stand on providing a high quality off-campus education which would be just as good as its on-campus education. This meant providing a support system that would ameliorate as much of the disadvantages of self-learning as possible. In order to achieve this goal, we made use of the excellent high school and teachertraining college systems spread throughout Malaysia. These physical facilities were needed to provide space for laboratory exercises, tutorial classes, library resources and examinations. We also had to employ subject tutors, counselors and study center administrators to make these facilities functional. Today there are 13 study centers spread throughout the country. No learner has to travel more than 90 km. to reach a study centre. These centres are used for the following purposes: (i) A venue for orientation meetings Fresh and continuing learners meet at the start of each academic year to plan out their study programme with the help of the University s administrators.
(ii) A venue for tutorials Between July and the following March of every academic year tutorial sessions are held every weekend for one subject or another. Learners registered for courses for which tutorials are being held on any weekend are expected to attend these sessions. (iii) A venue for laboratory classes USM is quite unique among Distance Teaching Institutions (DTIs), in that from its very early days it delivered high level science courses. To provide the necessary facilities for practical work we organized laboratory classes in the study centers. Par-time tutors/demonstrators helped with the conduct of these exercises and University supplied the necessary equipment and consumable items. At one time practical classes were conducted for about 32 science courses involving a total of j,600 hours of work per academic year per center. (iv) A venue for housing reference materials Set textbooks, reference books, photocopies of journal articles, reports, past examination papers and non-print media material are all made available for learners and part-time staff. (v) A venue for meeting visiting lectures Academic staff from the campus occasionally visit to handle especially difficult topics. (vi) A venue for assessments Learners take their continuous tests and final examinations in the familiar surroundings of their regular study centers. (vii) A venue for social gathering and self-help study groups The first is regular occurrence but the second has not really become a popular activity.
Usage of Study Centres Through experience we have found that we have to be proactive in order to popularize the use of the study centres. Learners using the facilities regularly, are often found to be the ones who do well in their courses and remain in the system till completion. Active promotion of study centres takes the form of regularly organized tutorials, peer group meetings, library and counseling sessions. The Table below gives usage statistics for a ten-month period during the 1981-1982 academic sessions. Clearly the statistics show that learners use study centres for academically-oriented activities, rather than for social and other functions. Based on data of learner course load for the 1981-1982 session, someone who registers for a maximum of 18 to 20 science credit units may spend up to a maximum of 240 hours an academic year in the study centre or about 7.5 hours a week for 32 weeks of the academic year. Although statistics are not available for the 1986-87 sessions, the impression is that study centre use has been on a steady increase over the years and it is anticipated that with more courses being added to our profile, it will continue to do so over the next few years. Table 8: Accumulated Total in Hours of Study Centre (8) Usage During the 1981-82 Academic Year. Function Hours used during a 10 month period % of Total Tutorials/Lab 6,250 66.25 Staff Visits 2,208 23.40 Library 720 7.63 Assessments 140 1.48 Meetings 52 0.55 Study Centre Staff and Management The University does not employ staff on a full-time basis to run study centres. Because of the availability of good educational institutions around the country neither do we need our own premises. Through contractual arrangements with the selected Institutions in the regions, we use the facilities during non-working hours. We employ the senior most staff of the host institution to act as our manager (designated as Resident Tutor) for the centre. His/her responsibilities include the following:
a) Organising the first meeting and subsequent meetings of all part-time staff and learners to arrange the time able and teaching activities, b) Attending the first tutorial/laboratory class and introducing the tutor to the learners and laboratory technicians, c) Receiving and being responsible for all equipment, consumable goods and library books in the study center, d) Acting as a liaison person between the University and host institution and also acting as a channel through whom the University communicates with the tutors on related matters, e) Organising the regional library leading system, and f) Counselling learners. The Resident Tutor is paid a very small monthly honorarium to carry out the above activities. The person takes his/her directions from the Director of the Off-campus Programme. She/he in turn gives direction to a host of subject tutors under his/her supervision on the conduct of their responsibilities. Each study centre has on an average about 60 part-time tutors. They are all paid by the hour and their responsibilities include assisting the learners under their care with specific study problems, help in laboratory classes, counsel on study strategies, help in doing and marking assignments and providing feedback to learners. Table 9 below illustrates the growth of our tutorial system between 1973 and 1985.
Table 9: Development of the USM Study Centres Between 1973 and 1985 Features 1973 1980 1985 No. of Centre 2 8 10 No. of Tutors 16 136 270 No. Technicians 0 16 32 No. hours used 177 6,250 6,480 No. of courses conducted 7 54 92 Besides support in the regions, the University also runs two campus-based support services. These are a reference library service whereby our learners from throughout the country borrow books and journals, and a counseling service through a HOTLINE a telephone recording service which is open 24 hours a day throughout the year. (from G. Dhanarajan, Distance Education in Malaysia, paper presented to the Regional Seminar in Distance Education, Bangkok, 26 Nov.-3 Dec. 1986, organized by the Asian Development Bank in collaboration with Sukhothai Thammantirat Open University, Thailand and in cooperation with Unesco Regional Office, Bankok, pp 17-20) However, in spite of the success of the USM in teaching effectively science practicals through its study centres, it has been cautioned as follows: First, it is very difficult to make attendance at study centres compulsory. At the Universiti Sains Malaysia, every science learner needs to clock up a minimum number of hours in the laboratory. The account above shows that regular attendance amongst USM learners is remarkably high, even though some have to travel up to 90 km. to their Centre. Secondly, the progrmme is quite small: 500-600 admitted a year, or up to 3000 studying at any one time. Thus, not more than a few hundred learners are attached to any one study centre. With larger numbers, such high attendance rates could cause organizational difficulties.
(iv) The British Open University Study Centres In the British Open University (UKOU), study centres are located according to a variable mix of the following criteria: number of learners (in terms of viable tutorial groups on foundation courses), case of access (i.e a good centre of communications) and learner travel time. In principle, all learners should have a study centre within reasonable distance from home. In practice in the more remote regions of Scotland and Wales and even some rural areas of England this is not achievable and other arrangements are made, such as roving tutors, or telephone conference contact. Study centres usually located in Colleges of Further or Higher Education are simply a meeting place with chairs and tables or desks. The principle is to provide an opportunity for meeting the tutor and other learners primarily for a tutorial discussion rather than to provide other resources. However, a baseline of a few key study centres will be equipped with sets of course unit, a television and video playback. Further resources are located in the 13 regional centres from which learners can borrow course units or relevant videos or audio cassettes. These may also be borrowed from the university s head office. Attendance at study centres is optional, and research in 1979, ten years after the university was established, show ed that 59% of learners attended study centre tutorials. The attendance tends to be concentrated in the early years and foundation (first Year) courses are specifically structured in the expectation that learners will be able to attend their local study centre. Learners are allocated a much higher level of tutorial time than is typically the case for higher level courses. Once past the foundation level, learners are likely to find that tutorials are located at more distant study centres, primarily because the smaller numbers of learners on each higher level course (given the wide choice of courses available) results in a more scattered learner population, so that offering tutorials for each course at all study centres is no longer feasible within the resources constraints. This means that there are always a few learners who are unable to attend tutorials, even though they would like to and even though their local study centre may be quite close. Apart
from these, the 1979 research indicated that by and large those learners who do not attend study centres do not want to. Perhaps third of the British OU learners are satisfied with home study and are able to complete their study at home, given that there is no requirement for OU learners to use any materials outside the course units, set books and audio-visual materials provided by the OU. In relation to the audio-visual components, it is also worth mentioning that virtually everyone has radio or television at home., and large numbers have audio or video playback facilities: thus the need to attend centres for viewing or listening is minimal. In the case of the OU, there are other opportunities for personal contact between the learner and the tutor. Besides summer schools and, for some courses, day and weekend schools, there is relatively easy access to regional centres for advice or counseling, and the telephone is accessible to all, whether from home or from a public call box. Tutors, in particular, are asked to make sure that they have contacted the learners, who do not attend their study centre, by telephone or letter to check that he or she is not in difficulties, and all tutors are expected to make their own telephone numbers available to learners should advice be needed. Tutors are also expected to facilitate the establishment of self-help groups, especially for those learners unable to get to study centres. (v) The Sukhothai Thamathirat Open University (STOU), Thailand The STOU was founded in 1978, initially offering undergraduate and professional courses. In 1986, the intake had risen to 62,602, obviously a very large university. The extracts below describe the effective and innovative support system STOU has developed. The description shows how study centres are a crucial component, and indicates that a minimum number of attendances is required.
Methods of Instruction STOU does not have its own classrooms, and relies instead on its regional and local study centres to provide study facilities for learners in various parts of the country. The University employs distance-teaching techniques to impart instruction. The teaching media STOU relies on consist of printed self-instructional course materials, audio cassette tapes, and a certain number of face-to-face tutorial and counseling sessions at local and regional study centres. Evaluation System STOU measures the quality of the learner s work by a grade system. When a learner has built up a sufficient number of courses for a degree in a given area, he must participate in an intensive study workshop at a designated study centre. The assessment of the learner s performance in the intensive residential workshop, which is designated to be a culminating activity, contributes to meeting the graduation requirements of prospective graduates. Only when he has passed this graduate experience enrichment programme will he be considered to have completed all the requirements for a degree. Full-time and Part-time Staff As STOU provides only home-based study and uses educational media to impart instruction, the number of staff required is smaller than that in conventional universities. The university has only the personnel necessary to provide academic and support services. Assistance in the preparation of materials and for other services is also sought from experts from outside bodies and staff members of other universities whose academic achievements have been outstanding. This is arranged through borrowing, contracting, or hiring on a full-time or part-time basis. Such measure make personnel utilization much more flexible and economical.
Linkage with other Institutions and Agencies STOU learners are distributed throughout the country. In order to impart instruction effectively to its home-based learners, the University has set up national network of regional and local study centres. These regional study centres are based on local educational establishments. There are local study centres under each regional study centre which provides educational facilities to learners in the area. At each local study centre, where learners have access to textbooks, instructional materials and audio-visual equipment, at least one instructor is assigned to provide academic counseling and other services. Academic tutors are recruited from faculty members of existing institutions of higher education and from various agencies, both public and private, in the regions. Furthermore, the physical facilities of local education establishments are also used as examination centers and local personnel are recruited for various related tasks. Linkage with Mass Media To enable its learners to study on their own without class attendance, the University relies on a multi-media teaching approach using printed texts and other printed materials as the principal means of providing home-based education and supplements them with radio and television broadcasts, video tapes and other recorded course materials. However, the University has not set up its own radio and television stations. For the purpose of economy, it uses the existing radio networks of the Public Relations Department and the Mass Communications Organization of Thailand. Of particular importance are the Public Relations Department s radio and television networks for education. Concluding remarks Attendance at a study centre is only required for a pre-graduation residential workshop. Many STOU learners are unable to attend study centres as often as they would like. In low-lying areas, for example, communication is difficult during wet weather and attendance drops.
The STOU has adopted some other techniques for providing support to learners, to compensate for limited access to study centres. First, there are library comers. In any sizeable public library there is a STOU corner. Here all the course materials are stored, and there are facilities for viewing or listening to programmes or cassettes, for those learners who have missed the programmes. Learners can also join the learners association, which aims to help learners to get in touch with each other and form self-help study groups. This is popular amongst remote learners. (Extract from Iam Chaya-Ngam Distance Education in Thailand, paper presented to the Regional Seminar in Distance Education, Bangkok, 26 Nove.-3 Dec. 1986, organized by the Asian Development Bank in collaboration with Sukhothai Thammathirat Open University, Thailand and in cooperation with UNESCO Regional Office, Bangkok, pp.43-45). (vi) The Central Radio and Television University (CRTVU) of China With over one million learners, this is the largest Open University in the World. However, in practice, several autonomous universities are linked under the umbrella of the CRTVU. One of the university s senior staff describes the system as follows: The beginning In the spring of 1978, the State Council approved a plan to set up a national radio and television university, and the Central Radio and Television University (CRTVU) was formally established in February, 1979 after several months of preparation. Since then, there have been six intakes of over one million learners enrolled as registered learners, plus a great number of se lf-study free-time viewers. The intake in 1979 and 1980 included over 150,000 full-time learners who completed all courses and were awarded three-year college diplomas. This figure comprises about a quarter as many graduates as those attending conventional universities during the same period of time. At present, there are about 674,000 registered learners and more than 400,000 self-study free-time viewers.
Organizational System and Administrative Structure The national radio and television network of higher education has formed a complete system throughout the country. It consists of the television university organizational structure at four different levels: the Central Radio and Television University, Radio and Television Universities in the provinces, municipalities and autonomous regions, over 540 branch schools or work stations in prefectures and cities, and about 20, 000 TV classes sponsored by various enterprises, institutions, and organizations throughout the country. China s TV universities are run at four levels, corresponding to the organizations of China s system of national and regional governments. The CRTVU at the highest level guides national work; the provincial, municipal and autonomous regional TVUs at the second level guide provincial work; prefectual and civic TVUs at the third level run branch schools; and grass-root classes run by factories, mines, shops, etc. at the lowest level work directly with TVU learners. The CRTVU is an institution of higher education under the joint leadership of the Commission of Education and the Ministry of Broadcasting; TV universities in provinces, municipalities and autonomous regions are under prefectures and cities. Funds for TV universities at various levels are allocated at various levels by governments. The CRTVU guides the educational work of provincial TV universities, which in turn guide their branch schools. Different levels of TV universities have different responsibilities as explained below: The CRTVU i) Produces and transmits teaching programmes for major courses; ii) Guides teaching and administrative work of provincial TV universities; iii) Prepares unified entrance and end-of-term examination papers and marking standards, and decides on the procedures of the exams;
iv) Compiles and publishes supplementary teaching materials, and produces and distributes audio cassettes and video tapes; v) Trains teachers and administrative staff members; vi) Studies foreign experience on distance teaching and works out its own plan for reformation. Provincial TV Universities i) Are in charge of administration of teaching and learning activities at their branch schools; ii) Organize entrance and end-of-term examinations, and the marking of the examination papers; iii) Produce and transmit teaching programmes for local use; iv) Keep learners records and issue diplomas and certificates; v) Distribute teaching materials and audio cassettes and video tapes; and vi) Train teachers and administrative staff members. Branch Schools i) Organize and oversee learner activities: a) Viewing and listening of teaching programmes, b) Tutorials, c) Laboratory work; and ii) Organize examinations and tests; iii) Compile learners records at all stages of their study; iv) Organize recreational and physical activities for learners; and v) Distribute teaching materials Classes Run by Grassroots Work Units i) organize viewing and listening of teaching programmes, tutoring, laboratory experiment and other activities;
ii) iii) iv) administer teaching and learning classes; organize recreational and physical activities for studens; and carry out political and ideological work among learners. The relationship between central and provincial organizations in China is an unusual one. The function of the CRTV is to provide teaching materials for its partners. When it decides to prepare a course, it selects a textbook used by one of the conventional universities and prepares television and radio programmes which elaborate on the textbook. (It is also now beginning to prepare its own course texts instead of using existing text books). The materials are then sent to the various Provincial Radio and Television Universities (PRTVUs) which enroll, teach and examine their own learners, using the materials provided by CRTVU. Each university is autonomous, although they all use the same teaching material. One could describe this as a totally devolved regional system. (Extract from Tian Young, Radio and Television Universities in China. Case study prepared for the University of London, Institute of Education, Department of International and Comparative Education and International Extension College course, Distance Teaching in Developing Countries 1987, pp. 4-5). (vii) Flexi Study in Britain Flexi Study, invented by the National Extension College in Britain, goes even further in developing responsibility for teaching than the CRTVU. In the Flexi study system, a central institution prepares packages of distance-teaching materials and offers them for sale, together with recommendations on how they might be used and an optional training service for institutions new to distance education. Richard Freeman, former Executive Director of NEC, describes the system. For 14 years NEC had pursued a policy which is common to many distance teaching institutions-to teach and manage distance courses from a central headquarters and to ask local institutions to supplement and support this central
teaching. However, if you teach from one centre, of course you find it difficult to provide adequate support for the remote learner. So we decided to turn the system on its head and do all the teaching and support locally learners-not as NEC learnerseven though the learners would still be distance learners. This can best be understood by considering the following diagrams. In the traditional correspondence teaching system, there is one central college and learners are spread out, often over a wide geographical area. The tutors may work in the college or elsewhere but communication between college and learner is usually only by post. Correspondence tutor Administration tuition Correspondence college Study materials Student Figure 2: Traditional Correspondence Course In Figure 3 the basic system in Figure 2 is supplemented by local face-toface teaching. This may well involve a second tutor for the learner and there may be no link between the correspondence tutor and the local institution. There are circumstances where this model can work well, particularly where the correspondence college can pay the local institution for the full cost of its services. But it does not always work as the NEC experience shows and did not do so in the early years of the Open University when a similar split between correspondence and face-to-face tutoring occurred.
Correspondence tutor Administration tuition Correspondence College administration Local college Face-to-Face tutoring Study materials tuition Student Figure 3: Traditional Correspondence Course Plus Local Face-to Face Teaching. In the third model (Figure 4) the local college takes total responsibility for the learner after first obtaining the distance teaching materials from the central correspondence college. So the local college enrolls the learner, give him the course materials, provides him with a correspondence tutor, arranges tutorials at the college and provides college facilities such as the library, audio-visual materials and laboratories. This is the Flexi study model.
Correspondence College Study materials Local college + Tutor Tuition Student Figure 4: The Local Distance Teaching System What is special about the Flexi Study model? As the diagram, Figure 4 looks absurdly simple-so simple as to suggest that it is not worth a closer study. But on a closer study it actually challenges the way most organizations have run distance education for the last 50 years. The assumption has invariably been that you start with a central college and remote learners. This then gives rise to book after book, paper after paper on how to overcome the problems built into the central college model. On the other hand Flexi Study assumes that the learner gets the best course possible when the division of labour is: Central Activity Production of distance teaching material Liaison Consultancy/advice Local Activity Learner counseling Learner enrolment Tutorials/seminars Practical work Examination It can be seen that the Flexi Study model is not simply an alternative model for running a correspondence college. It is a means of creating a number of separate, local correspondence colleges.
Flexi Study has proved a very valuable development in the UK from the view of all three parties involved. From NEC s viewpoint Flexi Study is proving an effective alternative to the central distance teaching model. It provides a means of giving distance learners the local support they need, albeit by NEC having to hand the learner over to a local college. From the learner s viewpoint, he gets a better course. He still gets high quality, centrally produced, course materials but he also gets a local tutor, local tutorials and access to college resources. From the local college s viewpoint, Flexi Study enables them to teach a new group of learners-adults who are not able, or who do not wish, to attend regular classes. (Extract from Richard Freeman, Flexi Study in J. S. Daniel, M.A. Stround and J.R. Thompson (eds.) Learning at a distance: A world Perspective. Edmonton, Athabasca University/International Council for Correspondence Education 1982, pp. 162-5.) (vii) Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU) In India, distance education and open learning approach in its traditional form of correspondence education, has been seen as a means of democratization; of allowing access to education for those who cannot be accommodated by the formal system. This emphasis means using means of communication that are accessible to all, and the Directorates of Correspondence Courses of Indian Universities have generally used a simple system of course texts, correspondence tuition, together with contact sessions; counselling if any offered is but incidental. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Open University (BRAOU), the first open university in the country, made efforts to provide regional services to its learners through establishment of formal study centers. These study centers were established in different parts of the state and are manned by coordinators. These study centers besides providing opportunities for face-toface contact sessions and access to various kinds of assistance required by learners,
function as the link between the learners and the central institution. BRAOU, as such, has felt no need for regional centers. With the establishment of the Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU) in 1985, a challenging moment has been reached and the national open university faces the task of providing regional services throughout the country. There is no precedent in distance education for a single institution to operate on such a scale, and the situation raises interesting issues of autonomy, decentralization and devolution. Organizing Regional Services in India We have already examined the possible functions of regional centres and seen that normally their main functions are administrative, with perhaps some additional responsibilities for certain academic matters. The British Open University, for example, has staff tutors who are senior academics in the main discipline areas attached to regional centers who supervise local tutors, do some teaching themselves, and may also be members of course teams. The regional centres of IGNOU are different from the regional centres of UKOU. The difference is in terms of the magnitude of responsibilities vested with them, academic and administrative. The regional centres of IGNOU get a lesser share in the devolution of power of the central institution as compared to the sharing between their counterparts of UKOU. Contrastively the study centres of IGNOU are full fledged local resources centers, unlike the study centers of UKOU, where much provision is not made except for occasional get together of learners with or without tutors. Organizing study centers in India The coming of open universities in India, and in particular the funding of IGNOU, has pushed India rapidly towards establishing more comprehensive support systems. IGNOU is determined to provide multi-media education, using video and audio extensively to supplement print. As a high proportion of potential learners do not have television sets at home, it has been decided that a major function of study centres is to provide listening
and viewing facilities for the learners. In fact, IGNOU study centres are fully equipped resource centres, with library facilities as well as access to media, and learners gather there to meet others as well as to hold discussions with their counselors. IGNOU is the first distance education institution in India to establish a nation wide network of study centres. It had established by 15 Aug. 1994, 230 study centres and the number were bound to grow rapidly. It is hoped that other distance teaching institutions will also improve or extend their support systems. The Future in India In India local study centres are to overcome the barriers of distance, and regional centres are to provide essential link between the central institution and the local study centres. Review Questions (i) Do the examples above offer any ideas for developing regional services? (ii) (iii) If the aim is to provide and maintain services and resources country wide for individual learners, will it be better to devolve responsibility or to retain central control? From the institutional examples provided, identify the kind of dilemmas faced by all those who try to organize regional services in distance education and open learning.
Course Code and Title ODC 029: Tutorial Support, Marking and Commenting in Distance Education and Open Learning Course Description This Course, deals with three major aspects, namely tutorial support, marking and commenting in distance education and open learning (ODL). The three aspects (tutorial support, marking, and commenting), play very significant roles in distance education and open learning (ODL) systems. Tutorial support can best be considered in relation to enhancing effective teaching and learning. This implicates tutorial support as a service or a support system offered to learners in ODL systems in order to ensure that teaching and learning take place as planned or as desired. In ODL, tutorial support is considered an important aspect in attaining educational goals because the educational transactions in the system take place when learners are mostly situated or located away from their teachers and administrators. Tutorial support services are, therefore, intended to fill the gap created by the educational and systemic separations between learners and their teachers, as well as learners and other organizational personnel. The discussion on setting, marking and commenting in ODL assignments and tests are imperatives given that they are part and parcel of the teaching process in the system. Course Objectives At the end of this course learners are expected to be able to: (i) Determine and express orally as well as through writing the need for providing tutorial support to ODL learners; (ii) Explain different ways of providing tutorial support to ODL learners; (iii) Determine, select and apply appropriate ways of providing tutorial support to
distance learners; (iv) Determine and discuss the importance of setting, marking and providing relevant and constructive comments on learners assignments, tests, and examinations in ODL situations; (v) Determine and explain appropriate procedures for marking and commenting on distance and open learners assignments and tests. Pre-requisites Mode of assessment The course is graded at a total of 100%. The following is the breakdown of your compulsory assessment tasks and grading of the tasks. 1..Main Timed Test: It carries 30%. 2. Annual Examination: It carries 70%. Pass Mark: The pass mark for the course is 40%. Course content This Unit is structured into five parts: Part 1: What is Tutorial Support? Lecture 1: The Concept of Tutorial Support Lecture 2: Prerequisite Skills for Tutors in ODL Part 2: The Need for Providing Tutorial Support in ODL Lecture 3: The Need for Providing Tutorial Support in ODL Part 3: Ways of Providing Tutorial Support Lecture 4: Ways of Providing Tutorial Support Services Lecture 5: Tutorial Support Offered Using Technology Media
Part 4: Recommended Ways of Providing Tutorial Support Lecture 6: Face-to-Face Tutorial Support Services Lecture 7: Technology Mediated Tutorial Support Services Part 5: The Importance of Setting, Marking, and Commenting in ODL Lecture 8: The Concepts of Setting, Marking and Commenting in ODL Systems Lecture 9: The Importance of Setting, Marking and Commenting in ODL Part 6: Recommended Procedures for Marking and Commenting Lecture 10: Self-Marked Assignments and Tests Proposed Textbooks/References Adey A. D., Gous, H.T., Heese, M., & Roux, A. L. (1992); Distance Education (Post Graduate Diploma in Tertiary Education). Pretoria. University of South Africa. Biggs, J. (2003); Teaching for quality learning at university: What the student does. (2nd edition), Berkshire: Open University Press. Boud, D. (1988); Developing student autonomy in learning. London: Kogan Page. Brown, S. & Glasner, A. (1999)(Eds.). Assessment matters in higher education: Choosing and using diverse approaches. Buckingham: SRHE and Open University Press. Brown, S. & Knight, P. (1994); Assessing learners in higher education. London: Kogan Page. Kleinschmidt, A. (1998); Virtual Tutoring in Distance Education
An Approach of Centres for Distance Education for Students of the FernUniversität Hagen. In ESC 89 Conference Proceedings, ed. By the European Association of Distance Teaching Universities, Heerlen 1999, pp. 29-32. Holmberg, B. (1995); Theory and Practice of Distance Education. London. Routledge. Magalhães, M. G, M, & Schiel, D. (1997); A Method for Evaluation of a Course Delivered via the Weld Wide Web in Brazil. The American Journal of Distance Education, pp. 64-70. The American Center for the study of Distance Education. The Pennsylvania State University. OUT (2007); Prospectus. Dar-es-salaam. The Open University of Tanzania. OUT (2007); Statement from the Dean Faculty of Education to the 2007 Intake and to Continuing Education Students. Dares-salaam. The Open University of Tanzania. Perez, M. M. (2001); The ITESM Virtual University: Towards a Transformation of Higher Education. F. T. Tshang & T. Della (Eds.) Access to Knowledge. New Information Technologies and the Emergency of the Virtual University. New York. ANU/The United Nations University and the Institute of Advanced Studies. Potter, C., & M. (2003); Training Non-formal, Community and Adult Educators. B. Robinson & C. Latchem (Eds.) Teacher Education through Open and Distance Learning, pp. 112-127. London. Commonwealth of Learning Barab, S. A., Makinster, J. G. & Scheckler, R. (2001); Designing
System Dualities: Characterizing an Online Professional Development Community. F. T. Tshang & T. Della (Eds.) Access to Knowledge. New Information Technologies and the Emergency of the Virtual University, pp. 53-90. New York. ANU/The United Nations University and the Institute of Advanced Studies. UNISA (1996); Student Support Services At UNISA Learning Centres. Pretoria, Match 1996. An Information Manual. Szczypula, J., Tschang, T., Vikas, O. (2001); Reforming the Educational knowledge Base: Course Content and Skills in the Internet Age. F. T. Tshang & T. Della (Eds.) Access to Knowledge. New Information Technologies and the Emergency of the Virtual University, pp. 93-125. New York. ANU/The United Nations University and the Institute of Advanced Studies. Thorpe, M. (2007); Assessment and Third generation distance education. Retrieved on 28 th February, 2007 from http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&lr=&q=cache:jgqdo5 -xiew:iet.open.ac.uk/ Part 1: What is Tutorial Support? Lecture 1: The Concept of Tutorial Support
Introduction In this lecture, you will be introduced to the core concept of tutorial support. You will also be informed of tutors roles in ODL systems, the prerequisite qualifications for tutors, their working environment and models of work. Objectives At the end of this lecture you should be able to: (i) Make the students aware of the meaning of tutorial support in ODL systems; (ii) Assist students to differentiate between teaching and tutoring; (iii) Expose the students to the different roles and skills of tutors in ODL systems; (iv) Explore the working environment of individuals who function as tutors in ODL systems; (v) Explore models of working for tutors in ODL systems The Concept of Tutorial Support Before we consider what constitutes tutorial support, it would be of interest to understand the implication of the two core concepts in the title of this lecture. The title, which is coined in form of a question, constitutes two basic concepts, that is, tutorial and support. The term tutorial arises from the stem noun tutor, i.e., the person who provides tutorials. Tutorial, therefore, means a situation in which tutoring takes place. On the other hand, support implies sustaining or holding up something so as to stabilize its position or status. Considered together, tutorial support implies a
condition in which the tutorial action occurs or is organized and mechanisms are put in place to sustain the tutorial as a planned activity that is intended to enable learners to learn more effectively. As will be made clearer later; tutorial support includes guiding and advising learners to progress systematically and successfully through their academic programmes. As we progress through this lecture, we shall gain a deeper understanding of the concept of tutorial support since we shall extensively explore a variety of issues that are pertinent to tutoring and the support of learners within the practice of distance and open learning. A Deeper Understanding of Tutorial Support Through Knowledge of the Tutor s Roles There are a variety of roles that tutors in ODL perform. Among such roles are the gaining of knowledge about the learners needs, interests and motivation to learn specific courses; inducting learners into their study programmes by, for example, educating them how to learn in ODL systems of education; and encouraging learners to ask questions about what they learn and about other issues that are important to their learning; guiding learners about how they could respond to academic questions, and inducting or engaging learners into becoming reflective critical thinkers. Adeys, Heese, and Roux (1992) caution the importance of differentiating tutors roles from those roles performed by teachers. Unlike teachers, tutors do not design and create the teaching work, rather they support and guide learners in the learners learning endeavor (p. 61). Citing Lewis (1984), Adey, Heese and Roux provide an elaborate list of tutors roles in ODL as negotiating, contracting, liaising, informing, evaluating, advising, monitoring, counseling, referring, teaching, assessing, coaching, disciplining, representing, evaluating, refereeing, coping with emotional attachment, identifying themes, personalizing, targetsetting, immediacy, confronting, record keeping, and self-evaluation. (p. 62).
From the list of roles cited in the paragraph above, tutorial support can be classified into three groups: providing general support to learners, providing specific support to learners and making determination and commitment. These categories of tutorial support are briefly discussed below: (a) Providing general support to learners Regardless of their age or level of education, learners in ODL programmes need to be considered as whole persons who have different needs. Therefore, they need to be educated about general things relating to their lives that may impact their personality and consequently, their learning. They need to be advised, counseled, motivated, encouraged to build confidence, and helped to become independent in their thinking and the way they act. However, their independence should be grounded in social ethics/morals and norms. On the basis of these considerations, a tutor s role is broader than that of a subject teacher; a tutor ought to initiate and sustain relevant, productive and friendly communication. This idea is supported by the University of South Africa s (UNISA) statement indicating that tutors are employed to complement, and not to substitute or replace, the educational work of the UNISA s academic departments. Tutors ought not be considered as being in competition with, or in opposition to teachers in UNISA s departments (UNISA, 1996). Moreover, the tutor ought to make necessary initiatives to ensure that learners give due attention to their study materials. To be efficient in this role, the tutor needs to, thoroughly, know and understand the study materials and have confident in her/his knowledge. This enables the tutor to provide necessary clarifications and advise learners on how best to use their study materials. It also allows the tutor to enrich
the programme by preparing or obtaining extra materials when learners need such service and checking learners progress while encouraging them to persevere through out the length of the programme. (b) Providing specific support to learners According to Haagmann (1970: 59), as cited in Adeys, Heese, and Roux (1992, p. 62), since the ODL learner needs more than just the required study materials and academic support they need to be initiated by the tutors into attaining and generating truths, norms and meanings of their experiences. Consequently, tutors in ODL have to be equipped with both academic and a variety of non-academic knowledge that they can transfer to their learners. (c) Determination and commitment to the job Supporting learners in ODL is an ongoing endeavor; from the moment learners are recruited into the programmes to way beyond the time they have completed their courses. To attain such sustained support, tutors need to be determined and committed to their job. Tutors are trained to make use of all sorts of learning experiences in order to focus on learners practical and projected needs. Tutors have to, as well, note learners reaction and concerns before the learners are discouraged by the system to the extent of being discontented or/and being pushedout of the system. This role is very demanding in ODL systems where the learners are separated from the teachers and therefore, physical visual cues cannot be employed to ease the tutor s task. The later has however been relatively addressed by contemporary technologies (ICT) where they are readily available, affordable and accessible. Given the preceding arguments, you can note that a tutor is also a learning consultant and a facilitator who is engaged in activities that orient learners into their various programmes and sees them successfully get through their courses,
graduate and get employment or progress with further studies. Efficient and effective support to physically absent ODL learners require that tutors are empathetic and knowledgeable of the learners, the learners characteristics, and the performance of a number of specific teaching and learning related tasks. Adeys, Heese, and Roux (1992) point out that, the tutor and the learners are reciprocally dependent on each other The more expert the support rendered, the more the student benefits from the support. (p. 63). At UNISA, for example, the three categories of tutor s roles discussed above are recognized as subject/course facilitation role, counseling role, and administrative role (UNISA, 1996). Moore and Kearsly (1996) argue that the roles of tutors in ODL do not significantly differ from those in conventional education systems. These scholars have also argued that the roles of tutors in ODL can be equated to the roles performed by supervisors and managers in training institutions. Review Questions (i) Discuss the need for providing tutorial support in ODL. (ii) Explain how Tutors provide to learners, general and specific support. (iii) Using relevant examples, explain how ODL Tutors undertake facilitation, counseling and administrative roles. Lecture 2: Prerequisite Skills for Tutors in ODL Introduction In the preceding lecture, you were introduced to the core concept of tutorial support. You were also informed of tutors roles in ODL systems, the prerequisite qualifications for tutors, their working environment and models of work. In this lecture, we shall discuss prerequisite skills for tutors in ODL. Objectives After studying this lecture, you should be able to:
(i) (ii) (iii) Identify areas in which ODL Tutors require training. List down prerequisite skills for Tutors in ODL. Practice prerequisite skills for Tutors in ODL. Prerequisite Skills for Tutors in ODL As clearly stipulated in UNISA s (1996) regulations, tutors have to be trained if they are to be effective and successful in their job. They need to be trained to build skills and values to facilitate learning and provide consultancy to the learners. They ought to: be active in their performance in order to be able to know their learners and the learners needs based on socio - cultural and educational background understand what the tutor s roles are be knowledgeable of the course content be flexible, patient and well organized be committed to their job and the related activities be able to generate two-way communication, i.e., dialogue and negotiation throughout the teaching-learning processes be able to use and select appropriate and are learner friendly, affordable, and accessible teaching-learning technologies. be able to use technologies and media selected for instruction and administration be able to integrate study skills during tutorials sessions be able to didactically and facilitatively deal with both adult and non-adult learners differentiate a lecture from a discussion group and a facilitative tutorial session
initiate and organize collaboration between and among learners, leading to learners participation and growth as engaged, accountable and co-creators of knowledge, skills and values. be able and effective to initiate open communication with full-time staff of the providing organization/institution, including lecturers, course leaders, student counseling staff and administrative staff. Review Questions (i) Discuss the significance of at least three of the prerequisite skills that are mentioned in the lecture. (ii) Mention other skills that tutors in ODL systems need to have but have not been discussed in the lecture. (iii) List the tutors skills that you consider necessary but have not been discussed in the lecture. (iv) Explain the importance of the additional skills you have identified. Part 2: The Need for Providing Tutorial Support in ODL Lecture 3: The Need for Providing Tutorial Support in ODL Introduction In the previous lectures, we have dealt with the need for providing tutorial support in ODL systems. Generally, students in ODL systems are provided with study materials in different forms such as print, audio and videocassettes, radio and TV programmes, and electronic or web based forms. These are observed to be
inadequate where there are no support systems because within the system students are mostly isolated from their instructors and the administrative personnel. The separation leaves a gap when the students encounter problems in their studies. Well built support systems cover the gap by assisting students to confront the problems they face. Tutorial services constitute one of the many forms of support systems for ODL students. Objectives At the end of this lecture, you should be able to: (i) Explore the need for providing tutorial support in ODL; (ii) Compare and contrast tutorial systems in ODL and Conventional systems of educational provision. The Need for Providing Tutorial Support in ODL Tutorial support services are aimed at providing learners with opportunities to engage with and develop better understanding of the contents of the study materials which they use. Tutorial support also helps in building necessary bonds between learners and their tutors. Such bonds are important as steps towards developing ODL teaching-learning environments, which are favorable to active engagement of participating members of given tutorial groups. Tutorial support further provides avenues for learners to explore ways of broadening their knowledge and skills so that they can adequately and successfully match learning activities with teaching processes, including matching assessment in form of projects, assignments, tests, and examinations with what is taught and learnt. Tutorial support should also assist learners to match learning with learners day-to-day practical lives, i.e., the learners lived worlds. Basically, the needs to relate what learners study with what they experience during the teaching-learning
processes, as well as with their lived environments provide chances for success in academic progress, specifically in passing assignments, tests and finally, examinations. It also positively contributes into the transfer of learning to practical issues in the students lives. These achievements are prerequisites to meaningful teaching and learning and are fundamental in shifting from rote learning to meaningful learning. Additionally, where tutorial support is systematic and effective, it aids in developing study skills among learners as well as their ability to communicate and interact. These achievements help in making learners confident in coping with the demands of the ODL system of education provision and the problems they encounter in their day-to-day lives. Given the nature of ODL, whereby the learners are, mostly, physically separated, from their instructors, tutorial support helps tutors to know their learners needs. Communication between tutors and learners offers tutors the knowledge they need to transmit to the teaching staff and the ODL providing organization in order to foster effective and efficient teaching and learning, and accordingly, improving institutional and individual outputs in relation to set goals. Communication between tutors and learners enables recognition of learners specific needs and working towards meeting such needs. This motivates tutors to channel learners studying styles and strategies through specific individualized (where appropriate group) learning pathways. According to Adeys, Heese, and Roux (1992), tutorial support is needed not for fundamental humanitarian reasons only, but for two simple practical reasons; namely, because of the open mode itself, in particular the physical separation that exists between the tutor and the student, and because in the most current scheme learners are [mostly, adults who study] part-time (Lewis, 1984b: 7, cited
in Adeys, Heese, & Roux, 1992, p. 57-58). However, the same learners wish to meet their learning goals; including attaining target knowledge and gaining social and individual fulfillment. ODL and Conventional Tutorial Support Learners in most ODL systems, come into the system while already accustomed to traditional ways of teaching-learning pedagogies. The learners as well as the teachers, thus, find it difficult to shift their way of learning and teaching from the deep-rooted traditional experiences in conventional educational systems to new ODL practices, which essentially engage technologies and media. On this basis, ODL learners need tutors to familiarize them to the new mode of study at each stage of their study progress. In ODL, tutors become like tour guides who ushers visitors to unknown terrains of ODL. Their success means, therefore, the success of the providing organization and that of the individual learners. Examining the need for tutorial support as far as assignments are concerned in ODL, Lewis, (1984, cited in Adeys, Heese, and Roux, 1992; 60) comments that a combination of commentary and assessment as guides for ODL learners has important andragogic or methodical support, i.e., commenting and assessment have great support since they facilitate the teaching and learning processes. Therefore, tutorial support contributes to the attainment of set educational goals. It is upon tutors who are involved in communicating with learners to balance between what they say and what the learners need most to benefit from their learning. The communication should pilot learners towards problem solving, planning activities, resolutions, and actions relevant in seeking solutions to existing problems. Tutorial services are varied
Moore and Kearsly (1996) consider the need for tutorial services as varied. That is, institutions provide tutorial services according to the way they want the tutors to act. For example, these scholars consider tutorial support as necessary in correspondence based ODL systems where there is little or no use of teleconferencing, little group work, and little or no real-time interaction between the student and an instructor (p. 147). Under such circumstances, learners are attached to tutors who interact with on a one-to-one basis, through telephone calls, computer networks, face-to-face, e-mails, postal letters or mobile messaging and calls. The proposed interaction enables and enhances individualized instruction where, in some cases, the tutor is the only ODL personnel that a learner in the system ever meets. In cases where the interaction between tutors and their learners is effective, it encourages and motivates learners persistent in programmes and increases programme completion and achievement rates (Holmberg, 1995). A study conducted at the Penn State University in the USA indicated tutorial support as one of the contributing factors to learners satisfaction in their study. On this basis, if ODL institutions want their learners to achieve highly, it is important that they provide tutorial support services despite the fact that provision of such services is not an easy [or cheap] task (Moore and Kersey, 1996). Provision of tutorial support requires resources for training the tutors, furnishing learners with materials other than study guides as progressively needed during the progress of the programmes and technologies that facilitate and enhance interaction between the tutors and learners. Review Questions (i) Identify and discuss four purposes for providing tutorial support in ODL. (ii) Explain how provision of tutorial support in ODL, differ from conventional tutorial support. Part 3: Ways of Providing Tutorial Support
Lecture 4: Ways of Providing Tutorial Support Services Introduction In the previous lecture, you were exposed to the different ways through which tutorial services are provided in ODL systems. At the general level, tutorial services are organized and executed on a continuum between centralized and decentralized systems. In between, there are semi-decentralized tutorial systems. Across the continuum tutorial services are provided using different approaches. For example, there are ODL systems in which tutorials are provided using face-toface sessions while in others tutorials are provided using technology media. A third way of providing tutorial services is the blending of face-to-face and technology media. The environments under which ODL institutions operate determine the means that tutorial services are provided. In this lecture, we shall discuss different ways of providing tutorial support services. Objectives At the end of this lecture you should be able to: (i) Explain centralized and decentralized systems of tutorial support provision; (ii) Discuss semi-decentralized systems of tutorial support provision in ODL systems; (iii) Differentiate face-to-face tutorial support services and technology mediated tutorial support services; (iv) Provide relevant examples of institutions that provide tutorial support services Ways of Providing Tutorial Support Services The way tutorial support is provided differs from one institution to another. There are centralized systems of providing tutorial support, decentralized systems of
providing tutorial support as well as semi-centralized/semi-decentralized systems of providing tutorial support. The German s FernUniversität (Open University of German), for example, provides a decentralized tutorial support system. Tutoring and counseling at FernUniversität are offered by the university s study centers, which are primarily located at other universities across the country, i.e., German. The location of the study centers at other universities allows FernUniversität s students to take advantages of services such as technology, library services and academic staff services that are provided at the host centers (Kleinschmidt, 1998). On the other hand, at its initial stages, The Open University of Tanzania (OUT) had a centralized tutorial support system. Currently, however, the system is semicentralized/semi-decentralized. Directors of such centres identify prospective tutors at the university s regional centers. However, the selection and remuneration of the tutors are done and provided at the university s headquarters, respectively. Moreover, while the dates for which face-to-face sessions are to be conducted are determined at the University s headquarters, face-to-face sessions working timetables are developed at the regional centres. Additionally, it is the responsibility of the Directors of Regional Centres at the Open University of Tanzania to solicit, from the students at their regions, issues and concerns to be dealt with during the face-to-face sessions. The issues and concerns solicited are then forwarded to the University s headquarter to facilitate a process of determining tutors to be involved as well as what is to be done during the face-to-face sessions. Tutors who participate during the face-to-face sessions are drawn from the regional centres, although, for courses that do not have experts at the regional centers the university head office has the responsibility to send such tutors from it s headquarters or from other places to the regional centers which lack such tutors. It is important to note that tutorial support services may be offered either on a
face-to-face (f2f) basis or through the used of technology media. There are also cases where both face-to-face and technology media are used either alternatively or complementarily for tutorial support. Holmberg (1995) identifies three types of tutorial support: tutorial support provided at face-to face sessions, tutorial support offered at distance using technology and tutorials offered at concentrated residential refresher courses. At the Open University of Tanzania residential refresher courses may be equated to what is termed intensive face-to-face sessions. Such session may last between one and three weeks, they require tutors to: present, guide, and advise learners on different issues - including academic, administrative, and social issues where necessary. Tutorial Support Offered Through Face-to-Face (F2F) Session When f2f sessions are used as avenues for tutorial support, learners and their tutors converge at a physical location to discuss issues related to course content. They also discuss issues other than the course content as clearly suggested by Adeys, Heese, and Roux (1992). Adeys, Heese, and Roux support the position of dealing with issues other than academic content during face-to-face sessions by pointing out that learners in distance and open learning systems face exceptional problems that require the attention of their tutors. These authors argue that learners who are perhaps always physically absent, and possibly altogether unknown [to their tutors] offer exceptional problems which reach beyond the definable spheres of mastering the course content (p. 63). Issues other than course content have been evidenced in chapter two of this course. The issues range from management, financial, and social advising to helping learners become more autonomous. At the German s FernUniversität tutorial support is provided at different times and intervals. The most clearly described are the regular evening classes organized every fortnight as well as during weekends. The weekend classes aim at assisting
learners to prepare for their examinations (Kleinschmidt, 1998). Kleinschmidt points out that FernUniversität s practice of tutoring is characterized by a mix of different forms of events. There are regular evening classes (reg), which take place every fortnight. Occasionally these events are replaced by day schools on Saturdays (sat), because there is more time to outline the general ideas of the course. Preferably at the end of the semester we offer weekend seminars (wes) and one-week-schools as educational leave (edl) to repeat the course in total and to help the students to prepare themselves for the final examinations (p. 1). Kleinschmidt s latter idea indicates that there are also long time interval face-toface tutorial support sessions at FernUniversität. These may as well be explained by practices at The Open University of Tanzania (OUT). OUT, generally, organizes general face-to-face tutorial support sessions thrice each academic year. One of such face-to-face tutorial support sessions is conducted at the beginning of each academic year conducted in order to induct new and continuing students into different academic programmes. They are also used to clear issues that emerge from previous years experiences. The other two face-to-face tutorial support sessions at OUT are organized in March and July each year and are used as avenues to clarify and explain academic issues and other concerns that progressively emerge during the course of the programmes (OUT, 2007). Review Questions (i) Using relevant institutional examples, discuss different systems for providing tutorial support in ODL. (ii) Mention three types of tutorial support in ODL, as classified by Holmberg. (iii) Which type of tutorial support is mostly provided in a familiar ODL institution? Lecture 5: Tutorial Support Offered Using Technology Media
Introduction In the previous lecture, you were exposed to the different ways through which tutorial services are provided in ODL systems. For example, there are ODL systems in which tutorials are provided using face-to-face sessions while in others tutorials are provided using technology media. A third way of providing tutorial services is the blending of face-to-face and technology media. The environments under which ODL institutions operate determine the means that tutorial services are provided. In this lecture, we shall discuss different ways of providing tutorial support services. Objectives At the end of this lecture you should be able to: (i) Explain how ICTs are employed as alternatives to face to face support. (ii) Account for the use of ICTs as alternatives for face to face support. (iii) Discuss the impact of employing ICTs as alternatives to face to face support. (iv) Explain how tutorial support is provided through mixed media. Tutorial Support Offered Using Technology Media With increased use of more current technologies, especially, new information communication technologies (ICT) in the provision of ODL, technology media are increasingly complementing face-to-face tutorial support. Additionally, where ICT are used as the primary media of instruction they (ICT) are employed as alternatives to face-to-face tutorial support. This implies that in some ODL institutions, tutorial support sessions are being provided, increasingly, through the use of technologies instead of tutors physically meeting their learners for the provision of academic and other academically relevant services. The use of ICT has been triggered or motivated by ICT s increased capabilities to provide both
synchronous (real time) and asynchronous (delayed time) interactions. Another attraction to the use of ICT is the technologies capacity to engage multimedia. That is, they can bring together (or converge) different media into one platform the computer. Recorded radio and video clips, graphics, sound, prints, etc. can all be pulled together into a computer screen for tutorial support purposes. Research findings have indicated that when ICT are used for the provision of tutorial support they can encourage the formation of virtual learning communities that work collaboratively to solve academic and sometimes other problems (Barab, Makinster, and Scheckler, 2001). Examples of institutions that offer tutorial support, primarily, using ICT include the Pennsylvania State University s World Campus (http:// www.worldcampus.psu.edu) and University of Phoenix both of which are in the U.S.A. Most ODL systems around the world are currently working towards moving into intensive use of ODL, this imply that increased availability of ICT is continuously attracting ODL systems to engage more ICT based services including tutorial services. Mixing Media in the Provision of Tutorial Services Given the fact that currently not all ODL institutions have access to ICT empowered with Internet capabilities, and that most of the contemporary institutions, if not all, would wish to engage such technologies in providing their educational/training programmes and services, most tend to mix the media through which they provide tutorial services. For example, The Open University of Tanzania has, of today connected some of its regional centers to the internet. For such connected centers, tutors at the university provide some of the tutorial services through the internet. Further, there is deliberate effort, at the university, to upload study materials as well as library texts onto internet sites. The efforts also include providing learners who can access ICT with online addresses (URLs) some of which are linked to course web-sites and the library web-sites. These attempts enable learners to access much of the web-based information, which is
relevant to their courses. Despite these efforts, it is important to note that, the OUT still, primarily, depends on physical face-to-face tutorial support and the support that is inbuilt into the printed study materials and other university publications. Another University that offers tutorial support through mixed media is the FernUniversität of German (Kleinschmidt, (1998). At UNISA (1996), tutor meetings are held monthly to discuss progress made with the tutoring system. Problem areas are identified, and, where possible, remedies, and experienced tutors share ideas and experiences with new tutors. This also provides an opportunity for tutors to get to know one another (p. 19). Review Questions (i) (ii) (iii) Explain how ICTs are employed to provide face to face support. What do you understand by the term virtual learning communities? Using relevant examples, explain how tutorial support is provided through mixed media. Part 4: Recommended Ways of Providing Tutorial Support Lecture 6: Face-to-Face Tutorial Support Services Introduction In the previous lecture you learnt about the general ways through which tutorial support systems are provided. In this lecture you will be exposed to the ways that are preferred for the provision of tutorial support services. Preference of specific ways through which to offer tutorial support services is determined by the effectiveness and efficiency of the selected means/ways
of such provision. For example, some of the ODL scholars prefer those ways of providing tutorial support services that maximize effectiveness in teaching and learning processes. Ways of providing tutorial support services that encourage interaction and flexibility in ODL systems are most preferred. Objectives At the end of this lecture you should be able to: (i) Explain to students how not all ways of providing tutorial support are equally effective; (ii) Assist students to discuss the strengths and weaknesses face-to-face tutorial support services; (iii) Assist students to discuss strengths and weaknesses of technology mediated face-to-face support services; (iv) Enable students to select the best way of providing tutorial support services on the basis of their own work environment. Face-to-Face Tutorial Support Services According to Kleinschmidt (1998), all events that take place as part of tutorial support should deal with the problem of distance, i.e., distance in space (spatial) and distance in time (temporal). Learners in ODL systems are attracted into the system because of the opportunities for flexibility that the system offers. Flexibility in time and space constitute major attractions to ODL programmes because such flexibilities allow individuals with multiple responsibilities and complex schedules to participate. This implies that if an institution provides face-to-face tutorial support, the tutorial sessions should be organized in such a way that they do not constitute a push-out force for the learners. Face-to-face sessions should be organized to accommodate all learners regardless of their diversities.
Moreover, there should be alternatives to the general scheduled face-to-face tutorial sessions to accommodate those learners who are not able to fit into fixed institutional face-to-face times and locations. ODL institutions have to encourage its tutors to ensure that all messages and course content provided to learners who attend face-to-face sessions reach those who for one reason or another fail to attend the face-to-face sessions. For example, alternative face-to-face sessions could be organized on different dates, times and locations. However, technology media could also be used to serve the same purpose. The tutors could send letters to students, use phone calls to reach the students, send fax messages or develop web sites on which to post all information that would otherwise be delivered at physical face-to-face sessions. Review Questions (i) What do you think are the major motives for students participation in face to face sessions? (ii) Explain conditions in which tutorial support serve as a push-out force for the learners. (iii) What measures will you take to ensure tutorial support do not push out learners from the learning process? Lecture 7: Technology Mediated Tutorial Support Services Introduction In the previous lecture you learnt about the general ways through which tutorial support systems are provided. In this lecture you will be exposed to the ways that are preferred for the provision of tutorial support services. Preference of specific ways through which to offer tutorial support services is determined by the effectiveness and efficiency of the selected means/ways of such provision. For example, some of the ODL scholars prefer those ways of providing tutorial support services that maximize effectiveness in teaching and learning processes. Ways of providing tutorial support services that encourage interaction and
flexibility in ODL systems are most preferred. Objectives At the end of this lecture you should be able to: (i) Account for the need of providing technology mediated tutorial support services. (ii) Explain conditions which need to be fulfilled in order to integrate the use of ICTs in tutorial support systems. (iii) Distinguish between home based learners and social users of ICTs. Technology Mediated Tutorial Support Services Using ICT for tutorial support, means that learners could be reached any time and anywhere through the ICT s asynchronous features. Kleinschmidt (1998) advises that, on the basis of availability, affordability, and accessibility to ICT by ODL institutions, tutors and the learners, tutorial support systems may be designed to include the use of ICTs. This idea is supported by Perez (2001) who observes that ICT-based education encourages interactive and networked learning, therefore, when used for tutorial support services, ICTs could be more productive than when face-to-face tutorials support singly for such support. Perez argues that ICT offer unprecedented qualitative development [that facilitates] collaborative and inter-cultural working groups formed to carry out assignments and projects, and solve problems in virtual spaces using the electronic networks (p. 338). These observations have implications to tutorial support in ODL. That is, if ICTs were used for tutorial support it would be easy for tutors to organize group work, including long-term and short-term projects. ICTs would also make it possible to involve all learners since tutors and learners may use the ICT s asynchronous features to share their ideas. They may also encourage learners to share and exchange ideas with fellow learners without all of the
learners having to be online or at a physical location, all at the same time. Szczypula, Tschang and Vikas (2001) propose that using ICTs for tutoring can improve knowledge representation, which promotes problem solving and the possibility of modifying knowledge itself to suit learners interests. Through the use of ICTs, learners and their tutors can open up avenues through which each member of the learning group link others to web sites with relevant information to what they are learning. Szczypula, Tschang and Vikas point out that students reading a particular document can follow links to more detailed documents, depending on the extent of their interests (p. 115). Variation in the information that tutors and learners can access through the use of ICT makes it possible for both learners and tutors to become relatively interdisciplinarians, i.e., tutors and learners get exposed to information from a variety of disciplines or fields of specializations. This condition is positive for knowledge application in real world experiences of the learners, especially, where simulations are applied in the website documents, which the learners access. For example, if a learner is studying a lesson about soil erosion, deforestation and desertification, and fortunately one of them has access to a web-site that thoroughly documents and graphically represents the formation of the Kalahari Desert or any other desert, it would be easy for those who view the site to not only view site but also to interpret the information on the basis of their own environment. Nipper (1989) has also noted that while home-based learners are interactive users of CMC, social users dominate and educational focus can be swamped by chat. He also recognizes the vital role of tutors in creating an environment which persuades novices to use the medium and use it effectively (Davie, 1989; Fabro and Gibson, 1998) (in Thorpe, 2007, p. 2) for studying and not otherwise. Review Questions (i) Justify the need to provide technology mediated tutorial support services
(ii) (iii) in ODL. Explain conditions which need to be fulfilled in order to ensure all learners benefit from the use of ICTs in tutorial support systems. Distinguish between home based learners and social users of ICTs. Part 5: The Importance of Setting, Marking, and Commenting in ODL Lecture 8: The Concepts of Setting, Marking and Commenting in ODL Systems Introduction In this lecture, we shall discuss the concepts of setting, marking and commenting in ODL systems. These essential concepts are closely related to assessment processes in the system of education. Objectives At the end of this lecture you should be able to: (i) Enable students to explain, with relevant examples, the concepts of setting, marking and commenting in assignments and tests; (ii) Explore the advantages of marking and commenting assignments and tests in ODL systems;
(iii) Identify and discuss at least three types of (a) assignments (b) tests; (iv) Explain negative and positive consequences of setting marking and commenting in ODL systems; (v) Discuss best ways of avoiding negative consequences of marking and commenting in ODL systems The Concepts of Setting, Marking and Commenting in ODL Systems In this lecture we shall examine the setting, marking and commenting of assignments and test in ODL systems. However, before we focus on the three aspects and how they operate we have to understand assignments, tests and commenting as mechanisms that are part of assessment procedures in an education environment. Thorpe (2007) proposes a broad view of assessment as a term used in different contexts to refer to rather different types of activity it can be used to refer to evaluation of the quality and effectiveness of individual teachers and, educational institutions identifying the capacities of individuals for the purpose of selecting the process of judging students learned outcomes and assigning grades to individuals based on these outcomes (p. 3). The last description of assessment is what we are concerned with in this lecture. Our concern is based on the importance accorded to setting, marking, and commenting in education systems. In education, teaching and learning are considered to be processes on a continuum along which learners begin at a point where they consider themselves ignorant of certain facts, i.e., not knowing to a point of enlightenment, i.e., a point of knowing the facts that were unknown at the beginning of the teaching-learning processes. Assessment processes are thus linked to measures that inform those involved in analyzing and determining how successful or effective teaching and learning have taken place or the extent to which the processes of teaching and learning have occurred.
The central importance of assessment in educational programmes is reflected in a statement from the University of Melbourne, where it is recognized that setting, marking and commenting of learners assignments and tests impact the quality of academic programmes in both conventional and ODL modes of education. Assessment is considered as part of university entry pathways and the modes of student participation and engagement with learning resources the maintenance of standards through entry pre-requisites and time spent on task are far less relevant mechanisms for ensuring standards... The measurement and reporting of student outcomes their knowledge, skills, achievement or performance is [considered as] a major reference point for academic standards. http://www.cshe.unimelb.edu.au/assessinglearning/06/ index.html Currently, the quality of assessment is a concern for many, and there are suggestions that assessment practices should change in order to prepare students for the knowledge-based society. It has been argued that the way we assess is more important for student learning than the way we teach (Boud, 1988; Brown and Knight, 1994; Brown and Glasner 1999; Biggs, 2003.). On this basis, the practice of assessment demands that consideration be given to a variety of issues relevant to course content, learner s characteristics and teaching-learning environments. The issues include quality, validity, reliability, fairness, fitness for purpose and clarity. How assessment is carried out determines the extent to which assessment is (or is not) an integral part of the teaching-learning process rather than events unrelated to the said processes. Generally, traditional means of assessing learners have not always demonstrated the extent to which the learners have learnt. Traditional assessments are considered to be irrelevant in facilitating and enhancing situated or contextual teaching and learning. There are well-grounded arguments that traditional assessments have encouraged rote memorization instead of relevant and meaningful learning, especially, in Third World countries (Freire, 1970;
Brock-Utne, 2000). On the basis of the above discussion, we may convincingly argue that in order for learners and teachers to convince themselves that the goals of teaching and learning have been attained specific mechanisms have to be designed and used to monitor educational matters so as to ensure that teaching and learning have taken place as planned and desired. Among the mechanisms that have been used to manage and monitor instruction in ODL systems is the provision of assessment in form of assignments, tests and commenting in the assignments and tests. Tests and assignments have to be set, marked and commented upon by professional teachers or tutors who are well vested in their specific fields of specialization. Setting, marking, and commenting are not only of interest to learners and teachers but also to other stakeholders in any given education undertaking. For example, the results of the assignments and tests help teachers and learners to opt for new and better teaching and learning strategies or to enhance current ones. Where learners performance in assignments and tests is not good, remedial mechanisms should be developed and implemented. On the other hand, where learners performance is good, the teaching-learning strategies being used should be strengthened for sustaining best outcomes. Setting, Marking, and Commenting in ODL Assignments and Tests In ODL setting, marking, and commenting upon tests and assignments require special considerations since most of the time learners are separated in time and space from their teachers, peers, and administrators. The separation, which is referred to as transactional distance (Moore, 1973; Moore and Kearsly, (1996) can be reduced through different mechanisms including consistent dialogical feedback loops between and among stakeholders. In academic matters, appropriately set, marked, commented upon and timely returned tests and
assignments constitute one of the mechanisms that keep teachers and learners together through communication established during the educational transaction. For example, in a marked assignment or test, a teacher may make a comment requiring a learner to trace specific texts including journal articles, to re-read specific areas of the lecture notes, to read specific books or book chapters and to guide learner to adapt better ways of answering test and/or assignment questions. Comments in tests and assignments may also suggest local experts whom the learner may consult for detailed elaborations about specific difficult areas of a given course. In ODL the need for generating dialogue, i.e., two-way communication is paramount (Moore and Kearsley, 1996, Holmberg, 1995). Two-way communication cannot be accomplished if only one part of those involved in a transaction has the chance to air their views. When learners are involved in a twoway communication developed through commented assignments and tests, they get encouraged to send messages that are relevant to their circumstance or environment. Learners messages ensuing from marked and commented upon assignments and tests may be addressed to their teachers, tutors, peers or other stakeholders such as institutional administrators, programme managers and even course experts outside educational circles. Holmberg (1995) proposes that it is possible for assessors and markers to provide assignments from among which students are encouraged to select those that they find particularly interesting or that [which] coincide with their specific study objectives. This could be one way to bring about student autonomy in a way useful to students who realize what they need. If students were to select their own study objectives and, on the basis of this selection, were able to concentrate on the corresponding parts of the course and were offered assignments related to the parts chosen, then they would be provided with more appropriate opportunities for autonomous study (p. 106).
From Holmbergs perspectives, assignments and tests can be the basis of learners independence. On the basis of the contents of the markers comments, which accompany marked tests and assignments, learners may opt to write back to the marker to accomplish several things such as seeking clarifications about certain comments, expressing appreciation of the contents made in the comments, airing dissatisfactions about the markers comments, and relating the demands of the assignments and tests problematic to their own environments. Review Questions (i) Define the term assessment. (ii) The way we assess is more important for student learning than the way we teach. Do you agree? Give reasons for your answer. (iii) Explain how assignments and tests should be set in ODL, in order to achieve best outcomes. (iv) Analyse the role of assignments and tests in reducing the transactional distance between tutors and learners. Lecture 9: The Importance of Setting, Marking and Commenting in ODL Introduction In the previous lecture, we discussed the concepts of setting, marking and commenting in ODL systems. We noted that these were essential concepts which are closely related to assessment processes in the system of education. In this lecture, we shall discuss the importance of setting, marking and commenting in ODL. Objectives At the end of this lecture you should be able to: (i) Justify weight accorded to assignments and tests in different institutions. (ii) Identify different types of assignments and tests. (iii) Recommend when and where to use different types of assignments and tests. (iv) Determine possible negative consequences of marked and returned
(v) assignments and tests. Suggest appropriate measures to be taken in order to avoid possible negative consequences of marked and returned assignments and tests. Weight Accorded to Assignments and Tests In most cases the importance of providing assignments and tests, which are part of assessment, possesses, is reflected in the weight accorded to these exercises. At the Faculty of Education of the University of Dar-es-salaam tests and assignments carry the same weight (i.e., 50% of the total marks) as end of course examination (i.e., 50% of the total marks). When compared with the learners academic weighing at The Open University of Tanzania (OUT), there is a slight difference. At OUT assignments and tests are accorded 40% of the total marks while end of course examinations are accorded 60% of the total marks. Thorpe (2007) tells us that at the Open University of United Kingdom (OU-UK) normally continuous assessment (assignments and tests) account for 50% and examination accounts for the remaining 50% of the total marks. According to Thorpe, the submission of assignments throughout course study is crucial for both course team and students perspectives. Assignments are both formative and summative processes. As formative processes assignment influence future course study and as summative processes they provide grades, which count towards the final credit (Thorpe, 2007; 4). Given their pivotal position, assignments and tests have been recognized as drivers of learners approaches to study in ODL just as is the case with situations in conventional campus settings (Thorpe, 2007). As indicated previously in this lecture, in ODL, assignments are vital as processes of judging learners, teachers and tutors performance. Assignments may also be appropriately conceived as motivators for learning, teaching and tutoring. Thorpe (Ibid) points out that
through working with assignments learners discover what they know and what they can do; they also discover the knowledge areas in which they are weak, i.e., the gaps in the knowledge they have. Such knowledge, if effectively utilized, stimulates and motivates learners to revisit texts and engage in-depth study of the subject matter for the courses they have studied. It is only when learners have attempted some assignments and/or tests that they may know their academic weaknesses and strengths and subsequently design better study strategies such as increasing their study time, consulting more and better texts and experts, using web information to expand their sources of information, and developing a willingness to adjust their existing cognitive positions or stances. Awareness of the importance of assignments and tests indicates the need to give assignments and tests adequate attention just as that given to other teaching and learning materials, activities and conditions including appropriately developed and designed study materials, adequate and technical tutoring, appropriately supervised laboratory and field practices, library services, and related student support services. Types of Assignments and Tests Generally, there are two types of assignments and tests: objective and subjective assignments and tests. Objective assignments and tests involve questions that demand learners to mark their responses in the right place, i.e., a place predetermined by the examiner. They are merited for giving opportunities for markers to be wholly objective. They are also easy to mark, even using technologies, specifically, the computer. Objective question include the following types: (i) Multiple choice questions in which learners mark items that are correct, (ii) Re-arranging items in which learners are obliged to number various items in a series of events to demonstrate the right order of events or processes,
(iii) Completing assignments and tests in which learners fill gaps in sentences requiring figures or facts. Questions of this nature are good for checking factual knowledge, application, understanding, and even analysis. According to Holmberg (1995), objective questions may serve instructional purposes where models are provided. However, they are constrained in terms of the limitations they impose on learners independence in matters related to the related academic field. They do don t provide learners with the opportunity to air their insights. On the other hand subjective assignments and tests are those involving openended questions that give learners the latitude to include their own opinion. They are however vulnerable to be misused where markers can be too subjective to learners responses. Possible Negative Consequences of Marked and Returned Tests and Assignments Although assessment is integral to the learning process they may constitute practices with the possibility of having far-reaching unintended consequences. Assignment and test tasks that are misconceived by learners may undermine achievement of the explicit learning goals, which are the objective of the whole teaching-learning activity. This implies that, if learners misunderstand assignment or test questions they may get low marks and grades that will discourage the teachers, tutors and the learners themselves. Further, when records with such low grades and marks get widely circulated they may project negative image of the teachers, tutors, learners and the providing institution in general. Additionally, students who experience failure or disappointing grades may easily develop and carry negative emotions about such negative experiences into their future learning opportunities. Thorpe (2007) points out that failure in assignments and tests may also bias teachers attitudes towards those learners who pass or fail.
Avoiding the Negative Consequences of Marked and Returned Tests and Assignments Several mechanisms may be employed in order to avoid negative consequences of marked and returned tests and assignments. Such mechanisms include, among others: Considerations of assessment issues and processes to be done from early stages of developing educational programmes. That is, assessment, including students assignments and tests are to be part of the curriculum and instructional goals and design rather than afterthoughts processes. The objectives of assessment and tests have to be clearly stated in the curriculum in order to guide the nature and type of assignments and tests questions designed and the nature and type of marking accompanying such activities. Training assignment and test markers appropriate marking techniques as part of their college training or as part of their induction packages. Avoiding discouraging remarks and measures for learners who do not perform very well in their assignments and tests. Avoiding dramatic examination procedures in assignments and tests while including ordinary simple and unthreatening procedures. In this way each submitted assignment and test is an individual achievement that induce insist on a form of a uniform pacing, co-ordinated correction and other types of rigidity that are more concerned with examining than with tutoring (Holmberg, 1995, p. 108). Making the self-instructional study material anticipate the assignment and test questions/problems as well a equipping tutors with skills to detect weaknesses in the study materials and rectify the texts in advance of providing assignment and test to students.
It would be enough to avoid negative consequences of marked, commented and returned tests and assignments if tutors and markers would consider and construct assignments and tests with a view of their being educative tutorials rather than only grading mechanisms. Review Questions (i) Justify weight accorded to assignments and tests in an institution familiar to you. (ii) Distinguish between objective and subjective assignments and tests. (iii) What kind of an assignment is the Student Portifolio employed by the Open University of Tanzania? (vi) Which types of assignments are most appropriate in your Institution? (vii) Identify possible negative consequences of marked and returned assignments and tests. (viii) Explain how you will tackle the negative consequences you have identified. Part 6: Recommended Procedures for Marking and Commenting Lecture 10: Self-Marked Assignments and Tests Introduction Although there are several means that tutors could employ to mark and comment on students assignments and tests there are means that have been recommended to be of good practice. This lecture explores such means and some of the important things to consider for effective marking and commenting of students assignments and tests. Objectives At the end of this lecture you should be able to: (i) Explain the concept of self-marked assignments and tests; as well explore
situations when such marking is appropriate; (ii) Explain the concept of peer or group marked assignments and tests; as well explore situations when such marking is appropriate; (iii) Explain the concept of instructor or tutor marked assignments and tests; as well explore situations when such marking is appropriate; (iv) Explain the concept of online marked assignments and tests; as well explore situations when such marking is appropriate; (v) Develop effective strategies for online marking. On the realization that academic assessment has some influence on the quality of teaching and learning, several procedures have been suggested for marking and commenting in ODL assignments and tests. In most cases, contemporary assessment procedures have implicated the need to avoid setting questions that discourage narrow reproduction of the learned content. Scholars and practitioners recommend and encourage the setting of questions, which encourage learners to respond with higher order cognition and a critical evaluation of what the learners have learnt vis-à-vis their background knowledge. Marking of assessment exercises, specifically, assignments and tests can be classified into three broad categories: self-marked assignments and tests; peer/group marked assignments and tests; and tutor/instructor marked assignments and tests that are submitted for marking and returned to students. Further, marking of assignments and tests can be classified into panel marking, and individual marking. Self-Marked Assignments and Tests In this type of assessment, questions are set in such a way that learners are guided to mark their own work. To counter check whether learners responses are right or
wrong, some instructors provide the expected responses after the exercise in the class or at the back of the study materials used for a course. In some cases, learners present their responses to their peer for discussion. This leads to collaborative solutions to the questions. When instructors embed self-assessment assignments and tests in ODL study materials, such assignments and tests are generally, intended to reinforce what the learners have learnt previously, to introduce subsequent topics or to guide learners to link what they have learnt to their life experiences. If the latter is the case, it implies that the learners will obtain responses to the self-assessment exercises as they progress along their course. Self-marked assignments and test may also involve learners private academic journals, diaries or portfolio. Learners are requested to keep records of allimportant aspects of their learning on either specific topics or on all topics throughout a given course. Peer or Group Marked Assignments and Tests Where teaching and learning are considered collaborative and community endeavors peer or group activities are encouraged. Such activities include the marking of assignments and tests. Marking of assignments and tests is organized in such a way that two or more learners are involved to mark a single assignment or test. Instructor or Tutor Marked Assignments and Tests In most cases instructor marked assignments and tests are submitted for marking and grading. They are also returned to the students as feedback to their progress from an authoritative figure. They constitute part of continuous assessment grades, and as such they should be done with great care since they determine learners progress not only in academic programmes but also in their general lives.
Individual instructors or tutors can singly mark assignments and tests. However, panel marking is also used and recommended in some cases. Panel marking implies a condition in which markers develop marking schemes for given questions and sit together to mark learners work. The modalities of the marking vary on the basis of panel decisions. Generally, academic markers, whether individually or in panels, define and protect academic standards through the ways in which they assess and grade the students they teach. Online Marking of Assignments and Tests Given technological developments, specifically, in information communication technologies (ICT), many scholars recommend the use of ICT for marking. Online marking like conventional marking can use the different types of marking as discussed in the above sections of the lecture. However, scholars recommend online marking despite some of its disadvantages, which include the possibility/chance of making public learner s achievements and generating legal conflicts. On-line marking is recommended for its capability to simplify and enable students to grade and comment on each other's work by using either simple rating scales or specially designed grading forms. If learners are appropriately trained in the use of on-line facilities and features, doing things on-line is just a matter of a click of the mouse On-line marking challenge learners to gain new knowledge and skills, it also improves learners tactics of studying because during on-line marking, the learners can link to web sites with information, which enrich their knowledge about different academic topics or issues. On-line assessment constitutes one means through which markers may indicate to learners the aspects of their learning, which are valued and rewarded. Marking on-line is flexible. It can be done whenever the marker has opportunity for the work as well as wherever the marker has access to Internet facilities. Additionally, on-line marking provides
wide interactive opportunities for the marker, the learners and academic resources. On-line structures or tools used to assess learner progress toward subject objectives can take many forms including: electronic submitted assessments and comments, relevant published on-line documents to be used as model answer structures, labeled on-line diagrams and other graphics [and animation] (Magalhães and Schiel, 1997). Strategies for Developing Effective On-Line Marking The following are some of the strategies that can be used to ensure effective and fair online marking: Use of a checklist to ensure that all target learners are included and involved. For example, do all learners have access to the technology used, do they have the necessary skills to communicate using the target technology, did all learners access the required texts, etc. Use of a checklist to ensure that all topics for the target course have been taught. For example, is student s learning related to the subject content knowledge, understanding and the skills being assessed; was there time and space flexibility during the teaching and learning processes, has the opportunity to plagiarize been eliminated, or optimally minimized? Are embedded feedback mechanisms sufficient? Use of a checklist to ensure that necessary academic support is provided to the students before authoritative assessment is conducted and marked is done, e.g., academic advising, provision for technology facilities for learners who do not have such facilities, training for technology skills for learners who do not have such skills, etc.
Guiding Principles for On-Line Assessment Design Three broad principles need to be considered when preparing to design on-line assessment instruments: (i) consider the educational objectives, (ii) avoid exaggerated flamboyant questions, (iii) determine areas where you believe the assessment tools will be most successful in being educationally productive, i.e., on-line assessment ought to match learning that takes place in line with desired objectives and outcomes. Review Questions (i) Mention and discuss three objectives for setting assignments and tests in ODL. (ii) Distinguish between peer/group and instructor/tutor marked assignments and tests. (iii) Explain how online marking of assignments and tests is done. (iv) Discuss the strategies and principles of online assessment.
Course information Course Code and Title ODC 030: Counselling and Guidance in Distance Education and Open Learning Course Description In this Unit, the concepts of counselling and guidance will be defined and the roles of a counsellor will be elaborated. Similarly, the counselling process and interviewing techniques will be explained. Finally a detailed discussion will be provided on the various counselling approaches and services relevant to clients with social, psychological and physical problems. Formulate guidance and counselling plans. Carry out duties and responsibilities of a counsellor. Apply appropriate counselling and guidance techniques in providing counseling and guidance services under different working settings. Course Objectives After studying this Unit, you should be able to: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) Define and apply in a distance education and open learning context, terms like counselling, guidance, disability, handicap, etc; Explain the role of counselling and guidance in promoting quality distance education and open learning; Describe the counselling process and techniques; Analyze qualities of a good counsellor as well as counselling and guidance case studies; Integrate counselling and guidance knowledge and skills into problem- oriented or psycho-educational settings; Demonstrate and apply counselling and guidance skills in resolving problems in Pre-requisites different settings in general and in distance education and Mode of assessment The course is graded at a total of 100%. The following is the breakdown of your compulsory assessment tasks and grading of the tasks.
(i) Main Timed Test: It carries 30%. (ii) Annual Examination: It carries 70%. Pass Mark: The pass mark for the course is 40%. Course content This Unit is structured into six parts: Part 1: Defining Guidance, Counselling, Distance Education and Open Learning Lecture 1: Definition of Terms Part 2: Roles and Functions of a Counsellor Lecture 2: Roles and Functions of a Counsellor Part 3: Counselling Theories and Approaches Lecture 3: Counselling Theories Lecture 4: Counselling Approaches Part 4: Types of Counselling Lecture 5:Types of Counselling Lecture 6: Methods Used in Providing Guidance and Counselling Service at a Distance Part 5: Counselling Interviews Lecture 7: Counselling Interviews Lecture 8: Types of Counselling Interviews Part 6: The Nature and Special Needs of the Distance Learner Lecture 9: Problems Experienced by Distance Learners Lecture 10: ICTs for Visually Challenged Students
Proposed Textbooks/References Biswalo, P.M (1996). An introduction to Guidance and Counseling on Diverse African context. Dar es Salaam, University Press. Corey, G. (1996). Theory and Practice of Counselling and Psychotherapy. Brooks/ Cole Publishing Company, USA,5 th ed. Keegan, D. (1995). Distance education technology for the new millennium : Compressed video teaching. ZIFF paper. Hegen, Germany Tait, A. (1999). Face to Face and at a Distance; the mediation of guidance and Counseling through the new technology. In British Journal of Guidance and Counseling. Vol 27(1), pages 113-122. UNESCO (1974). Guidance and counseling at higher level of education in East Africa. Paris. Coleman, H. L. (2009). Handbook of school counseling. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. From http://www.nationalforum.com/electronic%20journal%20volumes/lunenburg,%20fred %20C.%20School%20Guidance%20and%20Counseling%20Services%20Schooling%20 V1%20N1%202010.pdf Jacobs, L. (1989). Dialogue in Gestalt theory therapy. The Gestalt journal, 12(1), 25-67 Kochhar, S.K.(1993). Guidance and Counseling in Colleges and Universities. New Delhi: Sterling publisher Parsons, R. D. (2009a). Thinking and acting like a cognitive school counselor. Thousand OAKS, CA: Corwin Press.
Rogers, C. (1942). Counseling and Psychotherapy. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Rogers, C. (1961). On becoming a person. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Rogers, C.R (1987e). The underlying theory: Drawn from experience With individuals and groups. Counseling and Values, 32(1), 10-11 Yontef, G.M. (1993). Awareness, dialogue and process: Essays on Gestalt Therapy Highland, NY: Gestalt Journal Press. Biswalo, P.M (1996). An Introduction to Guidance and Counseling on Diverse African Context. Dar es Salaam, University Press Bloom, J. W. (1998). The ethical practice of Web counseling. British Journal of Guidance & Counseling, 26 (1), 53-58 Gysbers, N.C. (2001). School guidance and counseling in the 21 st century: Remember the past into the future. Professional School Counselling, 5, 96-1 05. Lewis, J., Lewis, M., Daniels, J., and D Andrea, M (2003). Community Counselling; Empowerment strategies for a diverse society.(3 rd Ed). Pacific Gloves, CA: Brooks/Cole. Omari, M. I. (2006). Educational Psychology for Teachers. Dar es Salaam University Press. Tafoya, D.J (2006). School CounseLling Services. From http://www.dodea.edu/foia/iod/pdf/2946_2.pdf American Counseling Association. (1999). Guidelines for on-line counseling servicees. Retrieved October 16, 2002, from http://www.counseling.org/resources/internet.htm. Ainsworth, M. (2001). Metanoia: ABC s of Internet therapy. Retrieved October 30, 2002, from http://www.metanoia.org/imhs. Bloom, J. W. (1998). The ethical practice of Webcounseling. British Journal of Guidance & Counseling, 26 (1), 53-58. Commonwealth of Learning, (2003). From http://www.teacher.org.cn/doc/ucedu201002/ucedu2010020.pdf
Dodek, D. Y., & Dodek, A. (1997). From Hippocrates to facsimile: Protecting patient confidentiality is more difficult and More important than ever before Canadian Medical Association Journal, 1566, 847-852. Encarta dictionary, (2007). From http://www.teacher.org.cn/doc/ucedu201002/ucedu2010020.pdf Frame, M. W. (1998). The ethics of counseling via the internet. Family Journal: Counselling and Therapy for Couples and Families, 6 (3), 328-330. Grohol, J. M. (1997). Why online psychotherapy? Because there is a need. Retrieved October 9, 2002, from http://grohol.com/archives/n102297.htm. International Society for Mental Health Online. (2000). ISMHO/PSI suggested principles for the online provision of mental health services. Retrieved September 23, 2002, from http://www.ismho.org/suggestions.html. King, S. A., & Engi, S. (1998). Using the Internet to assist familytherapy. British Journal of Guidance & counselling 26 (1), 43-53. Manhal-Baugus, M. (2001). E-therapy: Practical, Ethical, and Legal issue Cyber Psychology & Behavior, 4 (5), 551-563. Rosenfield, M and Sanders P (1998). Counseling at Distance. British lournal of Guidance and Counseling. Vol 26(1) page 5-10. Rosenfield, M. (1997). Counseling by Telephone. In Tait, A Biswalo, P.M (1996). An introduction to Guidance and Counseling on Diverse African context. Dar es Salaam, University Press, Dar es Salaam. Egan, G. (1988). The Skilled Helper. Sixth edition. Pacific groves; Brooks/Cole. Biswalo, P.M (1996). An introduction to Guidance and Counseling on Diverse African Context. Dar es Salaam, University Press, Dar es Salaam. Egan, G. (1988). The Skilled Helper. Sixth edition. Pacific groves; Brooks/Cole.
Omari, M. I. (2006). Educational Psychology for Teachers. Dar es Salaam University Press, Dar es Salaam. UNESCO, (2010). From http://www.unesco.org/education/mebam/module2.pdf Wallace, A.S. and Lewis, M.D ( 1998). Becoming a Professional Counsellor. London. SAGE Publication. Barthorpe,T. and Visser,J. (1991). Differentiation: Your Responsibility-An In-service Training Pack for staff Development. Stanford: National Association for Remedial Education. Cline, T. (1992). Assessment of Special Educational Needs: Meeting Reasonable Expectations. London: Routledge. Mary, M and Tungaraza, F in Omari (2006). Educational psychology for teachers. Dar es Salaam University Press. Dar- es Salaam. http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0koc/is_2_8/ai_n8680916/pdf Barker, J. and Turker, R. N. (1990). The Interactive Learning Revolution: Multimedia in Education and Training. New York: Nichols Publishing. Davies, W. J. K.(1989). Open and Flexible Learning Centres. London; National Council for Educational Technology. Feldman, S., McELroy, J. E and LaCour, N. (2000). Distance education: Guidelines for good practice. Gilbert, S. W. (1995). Technology and Change in Higher Education: Symptoms and Suggestions. Htt://bridge.anglia.ac.uk./htbin/notes (Web Site search) Guile, D. (1998). Perspective on Education Policy: Information and Communication Technology and Education. London: Institute of Education: University of London. Grimes, G. (1993). Going the distance education with technology. Happy 100 th Anniversary to distance education. Kaye, A.(1995). Computer Supported Collaborative Learning, in N. Heap, et al., (Eds.) Information Technology and Society. London; The Open University. Legge, K. et al., (Eds.) (1991). Case Studies in Information Technology: People and Organisations. Oxford: NCCBLACKWELL Ltd. Mason, R. (1995). Information Technology and Learning ; in N. Heap, et.al. (Eds.) Information Technology and Society. London; The Open University.
Mason, R. (1995). Educational Value of ISDN ; in N. Heap, et.al. (Eds.) Information Technology and Society. London; The Open University. Part 1: Defining Guidance, Counselling, Distance Education and Open Learning Lecture 1: Definition of Terms Introduction In order to get a clear understanding on the nature of guidance and counselling services, we will start by defining the terms, guidance and counselling. Later on, we will discuss open and distance learning, the role of the counsellor in communication and the qualities of a good counsellor. Objectives After studying this Lecture, you should be able to: (i) Define the terms counselling, guidance, distance education and open learning (ii) Distinguish between guidance and counseling (iii) Describe the role of guidance and counselling in distance education and open learning. Guidance It is a term used to denote the process of helping an individual to gain self understanding, self-direction and self decision making abilities so that one can adjust maximally to his/her home, school or community environment. Biswalo (1996) and Omari (2006), outline the characteristics of guidance: As a process: it helps every student to help himself, to recognize and use his mental and other resources to set goals, to make plans and solve his own problems. As a continuous process: it is needed throughout life, from early childhood through adolescence into adulthood and old age.
As a distinctive concern for decision making: guidance helps a student s unique perception of the world, interaction with the external order of events and facilitates decision making in different situations. As an instrument for self actualization: guidance helps one to realize his full potential, to develop the capacity for self direction and self - improvement through lifelong learning and sharpening skills for problem solving. Guidance is both a generalized and a specialized service: for teachers, advisors, tutors, deans and parents. Counselling Counselling is the process of helping an individual to receive, accept and use advice that can help him to understand and solve his problem or to cope with it successfully (Biswalo, 1996). It is the linking process between a counsellor and the counselee. The counsellor assists the counselled student to understand and accept his conception of himself and his problems, perceptions, attitudes, goals, plans and choices. Counselling seeks to develop in the student the ability to solve or cope with problem situations and empowers one in making decisions for a better future. Counselling is generally accepted as the heart and driving force of guidance. Distance Education Distance Education is the form of education delivery where the student and the instructor are not in the same place. Distance education may be delivered or accessed through online instruction, correspondence print text courses, television or multimedia packaged formats. Keegan (1995) contends that distance education and training result from the technological separation of the teacher and learner. This arrangement frees the student from the necessity of traveling to a fixed place and at a fixed time, to meet a fixed person, in order to be trained. Despite this separation of the teacher and student, instruction and learning must take place. Guidance and counseling services to facilitate smooth distance education can be effected through face to face contacts, postage of print
material, communication by telephone, computer, video, CD-ROM, electronic mail (email) and the World Wide Web (Tait,1999), altogether replacing the physical lecturer. Properly organised open and distance learning provide study materials, assignments and answers to the questions that the learners may have. Open Learning This refers to an education provision arrangement that emphasizes that learners are given choices for accessing courses in terms of media, place of study, support mechanisms entry and exit points (Commonwealth of Learning, 2000). The open learning has the following characteristics: Its main feature is teaching and learning in which different media technologies play a major role. It provides learners with choices about the medium for accessing knowledge such as print material, on line courses, television or video; or the choice of place undertake studies such as at home, work place or on a college campus. It allows learners make flexible choices such as place and pace of study. It provides learning support through tutors, audio conferences or computer assisted learning. Review Questions (i) In your own words, explain what the following terms mean: Counseling; Guidance; Distance Education; Open Learning (ii) Distinguish between guidance and counseling (iii) Discuss the role of guidance and counselling in distance education and open learning.
Part 2: Roles and Functions of a Counsellor Lecture 2: Roles and Functions of a Counsellor Introduction UNESCO (1974), outlines the major roles of a counsellor in an educational setting. The main roles of a counselor include advising students, establishing effective lines of communication with counselees, making appraisals, follow ups and reviews of the academic and welfare of students from time to time, providing information and facilitating referral needs. In this lecture, we shall elaborate each role. Objectives After studying this lecture, you should be able to: (i) Explain qualities of a good counselor. (ii) Describe the roles /functions of a counsellor Counselling cum advisory role In this role, the counsellor: Assists the student to understand and accept his condition as an individual, thereby making it possible for the concerned person to express his own ideas, feelings values and needs Furnishes the student with personal and environmental information regarding his/her problems, plans and choices Seeks to develop the student s abilities to cope with and solve identified problems and to increase competencies for making informed decisions and plans Counsels individuals and groups of students in matters of academic/educational growth and career aspiration, personal, social and emotional growth. Students Appraisal Role In this role, the counsellor:
Coordinates the accumulation and interpretation of information concerning students. The needed information may be collected from meetings with students, test scores, academic records, personal data forms and past records and inventories Coordinates the organization and maintenance of students' confidential reports Interprets students views on different issues and alerts management accordingly Identifies students with special needs and abilities and recommends appropriate actions to academic and management staff. Placement and follow up Role In this role, the counsellor assists the students in selecting and making use of available opportunities within the institution and the labour market. Counselors assist students in making appropriate choices of courses of study, transitions from one educational level and institution to another and from school to employment. Placement involves students assessment and counseling in matters of choice of next level of education, choice of subjects and potential for future employment. Follow-up is concerned with the development of a systematic plan for maintaining contacts with former students for purposes of guiding future placements of students and evaluating and updating the institution s programme of courses, course content and guidance and counseling plans. Referral Work role In this role, the counsellor refers students to special programs, specialists, and/or community agencies, and consults with parents regarding such referrals as appropriate. Information service role In this role, the counsellors seeks, collects, and disseminates information which will assist students to make better choices and planning of their educational lives. Students must not only be provided with or exposed to such information but must also be given opportunities to react to it in meaningful ways. Advocacy role Involves the provision of professional services in advocating for the wellbeing of all students while paying special attention to students with special needs and abilities.
Consultancy role In this role, the counsellor consults with parents, teachers, non teaching staff and other community members in order to enhance the relevance, effectiveness and quality of education and completion rates. Furthermore, the counselor consults with school personnel, parents and other community members for purposes of promoting an understanding of individual student s development, conduct, behaviour, attitudes, strengths and weaknesses. Qualities of a Good Counsellor According to Biswalo (1996) and Corey (1996), the qualities of a good counsellor include confidence, commitment to individual human values (sensitivity and trustworthiness), open mindedness, ability to exercise self integrity and self - control, professional commitment and responsibility, effective in a multi cultural context and communication skills. Confidence A counsellor must have the confidence to establish appropriate goals and values of his work as a counsellor. Every counsellor believes that under favourable conditions, each individual can develop in a manner and direction beneficial to himself/herself and to society. A professional counselor shall maintain confidentiality about the clients he/she deals with. For this reason, all counselors do and should take an oath of professional practice. Commitment to individual human values (Sensitivity and Trustworthiness) A counsellor s primary concern must be for the individual as a person whose feelings, beliefs, values, goals and aspirations are critical. A counsellor must respect and appreciate the rights and needs of the individual he/she guides or counsels. The counsellor must be concerned that the person he counsels realizes his/her own best values, determines own goals and develops clear means of achieving them. The role of
the counselor is to facilitate the counselling process in a manner that is beneficial to the individual and society. Open mindedness A counsellor must be receptive to new ideas and must be curious enough to learn his/her client s status and problems quickly. A counsellor must be able and skillful to question individuals, synchronize old and new facts and make conclusions that help to build the counselee. Ability to exercise self integrity and self - control The counsellor must be able to exercise self - integrity, self - control and personal stability. A counsellor s personal values, feelings and aspirations can have adverse effects in his/her counselling process. Therefore, the counsellor must handle all aspects of his/her personal life in a manner that does not adversely affect his/her counseling process. Generally, a counselor should be effective in a multicultural context where his work will be guided by principles of objectivity, self control, integrity and independence of opinion. Professional Commitment and Responsibility A counsellor must be committed to the professional ethics of guidance and counseling. In addition to having been well trained, a counsellor must be able to apply appropriate counseling skills even in difficult situations. Counsellors are expected to be on duty all the time and willing to serve all clients at all times and in all situations. Becoming effective in a multicultural context A counselor must learn to recognize, respect and tolerate diversity as means of shaping counseling practices and fitting them in the context of a changing world. Communication skills The counsellor must be a good and attentive listener and he/she at all times be prepared to weigh issues objectively, without bias or any form of discrimination.
Review Questions (i) Describe the functions of a Counsellor in any three roles. (ii) Are there Counsellors in an ODL institution familiar to you? Outline their roles. (iii) Mention and discuss any three qualities of a good counsellor. Part 3: Counselling Theories and Approaches Lecture 3: Counselling Theories Introduction In the provision of counselling services, a counselor may use one among three counseling techniques. These include client-centered approach, clinical or counselor approach and eclectic approach. However, a combination of the client centered and counselorcentered approaches i.e. eclectic approach, may result in better service. In this lecture, some theories of counselling will be discussed. It should be noted that the approaches used in counselling have originated from the counselling theories. For instance, the client centered approach has originated from the Pearson centered theory. Other theories include Psychoanalytical theory, Gestalt theory, Cognitive-behavioral theory, Family system theory, Adlerian theory, Existential theory, Reality theory, and Behavior theory. Even so, only four theories will be discussed here. The other theories have been mentioned just to show the source of the approaches. Objectives At the end of this lecture, you should be able to: (i) List the theories of counselling (ii) Describe selected counselling theories (iii) List and explain counselling approaches. Counselling theories Pearson - Centered Theory
The Pearson-Centered Theory propounded by Carl Rogers, is based on the concepts of humanistic psychology. (a) Basic Assumptions People are essentially trustworthy and have a great potential for understanding themselves and resolving their own problems without direct intervention of the therapists. 1. People are capable of self-directed growth if they are involved in a therapeutic relationship. (b) Pearson entered theory and Human Nature According to Carl Rogers, a counsellor has to get to the core of an individual. From that he or she can find trustworthy and positive centre. He maintains that people are trustworthy, resourceful, capable of self understanding and self direction, able to make constructive changes and to live happy and productive lives. Therapists (counsellors) must experience and communicate the people s caring and judgmental realities and understanding, such that significant changes in the clients may occur. Carl Rogers went on maintaining that, for an individual (client) to move forward and become what the individual is capable of, there are three counsellor attributes which create a growth promoting climate. The attributes include: Congruence (Genuiness or realness) Unconditional positive regard (acceptance and caring) Accurate empathic understanding (ability to deeply grasp the subject world of another person).
The individual has an inherent capability to move away from maladjustment toward psychological health, the therapist (a counselor), places the primary responsibility on the client. However therapy is rooted in the client s capacity for awareness and self - directed change in attitudes and behavior. Generally, Pearson-Centered theory focuses on the constructive side of human nature influencing it such that the clients can change and live happy and fruitful lives. (c) Counsellor and client relationship There are six conditions necessary for creating a psychological climate in which the client will experience the freedom necessary to initiate constructive personality change (Rogers 1987e). These include; Two persons are psychologically in contact, Client experiences incongruence, Counsellor (therapist) adjusts for congruence or integrated in relationship with the client, The counsellor experiences unconditional positive regard or real caring and acceptance of the client, The counsellor experiences an empathic understanding of the client s internal frame of reference and endeavors to communicate this experience, Communication to the client, of the counsellor s empathic understanding and unconditional positive regard is minimal.
Gestalt Theory This theory was developed by Fritz Perls and his wife Laura in 1940. Fritz is an existentialist based on the premise that people must find their own way in life and accept personal responsibility if they hope to achieve maturity. The basic initial goal is for clients to gain awareness (insight, self-acceptance, knowledge of environment, responsibility for choices, and the ability to make contact with others) of what they are experiencing and doing. Through awareness clients gain self understanding and the knowledge that they can change, hence they learn that they are responsible of what they are thinking, feeling and doing. (a) Basic Assumptions The Gestalt theory emphasizes the now because the past is gone and the future has not yet arrived. Only the present is significant. Individuals can deal with their problems themselves especially if they are fully aware of what is happening in and around them. Because of certain problems in development, people find various ways to avoid problems and therefore reach impasses in their personal growth. (b) Gestalt theory and human nature Genuine knowledge is the product of what is immediately evident in the experience of the perceiver, Therapy aims not at analysis but at an integration of sometimes conflicting dimensions within the person, Clients are supposed to do their own seeing, feeling, sensing and interpreting as opposed to waiting passively for the therapist to give insights and answers,
The counsellor must pay attention to the client s body language such as posture, movements, gestures, voice and hesitations. (c) Counselor/ client relationship The central issue in this theory is the counselor s (therapist s) attitudes and behavior and the I/thou relationship (two-way engagement) that is established. What really counts is not the technique but the outcomes (Jacobs, 1989; Yontef, 1993). They went on emphasizing the following factors for therapy: presence, authentic, dialogue, openness, gentleness, more direct self expression. These decrease stereotypic exercises and create a greater trust in the client s experiencing. Moreover, the therapist s experiences, awareness, and perceptions provide the background of the therapy process and the clients awareness and reactions constitute the foreground. In the Gestalt theory, a counsellor not only allows their clients to be who they are but also remain themselves and do not get lost in a role. Counsellors have to be willingly to express their reactions and observations and to share their personal experiences in appropriate ways with the client without manipulating him/her. Adlerian Theory This is a major contributor to the development of psychoanalytical theory. (a) Basic Assumptions Adlerian stresses the unity of personality, contending that people can understand as integrated and complete beings Nature of behavior, where one is striving to go is more important than where one has come from
The human being is the creator of his/her own life; that is a person can develop a unique style of living including movement toward and an expression of one s selected goal. An individual can create his/her own self and not necessarily waiting to be shaped by one s childhood experiences. (b) Adlerian theory and human nature What the individual becomes in adult life is largely influenced by the first six years of life, Humans are motivated by social urges rather than by sexual urges, Behavior of an individual is purposeful and goal directed, Consciousness and not unconscious is the center of personality, Inferiority is the normal condition of all people and as a source of all human wellspring of creativity rather than a sign of weaknesses and abnormality. Humans are not merely determined by heredity and environment, instead they have the capacity to interpret, influence and create events, What we are born with is not the central issue; rather the central issue is what we do with the abilities we possess, Determinants of behavior are such as values, beliefs, attitudes, goal, interest, and the individual perception of reality. (c) Counsellors/clients relationship There must be cooperation, mutual, trust, respect, confidence, alignment of goals between counsellors and clients.
The relationship is collaborative characterized by two persons working equally toward specific and agreed on goals. The client is passive, neither superior nor inferior. Implications of the Theories in Providing Guidance and Counselling Services The above theories have helped in the development of approaches of counselling in which there are some elements from the theories that are in use including the client centered approach from the Pearson theory. Every effective counsellor should have knowledge about the above theories based on the nature of humanity. Review Questions (i) Select any three counselling theories and explain how they can guide counselling activities. (ii) Study carefully assumptions on human nature, in the Alderian theory. Explain how you will employ the assumptions in guiding and counselling ODL learners to improve their performance in their studies. Lecture 4:Counselling Approaches Introduction In the previous lecture, we mentioned and discussed theories which have helped in the development of approaches of counseling. We stressed that every effective counsellor should have adequate knowledge on these theories which are based on the nature of humanity. The three main counselling approaches are Client - centered approach; Clinical or Counselor - centered approach and Eclectic approach. In this lecture, we shall discuss each of these approaches. Objectives At the end of this lecture, you should be able to: (i) Explain how different approaches are employed in the provision of counselling services. (ii) Identify and discuss basic differences between different approaches of
providing counseling services. (iii) Recommend the most appropriate approach for providing counseling services in distance education and open learning. Client centered approach (Non-directive counselling) The proponent of this method is Carl Rogers in 1940s (Kochhar 1993). This approach takes a client as the focus of the counseling process and takes an active role in the counseling process. Rogers (1942) outlined several steps of an effective counselling endeavor using the client-cantered approach. A few examples are mentioned here: The individual comes voluntarily to the counsellor for help such as when referred by someone or on his or her own accord. The counsellor sets up a permissive counselling relationship that enables the counselee or student(s) to state his/her problem, and determines whether or not to continue with counselling session. The counselling help is defined; the client is encouraged to accept the responsibility for working out and finding the solution to his problem. Normally, when the counselor discovers that the counselee has the ability to take responsibility, a help is granted and encourages him to gain strength while directing the counselee to recognize his/her prevailing dilemma. The counsellor creates faith, conditions for free expression, feelings of belonging, and believes in the client s mind. Subsequently, the counsellor helps the client to grow and change. Finally, the client is seen helping himself from the forces impending his natural drive towards adjustment, maturity and independence. The counsellor creates a friendly atmosphere between himself and his counselee client signifying his interest in client s receptive attitude. The client expresses his feelings of hostility, concerns, guilt,
indecision and inexperience, and so releases some of his tensions and pressure. Similarly, the counselor helps the client to initially understand and accept his negative feelings (Muyinga, Ibid.). Full expression of negative feelings is followed by faith and cyring and later tentative expressions of positive feelings are identified by the counselor. The counselor accepts, recognizes, and reflects these positive feeling to the client s previous life and encourages him or her, by such expressions as yes (Chris or Maseto), you will manage this problem since you have discovered it. In fact, you are not the only one experiencing such problems (in counseling giving an example is acceptable). The period of release of free expression is followed by a gradual development and insight. The client understands and accepts his problems as he begins to own himself in relation to his/her problems. This is a good sign and a big step forward in the counselling process. As the client recognizes and accepts his or her real emotional and intellectual attitudes, he gets a clearer understanding about the causes of his behavior and gains fresh perception of the prevailing situation. Reasons of using client centered approach Rogers (1942) outlined the reasons as follows: To help the student "to become a better organized person, oriented around healthy goals which [he] has clearly seen and definitely chosen. It aims to provide the student with a united purpose, the courage to meet life and the obstacles that it presents.
The client takes from his counseling contacts, not necessarily a neat solution for each of his problems, but the ability to meet his problems in a constructive way. Clinical or Counsellor-centered approach (Directive counselling) The chief exponents of this method are E.G Williams and Freud, S (Kochhar, 1993). The approach is known as clinical because the counsellor draws his professional training and experience and prescribes remedies for his client problems in the same way a medical doctor does for his patients. The clinical counsellor does not believe that every person has, within himself, the means necessary to solve his problems effectively. For this approach, the clients are given the necessary tools for eradicating their problems. That is, a counsellor mainly puts attention on identifying and analyzing the problem and helping the client to find an appropriate solution to it. The approach has some limitations. For example, the approach is most successful when the counselee is relatively well adjusted, the problem is in an intellectual area, a lack of information constituted the problem, the counselee has little insight into the problem, inner conflicts are absent, and the client suffers from anxiety, insecurity, or impatience (Coleman, 2009; Parsons, 2009a). According to Omari,(2006), there are six stages to go through when using counselorcentered approach as follows: Analysis: Collection of the client s data from a variety of sources for an adequate understanding the problem the client is facing, Synthesis: The selection and organization of the client s data to enable the counsellor to get a picture of the client s strength, weakness, adjustment and maladjustment. Diagnosis: The counsellor formulates conclusions regarding the nature and causes of the problems of the client. Prognosis: Predicting the future development of the clients problems. The counsellor works without the involvement of the client. The client comes after the prediction stage. Counselling: The counsellor takes steps with the client to bring about
adjustment and readjustment to normal. For the case of counselling at distance, the counsellor now uses the telephone or any other means to communicate with a client a distance. Follow up: This determines the effectiveness of the counseling, including checking whether the client has carried out the defined plans and actions successfully or not. The Eclectic approach The exponent of this method is F.C Thorne. This approach can be termed selective counselling. The counsellor advocates or declares that there are strengths and weakness in counselling process. The eclectic counsellor selects and uses techniques from diverse of counselling approaches which he believes can be suitable in assisting the counselee in a given situation. Thus, the eclectic counsellor borrows from both clinical and clientcantered best elements which seem to be possible in aiding the counselling process for a particular case and situation. The eclectic approach seems to be practical in learning situations due to its flexibility and hence capability to cater for ever changing learning situations. Any best counselling approach should be considered carefully and the counselor s phrase, techniques and verbal communication should be diagnosed. The psychotic client for example, the one who cannot reason out his/her problems is counselled by using the Directive-Approach, whereas, the normal counselee, is helped most effectively through the non-directive approach, depending on the nature of problem. But the client who seeks to get more information is helped by using non-directive counselling approach. Review Questions (i) Mention the different approaches which are employed in providing counseling services. (ii) Rogers (1942) has outlined several steps of an effective counselling endeavor using the client-cantered approach. Identify the steps and explain how they are employed.
(iii) Why do you think that the eclectic approach is the most appropriate counseling approach for use in distance education and open learning? Introduction Part Three: Types of Counselling Lecture 5: Types of Counselling There are two kinds of guidance and counselling services given in educational settings; service through face to face contact and service by distance. Depending on the nature of the problem or issue at hand, a counsellor may undertake individual, group or community guidance and counseling. These are the three types of counseling and guidance services which we shall discuss in this lecture. Objectives After studying this lecture, you should be able to: (i) Explain the meaning and scope of three types of counselling i.e. individual counselling, group counselling, and community counselling. (ii) Carry out individual, group and community counselling and guidance services. Individual Counselling This is the one to one advisory relationship, in which the counsellor helps his/her client to identify and solve or cope with his/her problem. Omari (2006) lists the advantages and disadvantages of this type of counselling. The advantages are that under individual counseling: the individual is free to express his/her feelings; the individual is assured of confidentiality; the individual s privacy is maintained;
makes easy the establishment of smooth relationship between a counselor and a client; easy for a counsellor to follow up issues expressed; easy for a counsellor to observe the details of behavior of a client; makes easy the development of an action plan; easy for a counsellor to support and work with an individual; it takes not more than forty five minutes to handle an individual s counselling. The disadvantages of individual counseling service are; It consumes a lot of time in dealing with one person or client. The concerned client can miss opportunities to share ideas with other clients. Group Counselling This is a one group relationship in which the counsellor works with a group of clients in seeking a solution to their common problems. For example, in educational settings, a group counselling intervention is a planned, developmental programme of guidance activities designed to foster students academic, career, and personal/social development. Group counselling service has the following features: Clients must have common problems. Members of the group have the opportunity to learn from each other through sharing ideas, giving and receiving feedback, increasing their awareness, gaining knowledge, practising skills, and thinking about their goals and actions. Members of the group must be mature and mentally sound to be able to talk about and tackle their common problems. Psychotics and psychopaths should be removed from the group lest they disrupt meaningful discussions. Group Counselling Methods According to Biswalo (1996), there are specific strategies for group counselling. They include: (a) Brainstorming: This is effective with the students who are in complete understanding of each other, are tolerant and cohesive. A short and clear statement about the problems at hand is presented to the students who then get involved in an intensive discussion and ultimately agree on a common way forward.
(b) Case discussion: In this case, a specific group is discussed with the group working as a team to address the issue at hand. (c) Free group discussion: In this case, the group controls the discussion. Here the counsellor s role is to observe and guide the discussion until common ground is established. (d) Role play and simulation: In this case, students can demonstrate their problems through role playing and imitation. At the end of the session and with the guidance of the counsellor, common ground is established. Conditions that a counselor has to fulfill before counseling process begins: Tafoya, (2006) outlines three conditions namely: The counselor emphasizes to the group members the meaning of confidentiality and its role and importance for the group. This should be done at the first session and reinforced when necessary as discussion continues. The counsellor establishes and maintains group rules such as being sensitive to the feelings of other group members, being a good listener and refraining from being critical or sarcastic about the contributions of group members. The counsellor establishes specific goals for each session and facilitates purposeful and goal oriented discussion. Community Counselling This is a comprehensive advisory and helping framework of intervention strategies and services, that promotes personal development and well-being of all individuals and communities (Lewis, et al.; 2003). Community counselling is a proactive type of advisory service in which a community counsellor visits a community and identifies existing or potential problems. This differs from the two types of counseling outlined above, where the client is the one who goes to the counsellor with a problem. Community counselling comprises four services namely direct client, indirect client, direct community and indirect community services. In the case of distance education and open learning, community counselling involves students who share common goals and expectations such as course completion and
passing exams, and have common needs such as study materials and other services. However, members of the community differ in terms of family, economic, social, cultural and psychological backgrounds (Gysbers, 2001). A counsellor must ensure recognition of these factors in the course of his/her guiding community counseling discussion. Approach Community services Client services Direct Preventive education Counseling Outreach to vulnerable clients Indirect Consultancy Client advocacy Influencing public policy Community counseling model (Lewis, et al, (2003) Preventive Education This involves educating or training the population at large, providing voluntary education, facilitating decision making, values-clarification and organizing life planning enhancement workshops. Outreach and Counselling This is the involvement of a counsellor with the community such as to provide a service or advice outside the counsellor s line of operation. Consultation A counsellor as a person who provides expert advice, sometimes attempts to respond to the needs of all community members, particularly the most vulnerable groups of people. A counsellor may also get involved in community actions influencing public policy, which may promote systemic changes. Advocacy Advocacy is where a counselor becomes an advocate, speaking up on behalf of the clients and actively intervening in the clients problems and solutions thereof. Review Questions (i) Distinguish between individual, group and community counselling. (ii) Mention and discuss methods employed in group counselling.
(iii) (iv) Identify conditions that a counselor has to fulfill before counseling process begins Explain how counselors carry out advocacy, consultation, outreach and counseling roles. Lecture 6: Methods Used in Providing Guidance and Counselling Service at a Distance Introduction This lecture will discuss the means of communication between a counsellor and a client at a distance. The limitations of the methods used by a counselor at distance are also discussed. Objectives At the end of this lecture you should be able to; (i) Define the term communication. (ii) Identify and explain the methods employed by a counsellor in providing guidance and counselling services at a distance. (iii) Explain the limitations of the methods employed in providing guidance and counselling services at a distance. (iv) List down factors to be considered when selecting a method for communicating counseling and guidance services. Definition of Communication Communication is defined as the means of sharing and exchanging of information between people, such as by speaking, writing or using signs or body language (Encarta dictionaries, 2007). Communication can only be compelete if there is a sender (client or a counselor), channel (through telephone, email, etc), and a sender (client or a counselor). In a counseling relationship, a client may be a receiver or a sender. The same is true of a counselor. Communication in this context can serve two purposes; first, the delivery of either information in the form of pre-packaged materials or transmission of a lecture as a crucial component of an educational process; secondly, the interaction between teachers and learners and where possible between learners themselves.
Counselling for an individual or a group, may be based on counselling between a counsellor and counsellee or client. For effective counselling to take place, a counsellor has to understand the effect of distance on the choice of technology so that the most effective delivery technology can be employed (UNESCO:2004). COL (2003) argues that print technology is better than the phone because the former can help the learner to refer to the printed message whenever there is need to do so. Methods Used in Providing Guidance and Counselling Service at a Distance The telephone The use of the telephone for guidance and counseling is well-established, and represents the most significant medium of communication in addition to face-to-face mode of communication. While in general counseling practice the telephone is often used within an emergency situation, the use of the telephone for guidance and counselling in learning has developed as a mainstream service within open and distance learning. The major issues related to the use of the telephone concern: (i) access, not only in terms of those who do not have telephones, but also in relation to the levels of confidence which may inhibit telephone usage (ii) (ii) the lack of visual clues in interaction; and (iii) (iii) the financial implications of lengthy conversations. Rosenfield and Samders (1998), added that counselling by telephone has definitely been poor compared with face-to-face counselling which promotes professional recognition. Counselling through telephone is different from face-to-face counselling in terms of the absence of facial clues on the telephone, even though the counselling skills used are the same. Telephone counseling in groups has also been reported as permitting greater participation for less assertive individuals, partly because of the perceived anonymity of the medium (Rosenfield, 1997, pp. 104-1 16), and partly because of the need for a structured discussion managed by the counselor or facilitator, which provides more regular openings for all participants.
Counselling Through the Computer and the Internet The use of the internet for counselling demands access to the computer and telecommunication equipment. On line discussion or dial up telephone can be conducted through computer networks. The counsellor interacts with a client simultaneously at different terminals. The counsellor announces the contact time and distance when learners/ clients log in to discuss an issue. This is known as bulletin board system as the chat room or talk room which holds one to- one or one to many conversation respectively. E mail is another commonly used method for counselling by internet. For instance, instead of writing letters and waiting for several days to get the reply by post, counsellors can post on the internet assignments, announcements and supplemental materials are given responses to distance learners individually or in a group. The World Wide Web is another method used by the counsellor in facilitating the one to-many-way counselling. The technologies indicated above decrease the importance of physical presence or attendance offering experiences. Simulated environments communication through text, audio and/or video, in new and changing combinations, establish virtual links between lecturers, counsellors and students independently of time and place. The computer and associated technologies provide enormously enriched interaction, which Watts (1996) uses to identify and facilitate the core guidance and counselling process. The new technologies further provide new ways in which the terms guidance and counselling continue to maintain their distinctiveness. Information and other resources accessible through CD-ROM or the World Wide Web and local networks support the guidance process, while the new technologies, with their capacity to support interaction on an individual as well as a group basis, support the counselling process. Other means to communication at distance include the fax and letter writing. Limitations of Using Online Methods in Providing Counselling Services at a Distance
Privacy Safeguarding the privacy of electronic communication with clients is a legal necessity. Online counsellors have a legal obligation to respect their clients right to privacy and to clearly discuss with them privacy limitations (Koocher & Morray, 2000). The security challenges posed by electronic communications, however, make it difficult for counsellors to adhere to this duty. The potential compromise of clients right to privacy is so high in electronic transmissions that a consistent emphasis and legal provisions should be placed on protecting the privacy of client-counselor electronic communications as a necessity to reduce liability.. To mitigate the risk of possible breach of privacy, counsellors have to provide clients with sufficient information addressing the difficulties of ensuring total client confidentiality of information exchanged electronically, to provide counselling services only through secure Web sites or use encryption software, to limit the use of non-secured sites only to the delivery of general and non-client specific information. With regard to protection, security, and safety of electronic records of client communications, ACA (1999) instructs counsellors to maintain procedures for ensuring the safety and confidentiality of client information acquired electronically by using encryption, fire walls, saving communications to the hard drive or file server computer system, creating regular back-up copies, and creating hard copies of all electronic communications. In regard to the electronic transfer of client information, ACA advises counselors to transfer client confidential information to authorized third parties only when both the counselor and the recipient have secure transfer and acceptance capabilities, the recipient is able to effectively protect the confidentiality of the client information to be transferred, and when an informed written consent of the client, acknowledging the limits of confidentiality has been secured Duty to Warn or Protect
Online counselors may possibly face a situation where clients may pose a threat to their counselors or other people. In these situations, counsellors have the affirmative duty to protect the client or warn third parties who may be in imminent danger from the counsellors clients. In the absence of audio-visual cues in text-based communications such as e-mail or chat, it is very difficult for counselors to properly assess the client (Shapiro & Schulman, 1996). The counsellor s ability to make the right judgment is further compromised by lack of efforts during the intake session, to gather a detailed history of every potential client. With the trans-boundary nature of online counselling, counsellors may find it difficult to uphold the duty to warn or protect. Shapiro and Schulman (1996) noted that even when a determination of threat to self or others is possible; it is not clear how the counselor could deal effectively with the situation from a distance. The counselor s responsibility to warn or protect becomes impossible if information identifying the client is not obtained and verified and if alternative methods of contacting the client in case of emergency are not secured. However, ACA (1999) disagree on the client anonymity, emphasize on a counsellor to identify a client and verify his/her identity. As a result, ACA (1999) intentionally do not support client anonymity and require counselors to identify clients and to verify their identity. Duty of Non-Abandonment The duty of non-abandonment is an important consideration in online therapy. This is because disruption of continuous coverage and online care is likely to happen for varied reasons. Some of these reasons include counsellors leave of absences or trips to areas without Internet access (Rosik, 2001), technical and equipment failures, and slow e-mail response time. There is great potential for such disruption of coverage to be interpreted as client abandonment. In order to ensure uninterrupted service coverage to clients, counselors must provide clients, at the onset of the professional relationship, with a schedule outlining when the services are available, the expected turnaround time, and alternate means of communication with the counselor such as telephone numbers (ACA, 1999). Counsellors must also provide clients with the name and contact information of at
least one other counselor when the treating counselor is unavailable for any extended period of time (Manhal-Baugus, 2001) or is simply unreachable for any other reason. Duty to Refer The online counselling modality is not suitable for all types of clients. Ainsworth (2001) identified specific situations where online therapy may not be the right therapeutic choice for a client. Ainsworth noted that online therapy is not the appropriate option for clients going through a serious crisis, or clients who have poor writing or typing skills. Ainsworth also noted that online therapy should be at best envisaged as a short time solution. In addition, the risk is always there for online clients to make a bad choice of therapist whether in terms of specialty or counseling techniques used. In these cases and others, the counsellor owes the client the duty to refer to a course of competent assistance. Failure to refer the client to an appropriate source of help and to follow through on the referral, by making sure that the client made contact, could be interpreted as abandonment. ACA (1999) urges professional counsellors to develop an appropriate intake procedure in order to determine whether online counselling is appropriate for the needs of the client, warn clients that online counselling services may not be appropriate in certain situations and inform clients of specific limitations, potential risks, and anticipated benefits. Counsellors should also ensure that clients are intellectually, emotionally, and physically capable of using the online services and understand the possible risks and benefits of such services. Counsellors must refer clients to alternative counselling methods if online counselling seems inappropriate. Ethical Issues Counsellors using internet technology to provide services must become aware of the ethical issues surrounding online counseling as well as the available guidelines for Internet practice and the existing literature that offer guidance with regard to ethical issues not yet covered in available standards.
Consent Counsellors have the ethical obligation to obtain clients consent to treatment at the onset of the professional relationship. This standard equally applies to professional relationships established online (Rosik, 2001). King and Engi (1998) suggested that obtaining consent becomes more critical with untested clinical approaches and recommended that online counsellors gather as much data from the clients as possible. Perhaps, with the numerous ethical risks involved in working with a relatively new counseling modality, it is safer for practitioners to inform clients about all possible issues in order for clients to make an informed decision about continuing with the services. The ISMHO (2000) guidelines on informed consent require that online counsellors inform their clients prior to receiving online services about the process, the counsellor, the potential benefits and risks of services, safeguards against those risks, and alternatives to those services. Other prudent measures include informing clients that the efficacy of online treatments may be unrelated to the success of traditional therapies (Rosik, 2001; Shapiro & Schulman, 1996). In case the treatment involves a team approach, clients should be informed that electronic messages might be viewed by a variety of authorized users on the team (Dodek & Dodek, 1997). Confidentiality The use of electronic communication in counseling raises many concerns about possible compromise of clients confidentiality. Rosik (2001) suggested that most clients have the wrong idea that online counsellor-client interchange is secure and confidential. The reality is, however, that absolute confidentiality of online communication may be difficult to maintain, because electronic records are more exposed to illegal and unauthorized access than paper or audio records (Dodek & Dodek, 1997). Rosik (2001) and ACA, (1999) outlined possible ways confidentiality of electronic records can be compromised. Therefore the following are to be done by a counselor: (i) To address the need to secure the private and confidential client-counselor online exchange. (ii) To safeguard against possible confidentiality breaches, counselors should
maintain high levels of electronic security by using secure sites. (iii) Use of encrypting electronic transmissions and records, and password protecting access to confidential information on the counselor and client s computers. (iv) Installation of Intranets with protective firewalls at the onset of the professional relationship. (v) A counselor should fully inform clients of the limits of confidentiality and explain the difficulty to ensure complete confidentiality of client information transmitted online. (vi) A counsellor should always secure a client waiver stating that the client acknowledges and accepts the potential risks of confidentiality breaches associated with internet communications. Competence It is difficult for clients to be certain that the person they are contacting online is a competent professional. This is especially the case when little information exists about the counselor s competence for clients to make an informed decision (Sampson, 2006). Sampson et al. (1997) reported that some service providers either do not report or do not have a credential traditionally regarded as necessary for independent practice. A fundamental principle in the delivery of human services is to do no harm to clients seeking help whether by the action or inaction of the counselor (Sampson, 2005). However, counselors have the ethical obligation to recognize the limits of their competence and practice only within the boundaries of their professional expertise (ACA, 1999). ISMHO (2000) also instructs counselors to work within boundary of competence and not to attempt to address a problem online if they would not attempt to address the same problem in person. In online counseling, however, there is more to the notion of competence than the expertise in the area of specialty (Sampson, 2005). Available literature on online counseling has already provided evidence that this modality is quite different from traditional face-to-face therapy ( Bloom, 1998; Fenichel et al., 2002; Frame, 1998; Grohol, 1997; Rosik, 2001). Available research suggests that
competence in face-to-face therapy is not sufficient alone for an efficient online practice (Fenichel et al., 2002). In addition to competence in the area of specialty, online counselors need to be competent in computer and Internet technology and need to be familiar with the various electronic techniques such as e-mail, chat, videoconferencing, and other multimedia approaches. They also need to be knowledgeable about the techniques of online work and the culture and resources of online practice (Fenichel et al., 2002). Further, in the case of e-mail or chat, they need to be able to conduct competent diagnosis or assessment of the client s situation with limited audio-visual input. Managing Emergencies Handling emergency situations is another area of concern in online practice The geographic distance separating the client from the counselor creates concerns for managing emergencies. The time-delayed nature of some online service delivery methods as well as the potential for technological failures further complicates the counsellor s obligation. When the client s location is not familiar to the counselor, it is more difficult for practitioners to handle properly possible emergency situations. ISMHO (2000) instructs online professionals to discuss with clients the procedures to be followed in emergencies including the use of local backup. Counsellors are required to obtain the name and telephone numbers of a local hotline care provider preferably someone who already has experience in providing backup services. NBCC (2001) requires Internet counselors, as part of the intake interview, to collaborate with the client, in identifying an appropriately trained professional who can provide local assistance, including crisis intervention, if needed. The Internet counselor is also required, in collaboration with the client, to determine the local crisis hotline telephone number and the local emergency telephone number. Points to Consider in Selecting Appropriate Methods for Counselling at a Distance The following are to be considered while selecting a type of method of counselling in open and distance education: Accessibility. Flexibility.
Cost. Speed; how quick can the information be disseminated through the medium. Interactive and user friendliness. Counselling Interview Any counselling interview, be it for individual counselling or group counselling consists of three parts namely; introduction, main body and closure. In this section, we will discuss the features of each part. (a) Parts of counselling interview Introduction The introduction part varies with the types of counseling interview. There are three types of counselling interviews: (i) a pre- appointed interview (ii) a drop in interview (iii) a follow up- interview Details on the nature of each type of counselling interview, will be provided later. A good counsellor starts the counselling process by warmly welcoming the counselee. The counselee has to be enabled to sit down comfortably. It is at this stage that the counsellor uses gestures of friendliness and concern to demonstrate to the counselee that he/she is concerned with the counselee s welfare and wants to genuinely help him/her. Main body In this part, the counselor listens, talks to, gives helpful information to enable the counselee to gain self confidence and understanding that leads to self decision making on how to cope or solve with his or her problem. The counselor is now using the relevant counseling skills (basic and supporting skills) in trying to understand the client s real problems and come up with a solution or solutions. Closure It is important to prepare the counselee for closure. If the interview was carried out using the counselee centered method, it is expected that the urge to terminate the interview
should be felt and finally carried out by the counselee through the guidance of the counselor. Once the counselee has made sufficient progress to cope with his or her problems, the interview or series of interviews should be concluded. However the counselee should be made to understand that it is possible for him or her to come back for follow up or for a new problem. One hour should be the maximum time devoted to a counselling session. (b) The Interview Space(s) The interview space(s) such as at the OUT study centre, one s home or workplace for students with learning challenges should be quiet, pleasant-looking and well ventilated for interviews to proceed smoothly. Lights should not be shining direct into the counselee s eyes or face. For the case of visually impaired, students with hearing loss, crippled and others with learning difficulties, the interviewing areas should be reachable with the necessary learning requirements e.g. equipment, assistive technologies, etc. The interviewing space should allow for confidential conversation without other people s over-hearing what is being said. Physical barriers should not exist, such as a table, between the counselor and counselee or frightening image or portrait of an official bureaucrat. The counsellor is one who puts the counselee at ease. Those with long experience working with all types of clients will be able to handle all types of situations. This is important because hostile or suspicious characters of counsellors may make the counselees inhibited to disclose his/her problems. It is necessary for the counsellors to be soft, calm and warm. It may be right to say that, the counsellor needs to be polite and welcoming, as the best way to make the counselees relax and communicate without being emotional. Good and experienced counselors begin with a small talk to outset the clients, especially if the small talk adds to the counselor s identification about the counselees problems. Of course, the counselor begins a small talk when the counselee is comfortably seated and he/she might offer him/her a cup of tea or drinking water and the like. For this reason, it
is quite ideal to hold a counselling session in a fairly furnished self contained room with a pantry. The gestures of friendliness and concern demonstrate to the counselee that the counsellor is friendly and interested in the counselee's welfare (Muyinga, 1997). Usually, the interview session should take only forty five minutes to avoid irrelevancies. Types of counseling interviews There are three types of counseling interviews - a pre- appointed interview, drop- in interview and follow - up interview (a) A pre-arranged interview In an office where a Secretary makes the appointments, the counselor must have appointment cards for every client or student before the session. At the time when the client makes the appointment the Secretary should take a minimum amount of basic routine information as shown below: Today s date.. Appointment: Date Time.. Name: Prof/Dr/Mr/Mrs/Miss Contract Address: Residence.. Postal. Phone: Home..Workplace Neighbourhood.Office. Is it your first appointment: Yes/No..If no, gives the date of previous (last) appointment.. Comments. There is no definite limitation as to what information can be included in the appointment card. The details will depend on the office/institution. In some of the institutions, most of the details already exist in the student s record card. The card can give just the name,
appointment date, year of registration and number. If this is not the first appointment the Secretary will pull out the folder for the counselor to view the case before the interview. The comments will be the discretion of the Secretary. An experienced Secretary can put down anything of importance. On the card, it is recommended not to put the age of the counselee. However, you may use your discretion and knowledge of your cultural norms. An elderly student may not want to be asked his/her age, especially by a young Secretary of the opposite sex. (b) A walk in-appointment: The same appointment card is used. The Secretary should avoid using impolite language to students. She/he should send in the card ahead of the client or student to the counsellor. This is helpful as it allows the counsellor to know the counselee and call him/her name as soon the concerned enters the room. This helps to break the strains of the first meeting (forming first impression of the counselee/counsellor). If the counselee is an old student, it helps when the counselor says something useful about him/her and uses a talk about it to settle in. For every counselee who comes in, the counselor should make sure that he/she walks over to the door, opens it and lets the counselee in. For example: Consellor: Hullo: Mr/Mrs/Miss.Come and take your seat over here. In the case of blind and partially sighted learners, the counselor holds his/her hand while touching the chair where he/she is going to sit. Smiling for sighted student, then says, Juma please, sit here on this chair while holding his/her hand (do not say to a blind person sit down! where?). Counsellee: Hullo: Mr. Matata how are you? Counsellor: I am fine thank you. (short pause). Emmy did you get the cassettes which we sent you two months ago through your Director?
Counsellee: Please, let Mr. read it for us, we are used to his voice and he reads quite clearly. (Interview continues.) (c) Walk-in-first Counsellee: Good morning my name is.. Counselor: Please, come in and take a seat. (Short pause). Is this correct spelling of your name (Reading from the appointment card). The counselor keeps cards with him/her for revisiting issues, learning the visitor s names and also as a reminder of the next appointment interview/conversation. Review Questions (i) Explain how you will employ the telephone, computer and internet to provide counselling and guidance services. (ii) Mention and discuss any four limitations of using Online Methods in providing counselling services at a distance. (iii) Identify points you will consider when selecting appropriate methods for counselling at a distance. (iv) Mention types of counseling interviews you have studied in this lecture. Which type do you consider as most suitable in ODL? Give reasons for your answer. Part 4: Counselling Interviews Lecture 7: Counselling Interviews Introduction In the previous lecture, we have looked at the methods used in providing counseling and guidance services at a distance. We noted that the services are provided through interviews with an individual, a group of individuals or a community. Any counseling interview be it for individual counseling, group counseling or community counseling consists of three parts which we have already identified. In this lecture, we will discuss further, features of each part. Furthermore, three types of counseling interview will be
elaborated. Finally, factors which may limit a good interview will be identified and discussed. Objectives After studying this lecture, you should be able to: (i) Explain the parts of a counselling interview. (ii) List and explain the different types of counselling interviews. (iii) Identify limitations for a good counselling interview. Parts of Counselling Interview Biswalo (1996) outlines three parts of counseling, namely introduction, main body and closure. The features of each part are as follows: Introduction The introduction part varies with the type of counseling interview. There are three types of counselling interviews: a pre- appointed interview a drop in interview a follow up - interview The details on the nature of each type of counselling interview will be provided later. A good counsellor starts the counselling process by warmly welcoming the counselee. The counselee will be expected to sit down in the case of face to face interview. In distance counselling, the type and method of communication matters. In some of the methods such as the telephone or chatting through internet, there is physical barrier in which a counsellor and a client do not see each other. In this part, the counsellor uses gestures of friendliness and concern which demonstrate to the counselee that the counsellor is concerned with the counselee s welfare and wants to genuinely help him/her. Main body
In this part, the counsellor listens, talks to and gives helpful information to enable the counselee to gain self confidence and understanding that leads to self confession and decision making on how to cope with or solve his or her problem. The counselor uses the relevant counseling skills (basic and supporting skills) necessary for effective interaction with the client (Egan, 1988). Effective interaction will help the counsellor to understand the client s real problems and come up with a solution. The counselling skills will be discussed in detail in lecture five. Closure It is important to prepare the counselee for closure. If the interview was carried out using the counselee centered method, it is expected that the urge to terminate the interview should be felt and finally carried out by the counselee through the guidance of the counselor. Once the counselee has made sufficient progress to cope with his or her problems, the interview or series of interviews should be concluded. However the counselee should be made to understand that it is possible for him or her to come back for follow up or for a new problem. One hour should be the very maximum. Limitations of a Good Counselling Interview (a) The Interview Space(s) The interview space(s) such as at the OUT study centre, one s home or workplace for students with learning challenges should be quiet, pleasant-looking and well ventilated for interviews to proceed smoothly. Lights should not be shining direct into the counselee s eyes or face. For the case of blind, students with hearing loss, crippled and others with learning difficulties, the interviewing areas should be reachable with the necessary learning requirements e.g. equipment, such as loop systems for hard of hearing. The interviewing space should allow for confidential conversation without other people over-hearing what is being said. Physical barriers should not exist, such as a table, between the counsellor and counselee or frightening portrait of an official bureaucrat. (b) Prior knowledge (biases)
If the counselor has prior knowledge of the client and vice versa, the interview may or may not lead to good results. (c) Overfamiliarity This implies that if the counsellor and the client know each other well, the counselling interview will not be successful because the client may reach a point of not respecting the counsellor as a person who can meet his/her goals and expectations. (d) Cultural differences Each person has his/her own values, biases and assumptions about human behavior. There may occur misunderstandings between a client and a counsellor due to cultural variations between them and which may lead to alienation or inability for the counsellor or client to develop trust and rapport. This may result in early termination of the interview and non solution to the problem which the counsellor set off to solve.. (e) An emotive problem e.g. sexual abuse, domestic violence, etc. These problems may lead to early termination of any type of counselling interview because of the strong emotional feelings underlying them. Old wisdom tells us that where emotions start, reasoning ceases. (f) Language barrier between a counsellor and a client Both a counsellor and his/her client need to be linguistically competent to communicate during the counseling interview. In the case of educational institutions in Tanzania, English or Kiswahili may be used. What about in your country? The above limitations apply to both face-to-face and at-a-distance counselling interviews. However, the issue of a counselling interview space differs for these types of interviews. In the counselling interview at a distance, the space and time depend on the choice and type of technology that a counsellor and the client decide to use i.e. telephone, internet through e-mail or any other suitable means. For a more detailed discussion, go back to lecture two on the limitations of new technologies in providing counseling services at a distance.
Types of Counselling Interviews There are three types of counselling interviews - a pre- appointed interview, drop- in interview and follow - up interview (Biswalo, 1996). Pre-appointed counselling interview This is the type of counselling interview in which the counselling session has been arranged before between a counsellor and a client. This type of counselling can be applied in both counselling at a distance and in face to face sessions. Although our great concern is about counselling through distance, distance education guidance and counselling services can also be provided through face to face arrangements where a student and a tutor meet once in a year. For instance, students at The Open University of Tanzania, hold face-to-face sessions twice a year, to discuss different issues; academic as well as administrative. At these sessions, guidance and counseling sessions may also be held. An example of the face to face counseling interview A counsellor: Hello, George. Come in, how are you? A client: I am fine Mr James. A counsellor: How can I help you? A client: I have.. (A client now mentions a problem or an issue that has forced him/ her to come to the counsellor or a tutor) An example of a counselling interview at a distance (depends on the type and method chosen for communication between the counsellor and the client. In the case of a telephone communication, an interview can be as follows: A counsellor: Hello A client: Hello Mr James, A counsellor: Ok, I remember you, how are you George? A client: I am fine
A counsellor: How can I help you today George? A client: (A client now mentions a problem or an issue that has forced him/ her to communicate with a counsellor or a tutor). Drop in counselling interview This is the type of counselling interview in which a client and a counsellor meet at first time (accidentally) without prior arrangement. In this type of counselling the introduction part differs from the above type, because a counsellor might not know the client and vice versa. Follow up counselling interview This is an interview carried out between a counsellor and the client for the purpose of checking whether the action (s) taken following previous interviews have been clearly undertaken by the client. Sometimes, a counsellor may find the same client with another problem. The introduction part will differ from the above two counselling interviews. Here, the counsellor and the client are familiar to each other. Review Questions (iv) Explain activities which are done in every part of a counseling interview. (v) What measures will you take in order to eliminate any three limitations of a counseling interview. (vi) Discuss characteristic features of each type of counseling interview. Lecture 8: Types of Counselling Interviews Introduction Counselling skills are basic interviewing techniques necessary for the counsellor to effectively interact with a client. For the counselling process to be successful, the counsellor must be skillful and able to apply his or her professional competences in different settings and for different types of clients (Omari, 2006). Counselling skills may be either basic or supportive, and their application greatly depends on the counsellor s understanding of the counselee, his/her environment and problem to be solved.
Objectives After studying this lecture, you should be able to: (i) Define the concept counseling skills. (ii) Describe two types of familiar counselling skills. Basic Skills These can be abbreviated using the acronym REUNDA which stands for; R- Relation building - Warm greetings. - Showing interest in and respect for the client. E- Exploration of the problem - Exploring the issues brought for counselling or derived through questioning and active listening. - Identifying priority issues or problems. - Understanding the problem situation. UND - Understanding the client. - Developing rapport. - Allowing client to speak freely. - Ensuring a free atmosphere for the client. - Ensuring a sense of reciprocity between the client and counsellor. A Action plan - Pushing for joint effort in developing action plans to solve the problem. - Agreement on a set of strategies. - Prioritizing the strategies. - Agreeing on a schedule for implementation of agreed plans. Supporting Skills In understanding and helping a counselee, the counsellor should apply both basic and supporting skills as outlined in Biswalo (1996) and Wallace and Lewis (1998). Supporting counseling skills include attending behaviour, empathy, warm relationship, respect for the counselee s viewpoints, genuineness of the counsellor to help, right
language and gestures, listening and questioning skills, self disclosure and reflection and immediacy of actions. Attending behaviour This comprises eye contacts where the counsellor in the eyes of his/her counselee in order to assure that he/she is with him/her. For blind people, the counsellor may use gestures such as shaking or touching the hand of his/her counselee. The body language enhances a counsellor s understanding of his/her counselee s feelings under a relaxed atmosphere. As gestures may not be effective when counselling students with visual impairments, the counsellor may opt for touching the counselee s hands or shoulders. This is followed by verbal communication where the counsellor keeps the thread of the issue expressed by the counselee and makes inputs or responses that are beneficial to both the interviewer and interviewee. Whenever the counselee seems to be off focus, the counsellor helps by resetting the stage while at the same time giving assurance that the counselee is on the right track towards clearly identifying his or her problem including methods of coping with it or solving the problem. Empathy Empathy is the ability of a client to see himself or herself and his or her problem more clearly with a view to managing all pertaining situations. The counselor on his or her demonstrates accurate understanding of the counselees feelings as a good listener, sensitive about issues expressed and responsive to them. The counsellor shows that he/she understands the counselee s feelings as he/she strives to help in solving identified problems. Poor empathy or understanding of self leads to unnecessary questioning that may at times worsen the status of the counselee. Warmth The counsellor demonstrates physical expression of understanding and being part of the counselee s problem through verbal and nonverbal expressions, voice tones, gestures and other forms of body language and facial expression. Respect
The counselor must at all times show respect and appreciation of the counselee s presentation on his/her problem, be it trivial, vague or complicated. Through such recognition, role modelling and respect, the counselee develops self-confidence in the counsellor and consequently relaxes and exposes his problems more clearly. Genuineness The counsellor should always show readiness to help the counselee in a clear and unambiguous manner. Adult counselee should be treated as an adult deserving all the respects and esteemed recognition. Trust The counsellor should show his confidence and trust in the counselee. He should not disclose or discuss with anyone the problems brought to him or her by the client. Minimal gestures The counsellor should avoid gestures in order to encourage the counselee to expose more of him/her. Non-verbal gestures such as eye contact, silence, a head nod, etc; can also help. Remarks like I want to hear more of that... go on please, tell me more, as well as repetition of one or several key words in the counselee s narrative can also encourage him or her to be more open. Language In counselling, the counsellor must use simple terminologies. Communication should match the counselee s level of understanding. Terminologies used should be acceptable to the counselee. Terminologies with derogatory connotations especially for learners with special needs like slow learners and the mentally retarded (zezeta); visually impaired (vipofu); people with physical disabilities (viwete) and albinos (zeruzeru). No individual should be given such labels. Listening A counselor should be a good and attentive listener. He should not dominate the counselor/counselee dialogue. At all times he should allow the counselee to tell about his problems and allow the counselee to do most of the talking. It is always advisable to let the counselee tell his stories naturally. The role of the counsellor is to observe and detect positive/negative feelings, attitudes and personality of his/her counselee. The counselee s
responses should be used to enhance the counsellor s diagnosis and direction of the client s problems solving. Open and closed Questions The counselor posses open questions such as please, tell me a little more about your problems. An example of a closed question would be do you get along with your subject tutor? The open questions give room for the counselee to express his/her feelings freely, whereas closed questions are normally answered in a few words or simply with a yes or no. Open questions help to begin an interview and provide room for expanding points raised in the course of the interview. They enable the counsellor to see what the counselee normally does when confronted with a problem and then help to focus on the client s feelings and problems. Paraphrasing This skill requires the counsellor to demonstrate his ability and understanding by reiterating to the counselee what the latter has said, thus helping both parties in the counselling relationship to state the problems more clearly. Example 1: Counselee: I want to stay at home; the school life is not good, there is no good food, no television no time to play music. I won t go back there Counsellor: (paraphrasing), You don t like schooling. Example 2: Counselee: My father does not pay my school fees. Whenever you ask him to do so, he does not respond. I don t know what kind of a father I have. Counsellor: (paraphrasing) So you don t understand your father? Reflection of feelings Reflection of feelings involves emotions. For example, a counselee may express his feelings and the counselor may respond by saying that I feel awful about my work. It looks as if I will be discontinued from my studies. I am very depressed. Summary Making This is about putting together all the information gathered. The counsellor having attended to all the counselee s verbal and non-verbal statements in a counseling session or even several sessions puts together the expressed ideas and problems ready for solving
in partnership with the counselee. The Counselor does this by selecting important points and behavior patterns and restating them as accurately as possible for the counselee to see his situation more clearly. Summarizing is almost the same as paraphrasing and reflection of feelings. However, summarizing results from a longer period of consultation and involves a bigger range of content or feelings. Concreteness The counsellor needs to be concrete in his replies to the counselee s presentation. He/she should never let the counselee to ramble. He/she should ask open questions directly to eliminate the counselee s vague statements. This approach helps the counselee to concretize his/her utterances Self-disclosure Here the counsellor reveals something about his personal life to the counselee in order to make the counselee realize that the/she is not the only one who experiences problems. This approach should be used appropriately in order not to distort the path intended to solve the client s problem. The counsellor should not give the false self-disclosure. Confrontation It is proper to ask the counselee confronting questions, if the counsellor feels that the former is evading issues of responsibility. However, in doing so the counsellor must have prepared the counselee to take the shock of being confronted, and this skill must be used with great care. The skill is good when inducing the counselee to realize his shortcomings and take responsibility for his problems. Immediacy This skill is sometimes called direct, natural communication. It facilitates the counsellor s talk to the client about what is happening in the here and - now interpersonal relationship (Egan, 1988)). There is no need for the counsellor prolonging an interview when it is possible to respond to all of the counselee s concerns in a short period. It may appear unrealistic for the counselee who is capable and intelligent. When the counsellor gives information and suggestions, he should feel that the counselee takes responsibility and accepts or rejects the suggestions made to him. The counsellor must learn to identify closure points during an interview with his client.
According to UNESCO (2010), the above supporting skills can be grouped into four categories: (i) Attitudinal skills (respect, empathy, self-disclosure, confrontation, unconditional positive regard and congruence); (ii) Listening skills; (iii) Verbal communication skills, and (iv) Giving leads (clichés, facts, beliefs, emotions, and intimacy). Both basic skills and supporting skills are used in face to face counselling as well as for counselling clients/students at a distance. Attending behavior is a skill that is more visible in face to face counselling. Review Questions (i) What is REUNDA? (ii) Mention and discuss any four supporting skills you need in order to carry out counseling and guidance in ODL. (iii) Classify supporting skills into four categories. Part 6: The Nature and Special Needs of the Distance Learner Lecture 9: Challenges Experienced by Distance Learners Introduction A counsellor is bound to have students with diverse cultural backgrounds and learning challenges. Students with learning challenges include the blind, deaf, partially sighted, and physically disabled, women, refugees and prisoners. It is important that, when a counsellor holds interviews with such learners, he makes efforts to do so being conscious of these special needs. It is necessary to first establish relationships of trust and
confidence with such counselees. Students such as those with special learning difficulties must be considered and handled with care. This lecture will define the term special need, identify special needs in educational settings and discuss other related problems encountered in guidance and counselling services. Objectives After studying this lecture, you should be able to; i. Explain the challenges experienced by distance learners. ii. Define the term special needs as well as others in education. iii. Identify special needs in educational settings. iv. Explain other challenges experienced in educational institutions in SADC Member States. Challenges Experienced by Distance Learners As adults and youths, distance learners are likely to face problems of age and preparedness to learn and achieve. Lack of preparedness to learn and achieve may also be caused by inadequate commitment. On the other hand, as distance learners, they are anxious to learn and achieve, in spite of their other responsibilities, lack or limited IT application skills, motivation and customer care from ODL providers. Within this context, the main challenges facing learners in distance learning settings can include: Institutional level ODL providers lack of customer care, guidance and counseling skills and facilities to support learning. At family level - Conflicts in the family, inadequate sharing of family responsibilities, limited resources. Individual - lack of computer application skills. At work place heavy work load, diminishing study time. Community level - over involvement in community services which may limit time for studies. Identification of Students with Special Needs and the Role of a Counsellor In distance and open learning, all students have similar goals. But the kinds and magnitude of help and support received differ from student to student. When there is a mismatch between the help that students need and the help that they receive, hunches arise that there are students with special needs (Barthope and Visser, 1991). Special
needs in an educational setting refer to those desires that the student needs help to access unlike the other students who can obtain those services without external support from someone else or other gadget or equipment. In identifying students with special needs, Cline (1992) has outlined such factors as learners traits, abilities, strengths and weaknesses. These traits can be identified through educational performance assessment. Students with special needs may also be identified by looking at the learning environment of the institution. Perhaps the learning fails to provide conditions that will facilitate successful learning and support services such as access to offices, library, computer room, etc by persons with physical disabilities. Besides disability or handicap, there are also special needs associated with impairment. Disability According to WHO (2981), 1992) Kisanji and Mda (2001), disability is a condition, which makes an individual unable to function normally in a particular socio-cultural context. Disability therefore can be stated as a long term or chronic condition medically recognized as physiological, anatomical or emotional impairment resulting from disease or illness, inherited or congenital defects, trauma or other impairments (including mind and body). Impairment is also a term defined as: lacking parts of all of the a limb, or having a defective limb, organism or mechanism of the body; it is the disadvantage or restriction of activity caused by a contemporary social organization which takes no or little account of people who have physical impairment or handicap and thus excludes them from the main stream of social activities (Ingstad and Whyte, 1995). Handicap Wright (1990) defined handicap as a condition that is created when the environment has obstacles or barriers to people with disabilities. Handicap and disability are used interchangeably. The author believes that the altitudes of people with challenged
learning circumstances are of paramount importance in establishing goals and directing them towards meeting their desire needs. However, they need motivation, guidance and support to take their responsibilities in their own lives. In the absence of human support there may be very little that can be done to accomplish their goals (Tobin, 1998). In the view of the above individual and social model of disability understand that what can be physically and or psychologically assessed as absent, malfunctioning or interfering with normal functioning of a person s body is an impairment and that disability is a socially constructed disadvantage or a restriction, it becomes difficult to meaningfully identify the range of disability in a institution of higher learning. It is for this reason that this paper discusses counseling process including techniques of helping students with learning needs through distance learning. After identifying students with special needs, the counsellor individually works with faculty and other educators to design strategies for meeting the development needs of all students including those with special needs. Special Needs in Educational Settings Mary and Tungaraza in Omari (2006), outline special needs in educational settings as follow: Health problems Frequent illnesses Incurable diseases Physical weakness Impairments Visual impairment Hearing impairment. Physical impairment
Intellectual exceptionalities i. Gifted and talented individuals ii. Mental disabilities Social problems Relationships with peers of the opposite sex Intimacy of friendships and acquaintances Conflicts between individuals Grieves and bereavement following death of loved ones Life in an orphanage after losing parents or guardians Family relationship problems Educational problems Difficulty to choose appropriate study skills Lack of IT skills Inadequate access to the internet Difficulties to choose subjects and subjects combinations Lack of notes taking skills Inadequate skills for writing examination Lack of skills for preparing study timetables Poor time management Lack of skills for formulating study groups and organizing and conducting group discussion. Failure to complete the prescribed curriculum Problems of balancing school work with home and family concerns. Vocational and career problems Difficulties of making career choices Problems of matching the subjects of study with future careers. Problems of job retention.
Problem of accessing occupational information Some needs are typical among students of a given age; others are specific to certain individuals in particular settings and educational institutions. Guidance and Counselling We have already defined the terms guidance and counselling; discussed the importance of guidance and counselling and identified counselling techniques for application in an ODL setting. We have also learnt about the qualities of a good counsellor and basic and supporting skills in counselling. Furthermore, we have noted the importance of listening in counselling. It includes understanding fully the clients problems, giving him or her adequate time to express the problem. Counselling is a psychological tool that heals and creates a free atmosphere while listening and motivating the client to express all that is disturbing him. Appropriate facial expressions and gestures strengthen the process of listening and soliciting information about an issue. The importance of guidance and counselling in ODL is to enhance the students learning, motivating students to complete studies and, hence, reduce drop out rates. Counselling and guidance provide feedback to students, guide them to effectively use available resources and solve their problems. The methods of counselling such as client centred counselling, clinical counselling and eclectic counselling have also been discussed. The basic counselling techniques discussed include active listening, use of body language, tones of the voice, use of closed questions, paraphrasing, reflection of feelings, summarization, notes taking and home work. Furthermore, qualities of a good counsellor such as empathy, warmth, genuineness, confidentiality, patience, good listening, emotional maturity, care and self control, flexibility and firmness, ability to understand clients have been stressed.
Roles of Guidance and Counselling Services for ODL Students Guidance and counseling services in open and distance learning provide help to strengthen students, academically, socially and in making career choices. Academically, students will develop personal qualities of effective learning and appreciate the importance of good interpersonal relationships in school life as well as at home, community and wider society. Socially, students will appreciate their interpersonal esteems, respect themselves as well as others, including their homes family and community and hold themselves accountable and responsible for their decisions and actions. In Career choices, students will be able to investigate the world of work and make informed career choices and decisions, and appreciate the relationship between personal qualities, education, training qualifications, and the world of work. In addition to face-to-face counselling, three other ways of counselling distance learners have been identified. Telephone courtesy use was considered including making and receiving/answering calls; e-mails involving internet, reading, acknowledging and responding to e-mails; fax and letters. In all these methods of communication it is important to be courteous, use polite language, and acknowledge receipt of messages and responding promptly including follow up actions. The important issues to be considered in conducting guidance and counselling sessions are; a room and a table and chairs for the client counselor and teacher or lecturer in charge of guidance and counselling. It is also important to make provision for recreation, reference and writing materials. Review Questions Identfy challenges facing distance learners in different settings. (i) Assess the role of a counselor in the identification of students with special needs. (ii) Provide an outline of special needs in different educational settings. (iii) Which special needs are predominant in any SADC Member State?
Lecture 10: ICTs for Visually Challenged Students Introduction In this lecture, we shall focus on how ICTs can assist visually challenged students to access education and training opportunities. The lecture will provide justification for addressing education and training needs of persons with disabilities, and will recommend specific ICTs which can be of help in addressing such needs. Objectives After studying this lecture, you should be able to; (i) Explain the need for addressing education and training needs of people with disabilities. (ii) Identify and recommend specific ICTs for addressing education and training needs of people with disabilities. The Need to Address Education and Training Needs of People With Disabilities Physical and other disabilities are characteristic of a wide range of human conditions. It is sometimes argued that poverty and disability are deeply interrelated in a complex and vicious circle. Recent estimates indicate that there are around 600 million people with a wide range of disabilities around the world, and that three out of every four of them live in the developing world; half are of working age and half are women. The highest incidences of disabilities occur in the poorest parts of the world. A growing number of countries offer special programmes to assist people with disabilities. There are special schools for the blind, the deaf, the mentally retarded and
the physically disabled. There are also educational teaching and learning resources specially designed to meet the needs of different disabilities. Special teacher training programmes are designed such as to prepare specialist teachers for the different disabilities. Similarly, education and training institutions and indeed all public buildings are making special design provisions to enable smooth access by persons with special needs. ICTs for Students With Disabilities More than a century ago, the need to develop information tools for people with disabilities inspired the invention of some of today's most commonly used ICTs. Pioneer technologies such as the typewriter and the telephone, were specifically conceived and designed to address information needs of people with and without disabilities. Today ICTs have been developed that enable the physically disabled persons to work from their homes. With the advent of tele-working arrangements, persons with disabilities (PWD) can earn their livelihood while at home. In a number of organizations, persons with physical disabilities have specialized in such jobs as software development, content development, data entry and answering telephone calls or receiving and sending emails and handling other ICT functions. There are also adaptive IC technologies for the blind. With the aid of appropriate technological devices, visually impaired persons can independently access, process, store and transmit the same information handled by sighted people. Speech Synthesizers and appropriate software convert computer outputs and texts by entering cues into major
spoken languages. The person with visual impairment can access computers with the help of speech output and use word processor applications. For example, a Speech Synthesizer enables a blind person to read a text and type on screen what is spoken. A Braille printer can produce Braille characters, so that the blind can check the correctness of the typed content on his own. Similarly Braille Translators have software to convert English into Braille. There is also a Reading Edge machine that reads aloud for the blind whatever text is being scanned. For the low visually challenged people there are Visibility Software that magnify text on screen and so making it possible for low vision persons to read. It is true that today ICTs are making it possible for the visually challenged people to pursue education and training in order to obtain paid or self employment and make a living. Review Questions (i) (ii) (iii) Account for the need to address educational needs of People With Disabilities. Discuss measures which are being taken in a familiar SADC Member State to address educational needs of People With Disabilities. Identify ICTs which can be employed to assist students with disabilities study effectively.