Teachers Make The Difference: Teaching students with Learning Disabilities at Middle and secondary Levels

TABLE OF CONTENTS A. INTRODUCTION... 1 B. WHAT ARE LEARNING DISABILITIES?...1 1. Characteristics of a Student with Learning Disabilities...2 2. The Cognitive Profile of Students with Learning Disabilities...3 3. The Achievement Profile of Students with Learning Disabilities...3 i. Curriculum-based Assessment...4 ii. Norm-referenced Assessment...4 4. Unexpected Academic Underachievement...4 5. Information Processing...5 i. A Model for Receiving and Processing Information for Learning...5 ii. Processing Difficulties...6 6. Recognizing a Student with a Learning Disability...7 7. Determining Educational Courses for Students with Learning Disabilities...8 i. Course Options for Students based on Cognitive and Achievement Profiles...8 C. EFFECTIVE AND DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION AND ASSESSMENT...9 1. Planning for Effective and Differentiated Instruction and Assessment...9 i. Flow Chart: Planning for Effective and Differentiated Instruction and Assessment...10 ii. Classroom Environment Checklist...11 2. Effective Instruction...12 i. Differentiated Instruction and the Adaptive Dimension...12 a. Adaptive Dimension Components...13 ii. Brain Compatible Instruction...13 iii. Instructional Groupings...14 iv. Explicit Instruction...16 v. Scaffolded Instruction...16 vi. Metacognitive Instruction...18 vii. Strategy Instruction...19 a. Examples of Specific Learning Strategies using Mnemonic Devices...20 b. Strategic Learning of Students with and without Leaning Disabilities...21 viii.content Enhancement...22 ix. Effective Feedback...23 x. Performance Monitoring...23 3. Effective Assessment...25

D. EDUCATIONAL, LITErACy, AND PrOCEssINg DEmANDs...27 1. Educational Demands...27 2. Literacy Demands...28 i. Components of Reading in Content Areas and the Comprehension of Text...29 3. Processing Demands...29 i. Increased Processing Demands...30 E. references...34 F. CHECKLIsTs...37 1. Effective, research-based, Instructional strategies to Enhance student Learning...37 i. Frequency Chart...40 2. Adaptations...41 3. Instructional / Assessment strategies and Adaptations for specific Areas of Difficulty...45

TeacheRs Make The DIffeRence: Teaching students with Learning Disabilities at Middle and secondary Levels A. InTroducTIon This document is a tool for teachers and professionals striving to address the unique learning needs of students who are struggling academically. These students may have characteristics of learning disabilities, or they may be identified as students with learning disabilities. The document: identifies characteristics of students with learning disabilities; describes cognitive and achievement profiles of students with learning disabilities, detailing unexpected academic underachievement and processing difficulties; provides an overview of effective, research-based instruction and assessment strategies; identifies educational, literacy, and processing demands relevant to students with learning disabilities; and provides checklists for teachers seeking to determine the needs of students with learning disabilities. The Ministry of Education promotes the multi-tiered Response to Intervention (RTI) process which provides a continuum of services, supports, and interventions to students. The RTI process is effective in serving the needs of all students (including students with learning disabilities) because of its focus on school-wide, group, and individual interventions. B. WhAT Are learning disabilities? Learning Disabilities refer to a number of disorders that may affect the acquisition, organization, retention, understanding, or use of verbal or non-verbal information. These disorders affect learning in individuals who otherwise demonstrate at least average abilities essential for thinking and/or reasoning. As such, learning disabilities are distinct from global intellectual deficiency. Learning disabilities result from difficulties in one or more processes related to perceiving, thinking, remembering, or learning. These include, but are not limited to, language processing, phonological processing, visual spatial processing, processing speed, memory and attention, and executive functions (e.g., planning and decision-making). Adapted from Learning Disabilities Association of Canada (LDAC), 2002 The LDAC definition of learning disabilities can be found at http://www.ldac-taac.ca. 1

1. Characteristics of a Student with a Learning Disability A student with a learning disability is not part of a homogenous group, but rather has unique learning needs and strengths that are different from other students with learning disabilities. A student with a learning disability: has average or above average cognitive ability, demonstrating average or above average abilities required for thinking and reasoning; may have difficulty with verbal or non-verbal information, in regards to acquiring, retaining, organizing, and understanding information; will have difficulties in one or more of the processes related to perceiving, thinking, remembering, or learning such as language processing, visual spatial processing, processing speed, memory, attention, planning, and decision-making (executive functions); may have difficulty with acquiring and using skills related to oral language, reading, written language, and/or math; may have difficulty with other skills that may impact life and learning, such as organizational skills, social perception, social interaction, and perspective taking; typically has unexpected academic underachievement, or achievement maintained only by unusually high levels of effort and/or support; has altered brain functioning due to genetic and/or neurological factors or injury, which will result in lifelong implications; may have difficulties that range in severity from mild to severe; and/or may, at the perceptual level, have difficulty with visual perception, (e.g. tracking when reading, remembering letter sequences, or transferring answers to a sheet), or auditory perception (e.g., organizing information presented orally, or remembering and following oral directions). A learning disability is not: a global intellectual deficiency Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), or a cognitive deficit, a behavioral problem, a physical disability, a cultural difference, a visual or hearing problem, a lack of motivation. a mental health or emotional problem, A learning disability is not caused by: poverty, ineffective teaching, poor parental support, health-related problems, inadequate opportunity for instruction, sensory deficits. It is important to understand that though these factors do not cause a learning disability, they may contribute significantly to the negative impact of a learning disability on a student s learning progress and opportunity for academic and future success. 2

2. The Cognitive Profile of Students with Learning Disabilities Typically, a registered psychologist conducts a psychoeducational assessment to determine a student s cognitive ability. In such cases, an intellectual assessment will be measured by an individual test such as the Wechsler Intelligence Scales (WISC- IV or WAIS-III). Diagnosis of learning disabilities is important to: explain why students are underachieving and clarifies for everyone that students are not lazy or just not trying ; build the students self-esteem, as the students, parents, and teachers come to understand, perhaps for the first time, that the students have average or above average thinking and reasoning skills and are not stupid ; support both teachers and students efforts towards advocacy for appropriate supports; and give students access to specialized programs and supports at all levels. In some instances, students may also gain access to additional technology or funding options. Teachers may: request a cognitive assessment if a student is experiencing academic difficulty, but has not had a cognitive assessment; check for the psychoeducational reports (including the student s cognitive profile); ask questions about the results of the cognitive assessment or the written report to the registered psychologist who performed the assessment; continue to work closely with the student, making an effort to provide the instruction and adaptations that are necessary for the student to progress academically; and learn more about the student s strengths and needs and share this information with the registered psychologist completing the assessment. 3. The Achievement Profile of Students with Learning Disabilities Achievement scores for students with learning disabilities: typically fall in the below average range in at least one skill area and, often, in several skill areas; may show considerable variation, appearing extremely low in some areas and above average in others; and indicate students skills and knowledge in a particular area. By studying the pattern of scores, an educator may begin to determine some of the students underlying strengths and areas of need. Assessment may be determined through curriculum-based assessment or normreferenced assessment. When students have low achievement, it may be helpful for the teacher to have both curriculum-based and norm-referenced achievement measures, helping to guide the teacher in providing instruction and adaptations. 3

i. Curriculum-based Assessment Teachers measure student achievement at various critical points throughout the instructional process (before, during, and after instruction). A variety of curriculum-based assessment and evaluation tools can be used by teachers to determine a student s achievement. Checklists, portfolios, observations and anecdotal comments, student-teacher conferences, quizzes, and tests are some of the tools used to collect information about a student s achievements. When a teacher has concerns about a student s level of achievement following the use of curriculum-based classroom assessments, a request for additional achievement assessments should be made in order to learn more about the student s skills and weaknesses, and to identify in which particular areas instructional support will be required. ii. Norm-referenced Assessment Norm-referenced standardized assessments (administered by the student support services teacher or the registered psychologist) typically measure a number of sub-skills in the area of concern, and the student s achievement will be compared to other students of the same age or at the same grade level. These normreferenced assessments help a teacher realize the student s skill level in relation to his or her peers, as well as the specific areas of strength and need. 4. Unexpected Academic Underachievement Unexpected academic underachievement occurs when there is a significant difference between students thinking and reasoning ability (cognitive ability) and their academic performance or achievement (Walcot-Gayda, 2004). Students who demonstrate unexpected underachievement may: achieve considerably less than expected given their cognitive abilities; achieve as expected, but only when there is an unusually high level of effort on the part of the students, and/or support from parents and/or teachers; produce written products that are extremely limited in volume and quality and not representative of their knowledge or skills in a given area; show strengths in learning through material presented orally, but display unexpectedly weak skills in reading comprehension; speak with understanding and insights on self-selected topics, but have difficulty answering questions posed by the teacher; display an understanding of concepts when discussed orally, but be unable to demonstrate this same level of understanding in written test responses; invest unusually high levels of effort, completing assignments and homework very slowly when compared to peers; and/or be required to take a reduced course load each semester in order to be successful with courses. Students who require unusually high levels of support may: require tutoring over several semesters to keep up with peers; this may involve up to an hour per day of tutoring or learning assistance tutorials, and may involve support in several subject areas; and/or require a disproportionate amount of support from parents in order to complete homework and projects. 4

5. Information Processing The National Defintion of Learning Disabilities states: Learning disabilities result from difficulties in one or more processes related to perceiving, thinking, remembering or learning. i. A Model for Receiving and Processing Information for Learning PERCEIVING THINKING AND REMEMBERING LEARNING Sensory Input Processing of Information Student Output Sight Processing Following Sensory Input Processing in Preparation for Output Speak Sound 1. Sort information 1. Find information Read Touch Taste 2. Categorize information 3. Connect information to prior knowledge 2. Select and organize for intended purpose 3. Plan response Write Represent Smell 4. Store for later recall 4. Produce response Produce a Variety of Movement Products Adapted from Walcot-Gayda, 2004 5

ii. Processing Difficulties Difficutlies in processes related to: Perceiving Thinking Remembering Learning Language Difficulties in processing Difficulties in Difficulties with: retrieving Difficulties with new Processing sarcasm or understanding understanding: vocabulary words; vocabulary and responses when someone is joking long or complex sentence orally presented task to teacher-directed Difficulty taking another s perspective structure; and with figures of speech demands questions Phonological Sounds in words (e.g. Difficulty with Difficulty retaining Difficulty extracting Processing bat/bag) are confused; comprehension of content sounds/symbol essential concepts due to poor sound sequencing in caused by lack of fluency in correspondence focus on decoding words; limited automaticity decoding in decoding Visual - Difficulty with oral or written Difficulty identifying main Difficulty with left/right; Poor integration of Spatial directions for an activity; ideas in a text north/south, hierarchical sequential information Processing perceiving organization of structures (days of the week, recipe) ideas in a text Processing Poor social interactions; Few connections between Slow linking of new with Less material covered or Speed does not keep up with isolated bits of information previously learned takes extra time and much fast-paced lessons in texts information effort to cover material Memory Few strategies when trying Difficulty writing since Difficulty retrieving Forgets spelling words after to remember content or spelling may not be previously learned test; difficulty recalling concepts automatic information significant events in history; any new learning is difficult Attention Difficulty knowing when to Poor concentration when Little effort expended for Work may be disorganized; pay attention putting ideas together remembering goes off on tangents Poor reading of social situations; impulsive Executive Poor recognition of value of Difficulty problem solving Difficulty in linking new with Difficulties in higher levels Functions planning; and understanding previously integrated of learning, but has isolated (planning or impulsive consequences of decisions knowledge; pieces of knowledge decision Few strategies making) Adapted from Walcot-Gayda, 2004 6

6. Recognizing a Student with a Learning Disability A student with a learning disability has average or above average cognitive ability (thinking and reasoning) processing difficulties How can I enable this student to show what he/she truly knows and understands? How can I reduce the negative impact of this student s processing difficulties in instructional and assessment contexts? below average academic achievement unexpected academic underachievement How can I accommodate this student s weak academic skills to ensure his or her fullest access to the curriculum? How can I continue to develop this student s basic academic skills? How can I make adjustments to instruction and assessment to help this student achieve the intended learning outcomes without excessive effort on the part of the student, or excessive support from adults? Relative to their peers, students with learning disabilities tend to be: less engaged in learning tasks; less confident in their ability to learn; less willing to take risks in learning situations; unable to cope with multiple instructions; poorly organized thoughts and work habits; frustrated with many learning tasks due to the difficulty of these tasks; and burdened by a history of unsuccessful learning experiences. 7

7. Determining Educational Courses for Students with Learning Disabilities The decision to place students in modified courses has significant implications for the students post-secondary and career options. Prior to having students placed in modified courses, it is the teacher s responsibility to ensure that: appropriate adaptations have been provided for students as they strive to achieve the course outcomes; educational assessments have been completed and support the decision to place these students in modified courses; and the students and the students parents have been informed of the planned course change, understand the future educational implications of such a decision, and agree to the course change. i. Course Options for Students based on Cognitive and Achievement Profiles Student Cognitive Profile Achievement Profile Regular Course Options with Average or Above Average Cognitive Ability student has average or above average cognitive ability most subtest scores fall in the average or above average range overall, achievement scores fall in the average or above average range most achievement scores fall in the average or above average range Core (10, 20, 30) Locally Modified: Advanced (10A, 20A, 30A) with a Learning Disability student has average or above average cognitive ability subtests scores may show considerable variation in at least some areas, achievement scores fall in the below average range achievement scores typically show significant variation not only among subtests, but also between subject areas there is unexpected underachievement in one or more subjects Core (10, 20, 30) Locally Modified: Advanced (10A, 20A, 30A) Only in extremely rare circumstances when the student is unable to achieve success in a Core course Locally Modified: Basic (11, 21, 31) 8

C. EFFECTIVE And differentiated InSTrUCTIOn And ASSESSMEnT Effective and differentiated instruction and assessment: occur daily within classroom teaching and learning experiences, ensuring that the majority of students will have their learning needs met through classroom instruction, with less need for additional instruction, intervention, and adaptations; and need to be supported by a variety of interventions and adaptations outside of the classroom, such as in a resource or tutorial setting. 1. Planning for Effective and differentiated Instruction and Assessment Prior to planning instruction and assessment, teachers integrate their insights and knowledge about both the curriculum and the students as learners in order to achieve a good fit between these two critical components to identify and provide appropriate and effective learning opportunities for all students. At the pre-planning stage, the teacher is required to bring together two critical sets of knowledge. 1. An extensive knowledge of the curriculum and the learning outcomes is needed: clearly identify the learning outcomes for the course and for the particular unit of instruction, or for a specific period of instruction; identify the critical knowledge, skills, and strategies that all students must know and demonstrate; and prioritize learning outcomes for students by using a framework that identifies what all students, most students, and some students will learn (Lenz, 2000). 2. A clear understanding of the existing knowledge, skills, and strategies of students is also required. Knowledge about students as learners will come from: curriculum-based assessments conducted at the classroom level; information gathered from various student assignments; large-scale assessments; assessments that have occurred outside of the classroom; and teacher observations, student-teacher conferences, and checklists. When planning for effective and differentiated instruction and assessment, the teacher strives for an instructional approach that is outcome-driven, meaningful, contextualized, related to other learning, and learner-friendly. Active learning is promoted through engaging and motivating instruction, support of students efforts to acquire knowledge, skills, and strategies, and is designed to overcome students learning frustrations. Throughout the planning and implementation stages of effective and differentiated instruction and assessment, the teacher assumes an active role as a decision-maker and a reflective practitioner. 9

i. Flow Chart: Planning for Effective and Differentiated Instruction and Assessment Step 1: Pre-Planning for Effective and Differentiated Instruction and Assessment Identifying the Unique Learning Needs of a Specific Student and the Adaptations Required Environment Instruction: Process and Product Content Knowledge of Curriculum Knowledge of Students as Learners Step 2: Planning for Effective and Differentiated Instruction and Assessment Identify Learning Outcomes from Curriculum (Critical Content, Skills and Strategies) Identify Effective Research-Based Instructional Strategies for Teaching and Learning (Consider Adaptations) Pre-assess the Student s Knowledge Skills, and Strategies to Determine Appropriate Instruction (Diagnostic Assessment) Plan for Assessment and Evaluation Consistent with Outcomes and Instruction Step 3: Implementing Effective and Differentiated Instruction Assessment Implement Instruction Plan Monitor the Student s Response to Instruction (Formative and Summative Assessment) Reassess the Amount of Support the Student Requires 10

ii. Classroom Environment Checklist A teacher who provides a highly structured, well-organized classroom environment is likely to: have a clear image of what the classroom should look like when it is functioning smoothly (share this image with the students); establish and display classroom rules that have been developed with input from students; post a daily schedule; provide clear simple instructions for learning tasks and transitions between tasks; provide a lesson outline to help students see the big picture and to track progress through the various learning steps; provide advance organizers (many students benefit when this information is presented to them using a graphic organizer, with the information offered in both a visual and a text form); ensure that the students know the learning outcomes, as well as the material considered critical to developing a deeper understanding of the course; provide alternative learning activities with the same content and learning goals, but at different instructional levels for students with different needs; plan opportunities for students to take short breaks or to make shifts during learning activities, without creating a negative effect on the lesson flow; encourage students to use a consistent heading format in note taking to identify the subject, date, unit, and so on; encourage students to keep their desks clear except for current work materials; ensure that handouts for students are uncluttered and well organized; use a consistent approach to post and keep track of homework and assignments (this may be an assignment notebook, a school calendar, or an assignment sheet that follows a consistent format); allow sufficient time, prior to the end of class, for students to record their homework and assignments, to check for clarification if needed, and to receive a detailed response before the class ends; establish class routines with which students may become familiar and in which they can participate without a great deal of explanation; and provide students with a written overview of course and unit plans. 11

2. Effective Instruction Research on effective teaching has identified a number of direct instruction practices or specific teaching behaviours that lead to higher achievement results for all students. These teaching behaviours have received overwhelming research support over three decades, and this body of research is commonly referred to as effective teaching research. Effective direct instruction practices: lead the instruction; visually monitor student behaviours; conduct orientation to the lesson, including a clear statement of the instructional outcomes; provide daily reviews; present new material and model the lesson tasks (remember to think aloud ); ask questions; provide both guided and independent practices (require regular assignments from students); provide regular and timely feedback to students; ensure that each student has achieved the identified outcomes; and praise students frequently for successful work. (Bender, 2002; Swanson, 2001; Swanson & Deshler, 2003) i. Differentiated Instruction and the Adaptive Dimension Differentiated instruction is the term used in the literature to refer to helping students learn by making adaptations to key learning variables. The adaptive Dimension is an essential part of all approved Ministry of Education courses. Teachers may need to differentiate instruction or make adaptations because of students : achievements or skills in the subject; interests; motivation; language proficiency; family constructs; cultural or economic background; or experiential background. 12

The Adaptive Dimension may include: changes to the sequence of the learning outcomes; the addition of learning outcomes to develop needed skills; changes to the manner in which the learning outcomes are taught; extra materials to teach the learning outcomes; different ways to group for instruction; and/or changes to the manner in which a deeper understanding of the learning outcomes are assessed. a. Adaptive Dimension Components content The content, determined in large part by the curriculum in each subject area, may need to be adapted if: students require instruction in prerequisite skills or experience, in order to benefit from upcoming instruction; the reading level of selected materials is too difficult and simpler reading materials or selected resources are needed for students to experience success; and/or learning resources need to be selected to incorporate students areas of interest, to keep students motivated and engaged in the process of learning. instructional approach The instructional approach involves a plan for how students will interact with the content and the adaptations. The learning products involve a plan for how the students will demonstrate learning and a deeper understanding of critical content, considering which adaptations can be made to the manner in which students demonstrate deeper understanding. Learning environment The learning atmosphere or the environment may involve variations to classroom climate, student grouping, support services, technological support, and the physical setting. ii. Brain Compatible Instruction Brain compatible instruction, or brain-based learning, refers to instructional strategies that incorporate many of the new understandings about how the brain works. An important principle of brain compatible instruction is getting students involved and having them assume personal responsibility for their learning. One of the first requirements, in order for students to learn, is that they feel safe and supported. Recent research uses brain imaging technologies, such as functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fmri), to watch the living brain perform a variety of learning tasks (Shaywitz, 2003). As a result of this research, we know more about the learning process. These understandings about the brain and learning have resulted in many recommendations for educators to help students learn better (Shaywitz, 2003; Sousa, 2001). 13

Recommendations for Brain Compatible Instruction: provide a safe and comfortable learning environment; provide comfortable furniture; provide access to water and nutrition; encourage frequent student response; pair physical movement to learning tasks; use visual stimuli for increasing novelty in the learning task; use music and rhythms for learning; provide adequate wait time; give students choices; and use students to teach each other. (Bender, 2002, p. 26) iii. Instructional Groupings Classrooms should be thought of as learning communities. In a democratic learning community, individuals interact with each other in a variety of formats and for a variety of purposes. Currently, the largest percentage of instructional time in many classrooms is spent in total or whole group instruction. There are many exciting learning opportunities when students have an opportunity to work in pairs or small groups (Gregory & Chapman, 2002; Tomlinson, 1999). The acronym TAPS (Total group, Alone, Pairs, Small group) may be used as a reminder to include a variety of instructional groupings when planning instruction (Gregory & Chapman, 2002). Total Group Total group instruction is a good choice when introducing a unit organizer, teaching a mini lesson, or reviewing student learning for the day by going back to discuss the critical question related to the learning outcomes. alone Students work alone in a variety of learning situations, such as when additional practice is needed to acquire specific skills or strategies. Teachers work one-to-one with students to provide feedback and targeted instruction specific to the individual student to scaffold his or her learning. The teacher and student review the student s portfolio and establish learning goals in and preparation for an upcoming three-way conferencing with parents. Pairs Students work in pairs to complete a variety of tasks. This might involve students working together to brainstorm ideas for two or three minutes before the teacher asks for a response; 14

develop a study guide for an upcoming test; revise and edit written work; summarize information that has been obtained either through reading, video, or an oral presentation using a Think-Pair-Share format (Lyman, 1981); develop possible test questions and prepare answers; check knowledge of critical concepts in Science, Mathematics, or Social Studies; review critical concepts from a unit in Social Studies or Science to ensure that all group members have a deeper understanding of critical content; and/or practice answering test questions. small Group Research suggests that small-group, teacher-led instruction may be a more effective instructional approach for all students (Elbaum, Vaughn, Hughes, Moody, & Schumm, 2000). Students might work in small groups to complete many of the same tasks that were identified for students working in pairs. In some cases, a teacher may establish small groups of students or instructional groups for teacher-led instruction when: students need assistance at the pre-writing stage and they are grouped for a guided writing lesson; small, interest-based reading groups are established, and the teacher works with these groups to focus on developing higher level thinking and comprehension skills; students are grouped in Mathematics with other students who have similar problem-solving abilities (Students work to solve problems collaboratively and record each step in their problemsolving process. The teacher checks with each group to listen in on the students problem solving skills. The teacher may challenge student thinking or offer prompts and share strategies from other instructional groups if the group of students is experiencing difficulty); and/or students are grouped with peers to practice interview skills for an upcoming project. Peer Tutoring Peer tutoring is an instructional procedure that increases instructional time for students while reducing the amount of time the teacher needs to spend with individual students. Much of the research on the effects of peer tutoring, in a variety of school contexts, indicates that peer tutoring does improve academic achievement as students involved in peer tutoring outperform control groups (Fuchs, Fuchs, & Kazden, 1999; Mastropieri et al., 2001; Van Zant, 2002). Often, there are also significant improvements in students attendance, attitude, and behaviour. A teacher will need to make a number of decisions to ensure successful peer tutoring. There are certain tasks that are only appropriate for a qualified teacher and are not appropriate for a tutor initial instruction in a content area, planning the next set of instructional activities, and so on. Certain activities will require more training for tutors. Classmates, students from other grades in the school, and students from other schools or university are potential tutors. An excellent website for further information about grouping is provided by Vaughn, S., Hughes, M. T., Moody, S. W., and Elbaum, B. (2001). instructional Grouping for reading for students with LD: implications for Practice. http://www.ldonline.org/article/6308?theme=print 15

iv. Explicit Instruction Explicit instruction involves modeling both the overt processes and the covert processes (or the mental processes) that take place to complete a task successfully. Too often, covert processes are not explained and students are required to infer the mental processes that take place. Many students with learning disabilities are never able to learn these strategies without explicit instruction (Larkin & Ellis, 1998). For example, given the task of writing an essay, a student is required to apply a problem-solving process and complete a number of steps, both covert and overt. The process involved in selecting a topic may seem very simple when the student observes a teacher write down a phrase or sentence that has been selected as the topic; this is the overt or observable behaviour. The covert or cognitive process that the student will not see (unless the teacher makes a special effort to share this) is the thinking and self-talk that have occurred as the teacher identified and rejected several topics. Covert processes include cognitive strategies such as: visual imagery; paraphrasing; prioritizing ideas; generating hypothesis; relating new information to prior information; as well as metacognitive strategies such as: analyzing the task; making decisions about topic selection; setting goals; and self-monitoring. (Larkin & Ellis, 1998) v. Scaffolded Instruction Scaffolded Instruction (a metaphoric reference to the scaffold of a building under construction) is an approach to teaching students that enables teachers to provide highly explicit and organized instruction, targeted to students learning levels and needs, enabling them to move from their current skill or knowledge levels to more advanced levels. The teacher provides a temporary scaffold or support only when students are unable to complete the task on their own. As soon as students are able to complete the task independently, the teacher s support is removed. When using scaffolded instruction, the activity or skill that students are asked to complete is slightly beyond what they are currently capable of achieving independently. The teacher assists students, enabling them to be successful with a somewhat too difficult task. Initially, the teacher models completion of the task, making explicit (i.e., verbally describing) the cognitive or covert thinking processes that take place while performing the task. Later, as students become more skilled, and attempt to complete the task on their own, the teacher will provide verbal prompts to guide the students, but only when the students need guidance. As the students begin to work through the task independently, the 16

teacher provides ongoing feedback to let the students know when they are on the right track and when adjustments are needed. The level of teacher support is continually tailored to match the students everchanging skill level in accomplishing the task. The teacher plans to scaffold students needs by: identifying students current understanding or skill levels and the specific area in which students are experiencing difficulty; identifying the strategies that will assist the students; and providing only the amount of support determined necessary for the students to successfully complete the task. Using scaffolded instruction, teachers help students to: understand the requirements of the task; identify, plan, and organize the steps needed to accomplish the task; select effective and efficient strategies to complete the task; and work through the steps to complete the task in a timely fashion. Examples of Scaffolded Instruction Mathematics Problem-Solving Teachers might use a think aloud approach while working with a student or group of students in mathematics. Using a think aloud approach, teachers share their internal thinking as they: clarify the task to be completed (model and explicitly share thinking processes involved in the task); identify each step required for the problem-solving process (begin by asking, Does anyone have a suggestion as to how we might begin to answer this question? ); select the information needed to complete each step (this step could include self-talk about rejecting information that is not necessary); identify the proper sequence and work through the steps to complete the task (providing self-talk and inviting students to share their thinking); and talk aloud as they carry out the computations required to solve the problem and complete a self-check. This think aloud approach provides a model for students. With repeated practice, students will internalize the language the teacher uses during the think aloud. Students will then use this internalized language to guide them through the problem-solving steps when they are required to solve similar problems independently. Reading Comprehension Strategies In presenting reading comprehension strategies, teachers share their internal thinking to make sense of a story being read aloud: predict what will happen next, using personal experiences; visualize what is happening in the scene (self-talk about what the author is talking about); make a story map to show an underlying structure; and clarify anything that is confusing. (Beers, 2003, p.42) 17

vi. Metacognitive Instruction Metacognition means thinking about thinking, and involves helping students complete academic tasks by thinking about their assignments, planning the steps to complete assignments, and monitoring progress along the way (Brown, 1987; Butler, 1998; Frender, 1990). Students are trained to use inner language to guide and monitor their completion of tasks (Bender, 2002). Many students know little about the learning process, their own strengths and weaknesses in a learning situation, and the effective strategies and techniques to use in a specific learning situation. Explicit instruction in using strategies is needed, and teachers can help students by introducing and modeling strategies, prompting students to use strategies when appropriate, monitoring strategy use, and providing feedback and reinforcement when strategies are used by students. The goal in metacognitive instruction is to have students own the thinking and learning processes that will make it possible for them to become competent independent learners who are able to develop a deeper understanding of factual knowledge. When teaching metacognitive skills, the focus is on learning the processes required for a deeper understanding of knowledge so that students will be able to apply these to future learning situations. When students are trained in using metacognition, over time they become better able to plan, organize, and complete complex assignments. Metacognitive knowledge Students must have knowledge of the particular cognitive processes or strategies that support learning tasks. Competent, strategic learners typically use the following metacognitive process to ensure that learning tasks are completed successfully. Students with learning disabilities typically tend to use haphazardly whatever learning strategy they have at hand, often applying a single strategy to every situation, or they may use no strategies at all. Research indicates that the metacognitive problems of students with learning disabilities are greater than those of their successful peers (Butler, 1998). The Metacognitive Process Students must understand how to self-regulate a particular cognitive process or strategy by: knowing where and when to use the cognitive strategies to support particular learning goals, and actively and purposefully using this knowledge to achieve a variety of learning tasks. The ability to self-regulate (or self-manage) refers to an individual s capacity to evaluate work and make choices about what to do next. It involves the ability to: analyze and understand the problem or task; select appropriate strategies to efficiently complete the task; implement the selected strategies; sequence problem-solving activities efficiently; monitor progress to ensure that selected strategies are working; make adjustments to selected strategies, if required; and evaluate success. 18

Conscious Reflection on Knowledge of Learning Processes To be truly metacognitive, students must be able to reflect on both their metacognitive knowledge and the metacognitive process they have employed to achieve a learning task, and to self-evaluate in order to refine the process for completing future tasks. Questions a competent, strategic student might ask when approaching and completing a task. Do I understand the assignment and the requirements of this task? What do I know about my skills, knowledge, and previous experience in relation to this task? What do I know about the product that is required? (Will it require a great deal of reading or writing? Might I present this information a different way, through video or orally? Have I created a similar product in the past?) What do I know about the learning strategies I can use? (What are some strategies that might be useful? Am I competent with these strategies, or where might I get support?) Have I divided the task into manageable components? Have I planned a timeline for completing the various components of this task? What do I know about the materials required to complete this task? (Will I require access to a computer, a library, a performance, or particular texts?) vii Strategy Instruction Strategy instruction (i.e., teaching a student the sequence of steps to complete a specific academic task) provides a framework or structure for students when planning the steps to complete an academic task. Teachers assist students in working sequentially through the steps to complete the task. Also, teachers monitor progress and completion of the task. A strategy may include a mnemonic device that helps a student to remember the steps necessary in completing a specific academic task. Teachers should teach the strategy by using students strengths and using material with familiar concepts at an easy reading level. Depending on the researcher, either six or eight stages of instruction or steps are used for strategy instruction. These stages are very similar among the various models. Many different strategies have been developed for students to use in completing tasks. There are strategies for: reading comprehension; visual imagery to support and improve comprehension; self-questioning; searching for answers in text; test-taking; word identification; and completing written assignments, and many others. (Wong, Harris, Graham, & Butler, 2003) 19

The Steps Recommended for Strategy Instruction Pretest to determine if students need a strategy. Inform the students of the benefits possible from using the strategy. Encourage the students to make a commitment to learn the new strategy. Describe the strategy. Model the strategy. Verbally rehearse the strategy. Practice with controlled materials (provide teacher feedback). Practice with grade appropriate materials in a variety of contexts (the teacher may need to prompt students to use the strategy and provide feedback). Commit to generalize the strategy to other situations once deeper understanding is achieved (the teacher continues to monitor the student s use of the strategy). Generalize and maintain the use of the strategy in a variety of contexts. (Alley & Deshler, 1979; Bender, 2002; Larkin & Ellis, 1998; Graham & Harris, 2003; Schumaker & Sheldon, 1985) When teaching strategies to students, it is important to teach each strategy thoroughly. Students need to develop a deeper understanding of a strategy before they will be able to successfully use it independently and apply it appropriately in a number of learning contexts. It is better to have students truly own a few strategies that they are able to use independently and apply to new learning situations than to have a limited knowledge about many strategies that they are unable to use independently or apply to new learning contexts. a. Examples of Specific Learning Strategies using Mnemonic Devices SQ3R: A reading comprehension strategy for texts and passages. S Survey (Scan): Skim the passage looking at headings, illustrations, and the bold face type, as well as introduction and summary, if appropriate. Q Question: Write down two or three questions that you think the passage might answer or turn titles and headings into questions. R Read: Look for answers to your questions as you read. R Recite: Close your book and recite answers to your questions. Write down answers. R Review: If you cannot remember the answer, go back to your book and review the text again. Try to review the questions and answers within the next 24 hours to help you remember the important points. (Robinson, 1946) RAP: A reading comprehension strategy for checking paragraph comprehension. R Read the paragraph. A Ask questions about the content. P Paraphrase the content. (Ellis, 1996) PROJECT: A project planning strategy. P Preview the task. R Rough out a plan. O Organize tasks and resources. J Jot down job assignments. E Examine obstacles and develop strategies. C Commit to goals. T Target time-lines. (Larkin & Ellis, 2004) 20

b. Strategic Learning of Students with and without Learning Disabilities Competent, Strategic Learners Typically 1. Ask Questions to establish the purpose and goals of a task; and to relate the task to previous work. 2. Plan to decide on strategies and timelines; reduce the task or problem into components; and determine the physical or mental skills required to complete the task. 3. Monitor They continuously refer back to the initial questions or purposes of the task to check: personal efforts; emerging answers; and discoveries. 4. Check to assess progress in accomplishing the task. 5. Revise to set revised goals; or to refine the final product. 6. Self-Assess to conduct a final evaluation of both product and personal performance related to the required task. Learners with Learning Disabilities Typically 1. Do Not Ask Questions. They tend NOT to: establish a clear purpose when completing a task and may ignore key components or critical requirements of the task; relate the current task to previous work they have done; ask questions (perhaps because they are intimidated - they may be processing the information too slowly to keep up with the discussion). 2. Do Not Plan. They tend NOT to: plan strategies and may use the first strategy that comes to mind, or the most familiar strategy; be aware of the need to establish a timeline, or to complete work on time; think of the assignment as a whole and may be unable to break it into manageable components; and realize or plan for the demands of the task. 3. Do Not Monitor They: fail to refer back to ensure that they are on the right track; tend to put effort into tasks they prefer rather than matching the amount of effort to the importance of the task; may work far too long on a part of the assignment that is unimportant and have little time left for a major section; and tend not to monitor answers in relation to the initial question. 4. Do Not Check to assess how they are progressing with the task or to adjust effort based on their assessment. 5. Do Not Revise their product or their goals along the way, due in part to failure to monitor performance, and failure to check back on the requirements of the task. 6. Do Not Self-Assess to evaluate the product or their own performance; or when they do self-evaluate, they are often unrealistic in their evaluation, being either far too demanding or too easy in their assessment. (Alley, & Deshler, 1979; Brown, 1987; Butler, 1998; Graham, Harris, & Reid, 1992; Nisbet & Schucksmith, 1986) 21

viii.content Enhancement Content Enhancement includes a variety of research-based teaching and learning routines. Teachers can use these routines to: plan and lead learning, teach concepts, explain tests, topics, and details, and increase student performance. Used in combination, these routines constitute a powerful and well-organized approach to instruction and learning that incorporates many of the effective reseach-based instructional practices described throughout this section on effective instruction. Benefits of using an Advance Unit Organizer The Unit Organizer Routine can help teachers plan for, introduce, and build a unit so that all students can do the following: Understand how the unit is part of bigger course ideas or a sequence of units. Understand the gist of the central idea regarding the unit through a meaningful paraphrase of the unit title. See a structure or organization of the critical unit information. Define the relationships associated with critical information. Generate and answer questions associated with key unit information. Monitor their progress and accomplishments in learning. Keep the big ideas and structure of the unit in mind as they learn the unit content. (Boudah et al., 2000, p 49) An overview of the upcoming course or unit enables students to activate prior knowledge, make connections within and beyond the subject area, connect the new information to their experiential background, and become more motivated and engaged with the material to be learned (Boudah, Lenz, Bulgren, Schumaker, & Deshler, 2000; Dufour & Eaker, 1998). Some course and unit organizers that have been well researched are part of Content Enhancement (based on the work of Donald Deshler and his colleagues at the Center for Research on Learning, at the University of Kansas). As an approach to teaching and learning in the content areas, Content Enhancement has proven effective for all students, including students with learning difficulties (Boudah et al., 2000; Deshler et al., 2001). A comprehensive course or unit overview includes: the name of the course or the title of the current unit; the name of the previous unit and upcoming unit; the central topic; the key ideas or big ideas to be developed in the course or unit; an indication of how these big ideas relate to the central idea and perhaps to each other; a schedule of the learning activities (in a unit overview); a list of the key questions that students should be able to answer at the conclusion of the course or unit; and a description of the expectations of students for assignments and assessment. (Boudah et al., 2000) 22