Successful Aging at Work: The Active Role of Employees

Work, Aging and Retirement, 2015, Vol. 1, No. 4, pp. 309 319 doi:10.1093/workar/wav018 Advance Access publication July 10, 2015 Review Article Successful Aging at Work: The Active Role of Employees Dorien T. A. M. Kooij Department of Human Resource Studies, Tilburg University, Tilburg, The Netherlands ABSTRACT Since workforces are aging, governments, organizations, and researchers are increasingly interested in the topic of successful aging at work. In this article, I viewed successful aging at work from a sustainability perspective, and argued that a continuous person job fit between the changing person and changing work is required for employees to be able to maintain their health, motivation, and work ability, and thus age successfully at work. Since one important way to achieve current and future fit is by engaging in proactive behaviors, I aimed to extend and specify the proactive behaviors proposed in lifespan psychology literature (e.g., selection) with proactive behaviors proposed in organizational psychology literature (e.g., job change negotiation) to identify proactive behaviors for successful aging at work. For example, job crafting can help aging workers to adjust their job to changing goals and motives, improving current person job fit, and proactive career planning can help aging workers to set new career goals, improving future person job fit. Workforces are aging across the globe, raising pressing issues for organizations, governments, and aging employees, such as how to extend working lives and how to motivate aging workers (Phillips & Sui, 2012). Recognizing the urgency of these issues, research on aging at work has expanded over the last decade (e.g., Bal, Kooij, & Rousseau, 2015). Since many of the theories and concepts we use in the field of organizational psychology are largely based on younger and middleaged workers, researchers need to rethink and examine the appropriateness of these theories and concepts in light of the aging workforce (Kanfer & Ackerman, 2004). In addition, new concepts have emerged. One prominent concept that has captured a lot of attention in research and practice is successful aging at work, which has been the focus of an inaugural-issue article in this journal (Zacher, 2015). As discussed thoroughly by Zacher (2015), successful aging at work has been conceptualized and operationalized differently throughout the years. Based on gerontology and lifespan psychology research, Zacher (2015) defined successful aging at work as positively deviating (compared to other employees) intraindividual age-related trajectories of a work outcome over time and across the working life span. According to this definition, employees are only aging successfully when they are more successful than others, and employees who are doing less bad (e.g., their decrease in work ability is lower) compared to their counterparts are aging successfully as well. In this article, I view successful aging from a sustainability perspective, as the maintenance of workers health, motivation, and working capacity or work ability now and in the future (De Lange, Kooij, & Van der Heijden, 2015). According to De Lange and colleagues (2015, p. 57), worker attitudes and behaviors can be considered sustainable if their (future) needs, abilities, and interests are congruent with aspects and (future) requirements of their current and future work environment. Improving current and future fit means that employees fulfill present needs and optimally use current skills and knowledge without compromising the fulfillment and use of future needs, skills, and knowledge. Hence, for employees to be able to maintain their health, motivation, and work ability, and thus age successfully at work, a continuous person environment fit (PE fit), and more specifically person job fit (Edwards, Cable, Williamson, Lambert, & Shipp, 2006) between the changing worker and the changing work is required. One important way to achieve current and future fit is by engaging in proactive PE fit and proactive career behaviors (Kira, Van Eijnatten, & Balkin, 2010). Parker and Collins (2010) define these behaviors as self-initiated behaviors aimed at changing oneself or the situation to achieve greater compatibility between one s own attributes and the organizational environment (i.e., establishing current PE fit, e.g., by job change negotiation) and to secure a job or find new jobs (i.e., establishing future PE fit, e.g., by career initiative). However, Kooij, Tims, and Kanfer (2015) noticed that many of the organizational studies on aging at work have viewed older workers as passive recipients or products of their work environment. Since recent lifespan psychology literature suggests that older workers take an active role in shaping their environment (Kahana & Kahana, 1996; Ouwehand, de Ridder, & Bensing, 2007), Kooij and colleagues (2015) also emphasized the The Authors 2015. Published by Oxford University Press. For permissions please e-mail: journals.permissions@oup.com Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Dorien T. A. M. Kooij, Department of Human Resource Studies, Tilburg University, Warandelaan 2, 5037AB, Tilburg, The Netherlands. E-mail: t.a.m.kooij@uvt.nl Decision Editor: Mo Wang, PhD 309

310 D. T. A. M. Kooij importance of proactive PE fit behaviors (i.e., job crafting), through which aging workers can continuously adjust their work to intrapersonal changes that are part of the aging process, and thus age successfully at work (Moghimi, Scheibe, & Van Yperen, in press). Similarly, I will argue that improving current and future person job fit between aging workers and their work is crucial for sustainable and thus successful aging at work, and that employee proactive behaviors (i.e., proactive PE fit and proactive career behaviors) are crucial for improving current and future fit. Hence, I aim to extend the proactive behaviors proposed in lifespan psychology literature with proactive behaviors proposed in organizational psychology literature to identify proactive behaviors for successful aging at work. In this article, I will first discuss why person job fit is crucial for successful aging at work by discussing successful aging at work from a sustainability perspective. Next, based on lifespan psychology literature, I will explain why aging workers are likely to engage in proactive behaviors and discuss the types of proactive behaviors aging workers engage in. Further, based on organizational psychology literature, I will discuss proactive PE fit and proactive career behaviors. Finally, combining these literatures, I will identify proactive behaviors for successful aging at work. SUCCESSFUL AGING AT WORK: A SUSTAINABLE FIT PERSPECTIVE Freund (2008, pp. 94 95) defined successful aging as a level of functioning that allows one to strive to fulfill personal goals and maintain personal standards and is, to a substantial degree, a result of one s having successfully managed internal and external resources throughout one s life span. Similarly, an important aspect of sustainability is the resource-based dimension (De Lange et al., 2015; Docherty, Kira, & Shani, 2009), which defines sustainability as a process of preservation and regeneration of resources. Thus, both successful aging and sustainability at work emphasize the optimization and preservation of current and future resources, such as energy, time, and social relations. Although sustainability usually refers to managing resources between individuals over time (i.e., making sure that current generations do not consume all resources at the cost of future generations), from a psychological perspective sustainability refers to managing resources within individuals over time (i.e., using current personal resources without compromising future use and development of resources). Because resources are crucial for achieving one s goals (Freund & Riediger, 2001), the amount of resources accumulated at younger ages and their management over the lifespan and at older ages is crucial for successful aging (Freund, 2008). One important way to effectively manage resources is by increasing fit between personal needs and potentials and the environment (Kira et al., 2010). Work ability theory, for example, proposes that work ability, defined as the extent to which an employee is capable of working in the present and in the near future (i.e., an important resource at work), depends on employees personal physical and mental abilities as well as the requested level of work demands (Ilmarinen, 2001; Ilmarinen & Tuomi, 1992). Since personal abilities change with aging and work demands change (e.g., because of technological developments), work ability is about continuously finding a balance between a person s abilities and work demands (Ilmarinen, 2009, p. 61). Hence, work ability theory actually conceptualizes work ability as the fit between a person and his or her work, or person job fit. Similarly, De Lange and colleagues (2015) assume that worker attitudes and behaviors are sustainable (i.e., capable of preserving or regenerating resources) if their current and future needs, abilities and interests are congruent with or fit aspects and requirements of their current and future work (environment). Hence, current and future person environment fit, and more specifically person job fit (Schaufeli, 2011) will lead to sustainable and successful aging at work. Person job fit is defined as the relationship between a person s characteristics and those of the job or the tasks that are performed at work (Kristof, Zimmerman, & Johnson, 2005, p. 284). Edwards (1991) distinguished needs supplies and demands abilities person job fit. Needs supplies fit refers to whether employees needs, desires, or preferences are met by the jobs that they perform and demands abilities fit refers to a match between employees knowledge, skills, and abilities and the requirements of the job (Kristof et al., 2005). Needs supplies and demands abilities person job fit result in increased health, wellbeing, and performance (Edwards, 1991; Kristof et al., 2005) and so successful aging at work from a sustainability perspective. Continuously improving person job fit is particularly important for successful aging, because motives and abilities change with age (Kanfer & Ackerman, 2004; Kooij, De Lange, Jansen, Kanfer, & Dikkers, 2011), while job mobility often decreases (Hansson, DeKoekkoek, Neece, & Patterson, 1997) and hence job tenure increases with age. Older workers are more likely to stay in their current job, which results in potential person job misfit over time (Kanfer, Beier, & Ackerman, 2013; Zacher, Feldman, & Schulz, 2014). For example, work-related growth motives and physical abilities decrease and intrinsic work motives and crystallized intelligence increase with age. Hence, using construction workers as an example, as they age they are more likely to experience difficulty performing the more strenuous physical tasks associated with the job, resulting in potential misfit, whereas aging counselors or academics benefit from increased crystallized intelligence, and thus increased person job fit (Kooij et al., 2015; Zacher et al., 2014). Adjusting or realigning the job to what individuals would like and still can do, is important for successful aging at work (Kanfer et al., 2013; Robson, Hansson, Abalos, & Booth, 2006). Another reason why person job fit is so important for successful aging at work is because of the individualized approach of the fit literature (Edwards, 1991). Although changes in work motives and abilities are similar among older workers, individual differences in preferences, dislikes, attitudes, and inclinations increase with age (Caspi, Roberts, & Shiner, 2005; Van Lieshout, 2000), making it harder for organizations to develop standard job designs for this heterogeneous group of older workers (Bal, De Jong, Jansen, & Bakker, 2012). In sum, successful aging is closely related to sustainability at work; individual employees age successfully when they are able to preserve and regenerate resources to achieve their personal goals and maintain health, motivation, and work ability, now and in the future. To effectively manage their resources, aging workers should strive for current and future person job fit (e.g., optimally utilizing current strengths and abilities, without overtaxing and thus exhausting abilities, and also developing skills and abilities needed for future work requirements). Hence, an important question is how to increase current and future person job fit, and thus achieve sustainable and successful aging at work. Following Holling (2001), who defined human sustainability as the capacity to create, test and maintain adaptive capability (p. 390), De

Active Role in Successful Aging 311 Lange and colleagues (2015) suggested that the individual employee has an important responsibility in creating, testing and maintaining his or her own work ability. Similarly, Kira and colleagues (2010) refer to sustainable work abilities as long-term adaptive and proactive abilities to work, farewell at work, and contribute through working. Increased responsibility and proactivity of individual employees are reflected in the concept of proactive behaviors, which refers to self-initiated, anticipatory actions aimed at changing and improving the situation or oneself (Parker, Williams, & Turner, 2006). Both the lifespan psychology and organizational psychology literatures demonstrate that aging employees engage in proactive behaviors. PROACTIVE BEHAVIORS OF AGING WORKERS IN LIFESPAN PSYCHOLOGY LITERATURE There is much support in lifespan psychology literature that older people take an active role in shaping their environment (Kooij et al., 2015; Zacher & Kooij, in press). This literature shows that people exercise agency in dealing with the biological, psychological, and social changes that are part of the aging process (Featherman, 1992; Freund & Baltes, 2002; Ryff, 1989). For example, the environmental proactivity hypothesis suggests that older adults are not simply pawns of their environment but can proactively change their environment to meet their own needs and to maintain independence (Lawton, 1989). Confirming this hypothesis, several researchers have shown that older workers use action-regulation strategies aimed at changing their environment to adapt to age-related changes (e.g., Freund, 2008; Wahl, Iwarsson, & Oswald, 2011). Similarly, Ouwehand and colleagues (2007) argued that older people do not simply cope with decline, but also continue to actively develop themselves and strive for personal goals by creating environments that make success possible. Three of the most prominent lifespan psychology theories are the model of selection optimization and compensation (SOC; Baltes & Baltes, 1990), the socioemotional selectivity theory (SST; Carstensen, 1995) and the lifespan theory of control (Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995). These prominent lifespan theories all propose that age-related changes trigger proactive behaviors. Age-related changes might refer to gains, such as improvements in crystallized intelligence, or to losses, such as deteriorating physical health (Kanfer & Ackerman, 2004). According to the lifespan theories, both gains and losses trigger proactive behaviors and are thus important for successful aging (deficitsbreed-growth mechanism; Baltes, Staudinger, & Lindenberger, 1999; Charles, 2010). Although the lifespan theories agree upon the crucial role of proactive behaviors, the types of proactive behaviors that are triggered by age-related changes differ between the different lifespan theories (Table 1 for an overview). The SOC model (Baltes & Baltes, 1990) distinguishes three strategies to deal with age-related changes, which Table 1. Proactive Behaviors in Lifespan Psychology Literature Proactive Behavior Type Description Example Behaviors Selection Setting/selecting goals Specify goals, focus on most important goals Optimization Acquiring and investing in goal-relevant means Acquire new skills or resources, practice skills, activate unused skills or resources Compensation (Baltes & Baltes, 1990) Goal focus shift Emotion regulation (Charles & Carstensen, 2010) Primary control Secondary control (Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995) Preventive proactive behaviors Corrective proactive behaviors (Kahana & Kahana, 1996) Compensating for unavailable goalrelevant means Goal focus shift from growth toward maintenance and regulation of loss (Freund, 2006), from outcomes toward process goals (Freund, 2008), and instrumental goals toward affective goals (Carstensen, 1995) Controlling the type, extent, and timing of experienced emotions Changing the world to fit the needs and desires of the individual Changing the self to bring oneself into line with environmental forces (an active process of restructuring one s goals, rather than a passive reflection of failure and loss) Anticipating future stressors and delaying or minimizing these stressors Actively dealing with current stressors Recruit help or advice from others, use technical aids (e.g., assistive devices), manage impressions Reallocate resources: invest less resources in learning new skills and more resources in knowledge transfer Avoid negative situations, select activities that are personally and emotionally meaningful Invest behavioral resources, such as effort, time, skills, persistence, into pursuing a goal Devalue unattainable goals, enhance value of conflicting goals, find new meaning in a given experience, focus on successes in other domains Engage in health promotion activities, career planning, helping others and social participation to increase social resources Mobilizing social support, and environmental modifications to meet personal demands

312 D. T. A. M. Kooij help individuals to get control over their environment and align themselves with it (Heckhausen, Wrosch, & Schulz, 2010). The first strategy involves selecting, setting and prioritizing goals, based on personal preferences (elective selection) or forced by age-related losses that make other goals unattainable (loss-based selection). In the work context, selection involves, for example, choosing to focus more on those aspects of the job that are considered the most interesting, abandoning goals and tasks that are unattainable or cannot be accomplished anymore, and delegating low priority responsibilities. According to Freund (2008), selection is particularly important to improve fit in old age, when individuals are confronted with an overall decline in resources and changes in personal needs or preferences. The second strategy is the optimization of goal-relevant means or resources, which might involve acquiring new or activating previously unused goalrelevant, external or internal resources, for example by investing more effort or through training. The third strategy involves compensating for losses in goal-relevant means or resources by using alternatives, such as taking additional breaks, asking coworkers for help, and hiring an assistant (Freund & Baltes, 2002; Zacher & Frese, 2011). Building on the SOC model, Freund (2006, 2008; Ebner, Freund, & Baltes, 2006) argued that age-related changes will also result in a shift in goal orientation, away from growth (or reaching higher levels of functioning) toward maintenance and regulation of loss, but also away from a focus on outcomes (e.g., getting promotion, reaching a certain performance level) toward a focus on process goals (e.g., staying healthy, investing effort; also see Kanfer & Ackerman, 2004). Aging individuals will thus reallocate their resources according to this shift in goal focus and invest less time in learning new skills to get promoted and more time in getting an assistant for example. SST focuses solely on reallocating resources according to changing goal orientations as proactive behaviors to deal with age-related losses, specifically in time perspective (Carstensen, 1995). As older people perceive their future time as more limited than younger people, they are likely to give lower priority to more long-term instrumental goals related to acquiring knowledge and higher priority to short-term emotionally meaningful social interactions and goals, such as generativity and emotional intimacy (Lang & Carstensen, 2002). In addition, older people are better at emotion regulation (e.g., by focusing on positive experiences), which is also a form of proactive behavior, involving controlling the type, extent, and timing of experienced emotions (Charles & Carstensen, 2010). Finally, the lifespan theory of control (Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995) suggests that people respond to age-related changes with both primary and secondary control strategies. Primary control strategies involve shaping the environment consistent with the needs of the individual, such as investing time and effort, and secondary control strategies involve changing goals to fit environmental demands, such as revalidating goals, and disengaging from goals. Aging individuals use both types of strategies. For example, older adults with health problems were found to engage in health-related primary control strategies, such as putting in more effort to get better and getting help from a health professional, to protect against enhanced depressive symptoms (Wrosch, Schulz, Miller, Lupien, & Dunne, 2007). In addition, old adults were found to use primary control striving, such as taking more time to do the task or only doing the parts of the task that are possible, or a multistrategy approach of goal engagement (e.g., help seeking) and disengagement (e.g., seeing the task as less important) to improve their physical and psychological well-being (Haynes, Heckhausen, Chipperfield, Perry, & Newall, 2009). A final important lifespan theory is the model of preventive and corrective proactivity (PCP) for successful aging (Kahana & Kahana, 1996; Kahana, Kahana, & Lee, 2014), in which Kahana and Kahana (1996) explicitly emphasize the role of proactive behaviors. Similar to the lifespan theories described previously, the PCP model views older individuals as active, self-constructing, and self-reflecting agents within their environment, capable of shaping their environment rather than only responding to it (Lawton, 1989). The model proposes that older adults can reduce stressors, develop resources, and buffer the negative effect of stressors on life outcomes by engaging in preventive and corrective proactive behaviors. Preventive behaviors (also referred to as proactive coping; Ouwehand et al., 2007) include strategies to anticipate future stressors and delaying or minimizing these stressors, for instance through engagement in health promotion activities, career planning, helping others, and social participation to increase social resources, and actively preventing person environment misfit (Kahana & Kahana, 1996; Kahana, Kelley-Moore, & Kahana, 2012; Kahana et al., 2014). Corrective behaviors, such as mobilizing social support, and environmental modifications to meet personal demands, involve actively dealing with current stressors and are thus similar to compensation strategies in the SOC model (Kahana & Kahana, 1996; Kahana et al., 2014). In sum, lifespan psychology theories and literature build on the premise that individual agency plays a crucial role in human development, and thus that proactive behavior is important for successful aging (Heckhausen et al., 2010; Zacher, 2015; Zacher & Kooij, in press). In addition, this literature identifies a number of important proactive behaviors for aging successfully at work, summarized in Table 1. However, organizational psychology literature, and particularly the literature on proactive PE fit behavior and proactive career behavior, is also important in identifying relevant proactive behaviors. PROACTIVE PE FIT AND PROACTIVE CAREER BEHAVIORS IN ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY LITERATURE In order to extend the proactive behaviors proposed in lifespan psychology literature, I will discuss the literature on proactive PE fit and proactive career behaviors to identify relevant proactive behaviors aimed at improving current and future fit, and thus serving the purpose for aging sustainably and successfully at work (Table 2 for an overview). Because this literature does not necessarily focus on aging workers, I will also discuss how the identified proactive behaviors change with age. Parker and Collins (2010) argued that employees can take a proactive role in increasing their level of PE fit, for example, by crafting their job or by seeking information about their job performance. They defined proactive PE fit behavior as self-initiated behavior that aims to change oneself or the situation to achieve greater compatibility between one s own attributes and the organizational environment (Parker & Collins, 2010, p. 640). Parker and Collins (2010) proposed that proactive PE fit behavior is a higher-order category of proactive behaviors, such as proactive feedback seeking and proactive socialization. In line with Edwards (1991), Parker and Collins (2010)

Active Role in Successful Aging 313 Table 2. Proactive Behaviors in Organizational Psychology Literature Proactive Behavior Type Description Example Behaviors Feedback inquiry Actively gathering information about one s behavior by directly asking for feedback Seek information from co-workers or supervisor about performance Feedback monitoring (Ashford & Black, 1996) Actively gathering information about one s behavior by actively monitoring the Compare with peers, observe what performance behaviors is rewarded situation and others behavior Role innovation (Nicholson, 1984) Change task objectives, methods, materials, scheduling and the interpersonal Change the mission or purpose of the work role, alter procedures, redefine work role relationships integral to task performance Job change negotiation (Ashford & Black, 1996) Negotiate job changes aimed at creating jobs that better suit skills and abilities Negotiate with others (including supervisor and/ or coworkers) about task assignment Task crafting Altering the type number, content or scope of tasks Take on challenging project, delegate tasks to coworkers, take on tasks that activate unused skills, decrease hindering demands to avoid negative situations Relational crafting Altering the range, number or nature of interactions with others Increase social interactions with coworkers, minimize contact with people who cost too much energy Cognitive crafting (Wrzesniewski & Dutton, 2001) Altering the view of the job View the job as an integrated whole instead of separate tasks Negotiating task, development, flexibility or financial Ideals (Rousseau et al., 2006) Individually negotiated unique and individualized work arrangements Ask for flexibility in starting and ending time of the working day, negotiate special opportunities for skill development Career initiative: Proactive career Initiatives and interventions that shape future Set goals, explore options, and formulate plans planning behavior careers Proactive skill development behavior Initiatives and interventions that lead to mastery of the various tasks involved in one s occupation Develop skills which may be needed in future positions, gain experience in a variety of work assignments to increase knowledge and skills Proactive consultation behavior/ Seeking career guidance or help from an older Seek a mentor inside or outside the organization seeking career guidance more experienced person Networking (Claes & Ruiz-- Quintanilla, 1998) Building a network of organizational contacts to obtain information, power, and support for career enhancement Get introduced to, develop contacts with individuals in positions of power, influence or with access to information Career exploration Gathering information about oneself and employment opportunities Seek information on specific career areas or jobs interested in, reflect on past experiences Developing career goals (Noe, 1996) Setting career goals Think about what one would like to accomplish in work Self-nomination/self-presentation (visibility activities and influence behavior) Communicating one s aspirations and goals for greater job responsibility to superiors and presenting oneself in the best possible light Make supervisor aware of accomplishments, talk about one s strength, make sure to get credit for the work done Extending work involvement (influence behavior) Ingratiating (influence behavior) Creating opportunities (Gould & Penley, 1984) Developmental feedback seeking Extending work involvement beyond traditional working hours and preoccupying with work-related issues outside of the working environment Enhancing one s interpersonal attraction with respect to one s superiors Developing expertise which is critical to one s department s operations and assuming leadership in areas where there appears to be no current leadership Seeking feedback on performance and career development needs Take on task or extra responsibilities in order to acquire additional skills or be in contact with influential people Agree, share opinions, express a favorable evaluation of the superior, take an interest in superiors personal life Choose job moves which develop strategically valued skills, acquire strategically valued training Initiate feedback about career progress

314 D. T. A. M. Kooij Table 2. Continued Proactive Behavior Type Description Example Behaviors Job mobility preparedness (Kossek et al., 1998) Gathering information about new career opportunities and preparing to act on them Obtain information about job opportunities, reflect on the next desired position Boundary management (King, 2004) Balancing the demands of work and nonwork Coordinate work hours with a partner to manage time with children, navigate the transition between work and nonwork roles Positive mind-set and persistence Maintaining a positive mind-set and Be positive, persist demonstrating persistence Defeating stereotypes Defeating stereotypes Demonstrate abilities through learning and applying new skills Disability advocacy Engaging in disability advocacy to remove performance myths Build awareness, influence organizational policy making Disability networking (Kulkarni & Building, leveraging, and contributing to Seek or serve as mentor Gopakumar, 2014) disability networks Coping skills (Lent & Brown, 2013) Engaging in coping skills and processes initiated to negotiate life-role transitions and to adjust to challenging, and often unforeseen, work and work-life situations Prepare for bridge employment, cope with stresses and conflicts related to one s new role and responsibilities distinguished between proactive behaviors aimed at demand abilities fit and proactive behaviors aimed at needs supplies fit. To increase demands abilities fit, employees might engage in proactive feedback seeking, such as feedback inquiry (i.e., actively gathering information about one s behavior by directly asking for feedback) or feedback monitoring (i.e., actively gathering information about one s behavior by actively monitoring the situation and others behavior; Ashford & Black, 1996). A recent meta-analysis (Anseel, Beatty, Shen, Lievens, & Sackett, 2015) argued and found that age is negatively related to both types of feedback-seeking behavior. Based on the cost-value framework, Anseel and colleagues (2015) argued that older employees will suffer less from role uncertainty, and thus will attach less value to feedback, whereas costs will increase, because older employees are assumed to know how to do their job and it is no longer appropriate to rely on others for help (Ashford, 1986). Employees also engage in proactive behaviors aimed at increasing both demands abilities and needs supplies fit, such as changing task objectives or methods (i.e., role innovation; Nicholson, 1984) or negotiating task assignments (i.e., job change negotiation; Ashford & Black, 1996) so that the job better fits their skills, abilities, and preferences. Role innovation and job change negotiation are particularly examined among newcomers (e.g., Black & Ashford, 1995). Individuals entering new work situations are thought to either change their jobs or change themselves to create a better fit between them and their new jobs (Ashford & Black, 1996). However, as motives and abilities change, role innovation and job change negotiation could be very relevant for tenured employees as well. Two more recently introduced types of proactive PE fit behaviors aimed at increasing both demands abilities and needs supplies fit are job crafting (Wrzesniewski & Dutton, 2001) and negotiating idiosyncratic deals (Ideals; Rousseau, Ho, & Greenberg, 2006). Job crafting refers to the self-initiated changes that individuals make in the task or in relational boundaries of their work that are aimed at improving person job fit (Tims, Bakker, & Derks, 2012; Wrzesniewski & Dutton, 2001). Wrzesniewski and Dutton (2001) introduced three forms of job crafting: task crafting which involves altering the type or number of tasks, relational crafting referring to altering the number or nature of interactions with others, and cognitive crafting which involves altering the view of the job. These broad job crafting forms have further been specified in recent research of Tims and colleagues (2012) for example. Building upon the job crafting and lifespan psychology literatures (e.g., Baltes & Baltes, 1990; Kanfer & Ackerman, 2004), Kooij and colleagues (2015) introduced three primary forms of job crafting among aging employees: (a) Accommodative crafting, which refers to crafting activities aimed at reducing physical, cognitive, emotional, and quantitative demands (i.e., regulating losses; Baltes & Baltes, 1990), such as delegating low priority responsibilities and looking for other ways to achieve goals; (b) Developmental crafting, which refers to crafting activities that are directed toward learning new skills (Robson et al., 2006) and increasing challenging demands and responsibilities (i.e., growth; Baltes & Baltes, 1990), such as taking on challenging assignments and tasks that expand the work role; and (c) Utilization crafting, which refers to crafting activities aimed at maintaining or improving interest in the job and utilizing and sharing current knowledge and skills, such as focusing on most interesting tasks that optimize existing knowledge and skills, taking on tasks that activate unused skills, and taking on tasks through which one can build meaningful relationships and increase the amount of help and mentoring provided to others. Particularly the latter form of job crafting lacks research attention. Idiosyncratic deals (Ideals; Rousseau et al., 2006) refer to individually negotiated unique and individualized work arrangements satisfying the needs of the employee as well as the employer. Research on Ideals has identified four types of Ideals (Bal et al., 2012; Rosen, Slater, Chang, & Johnson, 2013): task Ideals (Hornung, Rousseau, Glaser, Angerer, & Weigl, 2010) refer to those arrangements employees negotiate concerning the tasks they conduct at work, as well as their responsibilities (and is thus related to job change negotiation); development Ideals refer to training and special opportunities for skill development; schedule and location flexibility Ideals concern the working hours of the employee and the place where the work is conducted; and financial

Active Role in Successful Aging 315 Ideals concern individual deals with respect to salary and received bonuses. Bal and Jansen (2015) argued that negotiating Ideals is important for successful aging at work. They argued that since older workers have more heterogeneous needs than younger workers, individualized arrangements will benefit older workers, maintaining their motivation, performance, and health. Whereas the types of proactive PE fit behavior discussed previously are particularly aimed at increasing current fit, employees might also engage in proactive behaviors that focus on longer-term compatibility between the requirements of work and the individual s career expectations and preferences and so increase future PE or person job fit (Parker & Collins, 2010). Grant and Parker (2009) labeled this higher-order dimension of proactive behavior as proactive career behavior, which refers to proactivity beyond a specific job, such as actions to secure a job or to get a new job (Crant, 2000). One specific type of proactive career behavior is career initiative, which includes proactive career planning, skill development, consultation, and networking (Claes & Ruiz--Quintanilla, 1998; Seibert, Kraimer, & Crant, 2001; Tharenou & Terry, 1998). Another type of proactive career behavior that is closely related to career initiative is career self-management, which refers to the proactivity employees show with respect to managing their career (De Vos, Dewettinck, & Buyens, 2009). The concept of career self-management challenges the assumption that employees are passive and reactive when it comes to their career and explicitly recognizes that employees take deliberate actions to take charge of their own career. Although career self-management behaviors are usually aimed at career progression, employees might engage in career self-management behaviors for other reasons (e.g., security, balance, personal development, or increased meaningfulness). As such, employees manage their careers to reach their personal career goals, and thus to achieve future fit. In line with this reasoning, Noe (1996, p. 119) defined career self-management as the process by which individuals collect information about values, interests, and skill strengths and weaknesses (career exploration), identify a career goal, and engage in career strategies that increase the probability that career goals will be achieved. In line with this reasoning, De Vos and Seegers (2013) found that older workers (aged 45+) engaging in career self-management behaviors were less inclined to retire early. Different authors mention different career self-management strategies (Table 2). Sturges, Conway, and Liefooghe (2010) provided an overview of these behaviors. They distinguished networking behavior, visibility behavior (e.g., drawing attention to work achievements), influencing behavior (e.g., intended to influence the decisions of superiors at work), positioning behavior (e.g., pursuing valuable job opportunities), building human capital (e.g., through training and education), and mobility-oriented behavior (e.g., making plans to leave the organization). In addition, King (2004) distinguished boundary management, which refers to balancing the demands of work and nonwork. A major limitation of studies on career selfmanagement is that most of these studies are conducted using samples of relatively young employees (De Vos & Seegers, 2013; Zacher & Griffin, 2015). Studies that do include a broader age range show inconsistent findings with respect to the relationship between age and career self-management behaviors, reporting decreases (e.g., in networking behavior; Claes & Ruiz--Quintanilla, 1998), increases (e.g., in job mobility preparedness; Kossek, Roberts, Fisher, & Demarr, 1998), and insignificant relations with age (e.g., in skill development; Claes & Ruiz--Quintanilla, 1998). Nevertheless, there are a few studies that provide some insight in career self-management strategies of aging workers. Kulkarni and Gopakumar (2014), for example, examined career self-management strategies of people with disabilities which might also be useful for aging workers dealing with age-related challenges. They distinguished a number of self-management strategies that people with disabilities engage in: (a) maintaining a positive mind-set and demonstrating persistence; (b) defeating stereotypes by demonstrating abilities through learning, applying new skills, and by seeking feedback (Finkelstein, King, & Voyles, 2015); (c) engaging in disability advocacy to remove performance myths; and (d) building, leveraging, and contributing to disability networks by seeking or serving as mentor. In addition, Lent and Brown (2013) developed a social cognitive model of career self-management to identify adaptive career behaviors relevant across the lifespan. They distinguished two types of adaptive career behavior. One is engaging in relatively normative and proactive developmental tasks associated with age-related cognitive development, nurtured by social learning experiences (e.g., career exploration, proactive skill development behavior). The other is engaging in coping skills and processes initiated to negotiate life-role transitions and to adjust to challenging, and often unforeseen, work and work life situations, such as work stress and job loss. They identified career behaviors relevant among aging workers in the maintenance career stage, such as recycling through earlier career stage tasks, building job niches (e.g., taking a leadership or specialist role), developing career self-renewal plans, and preparing for bridge employment. These proactive PE fit and proactive career behaviors can complement proactive behaviors proposed in lifespan psychology literature. BRIDGING LIFESPAN AND ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY LITERATURES: PROACTIVE BEHAVIORS FOR SUCCESSFUL AGING AT WORK In order to integrate and bridge lifespan and organizational psychology literatures, I will use the proactive PE fit and proactive career behaviors proposed in organizational psychology literature to extend and specify the proactive behaviors aimed at dealing with age-related losses proposed in lifespan psychology literature in the work context. First, to select or set goals at work, employees can engage, for example, in task crafting (e.g., accommodative crafting; Kooij et al., 2015) or job change and task Ideal negotiation (Ashford & Black, 1996; Hornung et al., 2010) to reduce their workload or change their tasks. Another proactive behavior relevant for selection is proactive career planning behavior (Claes & Ruiz--Quintanilla, 1998), such as setting clear career goals, as argued by Abele and Wiese (2008). Further, there are many proactive behaviors, such as proactive skill development behavior (Claes & Ruiz--Quintanilla, 1998), negotiating development Ideals (Rousseau et al., 2006), feedback-seeking behavior (Ashford & Black, 1996), and utilization crafting (Kooij et al., 2015) relevant for optimization. At work, aging employees might acquire and invest in goal-relevant means by developing skills needed in future positions, negotiating special trainings, seeking feedback from coworkers, or taking on tasks that activate unused skills and knowledge. Next, to compensate or engage in corrective proactive behaviors (e.g., recruit help of others or

316 D. T. A. M. Kooij manage impressions), aging employees could engage in relational or accommodative crafting (Kooij et al., 2015; Wrzesniewski & Dutton, 2001), increasing relationships with others and using tools or aids to do their job, or they could aim to defeat stereotypes of older workers or engage in older worker advocacy (Kulkarni & Gopakumar, 2014). There are a range of proactive behaviors that could help aging workers to shift their goal focus and reallocate their resources accordingly at work. By role innovation (Nicholson, 1984) or utilization crafting (e.g., looking for tasks that match their interests; Kooij et al., 2015), aging employees could try to change their job tasks to better fit their changing goals and motives. Aging employees could also increase their job mobility preparedness (Kossek et al., 1998) and engage in proactive career planning behavior (Claes & Ruiz--Quintanilla, 1998). This would mean they have to recycle through earlier career stage tasks to again explore their opportunities and interests in order to develop career self-renewal plans and set new career goals (Lent & Brown, 2013). When goals and motives are shifting outside of work, aging employees could engage in boundary management or negotiate flexibility Ideals (King, 2001; Rousseau et al., 2006) to be able to spend more time on leisure activities. To control the type, extent, and timing of experienced emotions (i.e., emotion regulation), aging employees could engage in task crafting, and particularly in decreasing hindering demands to avoid negative situations (Tims et al., 2012), but also utilization crafting to increase the meaningfulness of work (Kooij et al., 2015). Aging workers could also engage in (cognitive) coping skills to regulate their emotions (Lent & Brown, 2013). Engaging in primary control strategies at work could involve creating opportunities, extending work involvement, and selfnomination/self-presentation (Gould & Penley, 1984). Aging employees can engage in these visibility and influence behaviors (King, 2001; Sturges et al., 2010) to change their environment to fit their needs and desires. Aging employees could, for example, acquire strategically valued training, take on extra tasks to be in contact with influential people, or make their supervisor aware of their accomplishments and career goals. Another proactive behavior relevant for primary control is maintaining a positive mind-set and demonstrating persistence (Kulkarni & Gopakumar, 2013). To engage in secondary control strategies, aging employees could cognitively craft their job (Wrzesniewski & Dutton, 2001). For example, changing the meaning of their work is one way to find new meaning in a given experience. Finally, preventive proactive behaviors at work could refer to relational crafting, and particularly increasing social resources (Tims et al., 2012; Wrzesniewski & Dutton, 2001), proactive career planning (Claes & Ruiz--Quintanilla, 1998), ingratiating, networking (in general or specifically with older employees; Kulkarni & Gopakumar, 2013), and seeking career guidance (Gould & Penley, 1984). In order to anticipate future stressors and delay or minimize them, aging employees could get introduced to individuals with access to information, build new relationships at work, take an interest in their superiors private life, or seek a mentor inside or outside the organization (i.e., to increase social resources) or they could explore future career options and formulate plans to reach them. DISCUSSION Since workforces are aging, governments, organizations, and researchers are increasingly interested in the topic of successful aging at work. In this paper, I viewed successful aging at work from a sustainability perspective, which implies that effectively managing (i.e., preserving and regenerating; Docherty et al., 2009) current and future resources is crucial (Freund, 2008). To effectively manage their resources, aging workers should strive for current and future person job fit. This means that they should optimally utilize current strengths and abilities, without exhausting abilities, and developing skills and abilities needed for future work requirements. Hence, for employees to be able to maintain their health, motivation, and work ability, and thus age successfully at work, a continuous person job fit (Edwards et al., 2006) between their changing abilities and motives and changing work is required. One important way to achieve current and future fit is by engaging in proactive behaviors (Kira et al., 2010; Kooij et al., 2015). Therefore, in this article, I aimed to identify proactive behaviors for successful aging at work by extending the proactive behaviors proposed in lifespan psychology literature with proactive behaviors proposed in organizational psychology literature. Specifically, with this article, I aimed to contribute to the literature on aging at work in two ways. First, by viewing successful aging at work from a sustainability perspective, I demonstrate the crucial role of current and future person job fit for successful aging at work. Second, by integrating lifespan and organizational psychology literatures, I identify a range of proactive behaviors potentially relevant for successful aging at work. In particular, integrating lifespan psychology and organizational psychology literatures, I identified a range of proactive behaviors that specify the proactive behaviors or action-regulation strategies discussed in lifespan psychology literature. Job crafting, for example, can help aging workers to adjust their job to changing goals and motives (e.g., shifting from growth goals to regulating losses), improving current person job fit. Proactive career planning and skill development, as another example, can help aging workers to set new career goals and develop skills which may be needed in these future positions. A final example is building a network, which might help aging employees to increase social resources. These proactive behaviors offer aging employees a means to continuously adjust their work to intrapersonal changes that are part of the aging process, but also to continuously adjust themselves to (future) work requirements. These behaviors will optimize current and future fit, and thus result in sustainable and successful aging at work (Kooij et al., 2015). Future research should examine which forms of proactive behaviors aging employees use to improve current and future fit and in turn, age successfully at work. I offered a range of possible proactive behaviors aging employees might engage in, but we lack research on which of these behaviors aging employees actually use. Proactive behaviors for successful aging at work might also change with age. For example, similar to age-related decreases in the use of primary control, older employees might engage less in creating opportunities, extending work involvement, and self-nomination/self-presentation. Further, we do not know whether aging employees engage in one type of proactive behavior only or whether they use combinations of several behaviors to maximize outcomes. For instance, an employee could start crafting the job by taking on tasks that utilize his or her knowledge and experiences and subsequently negotiate a task I-deal with the supervisor to formalize this change. In the current literature proactive behaviors are largely described separately, neglecting possible synergies and/or integration. Future research should also further specify the proactive behaviors for successful aging at work. Many of the proactive behaviors identified

Active Role in Successful Aging 317 in organizational psychology literature are aimed at younger or middleaged workers. For example, proactive career behaviors are particularly focused on moving upward in one s career. However, older employees might not be interested in moving upward, but more interested in making lateral or even downward movements. Therefore, we need studies on whether the proactive career behaviors discussed in organizational psychology literature are actually appropriate for reaching these other types of career goals. The same holds for other proactive behaviors (e.g., job crafting; Kooij et al., 2015). The proactive behaviors for successful aging at work identified in this paper could be of practical importance to aging employees and their organizations. Organizations can stimulate this type of behaviors, for example, by high involvement management (HIM), participative and transformational leadership, or autonomous job design (Bindl & Parker, 2011; Parker, Wall, & Cordery, 2001; see also Ng & Feldman, 2015). HIM involves HR practices that stimulate flexibility and proactivity, such as decentralized decision making, teamwork, extensive training, information sharing, flexible job descriptions, career development, participation in decision-making, feedback, and job rotation (Vandenberg, Richardson, & Eastman, 1999; Wood, Van Veldhoven, Croon, & De Menezes, 2012). Earlier studies demonstrated that these types of HR practices result in psychological empowerment (e.g., self-efficacy and self-determination; Messersmith, Patel, & Lepak, 2011). Participative and transformational leaders share their attractive future vision, inspire subordinates, and share power and decision-making authority with subordinates, stimulating them to engage in proactive behaviors (Den Hartog & Belschak, 2012; Rank, Carsten, Unger, & Spector, 2007; see also Boehm & Dwertmann, 2015). High involvement management and participative and transformational leadership might thus also lead to increased proactive PE fit and career behaviors, and in turn to successful aging at work. In addition, the proactive behaviors could be a source of inspiration for aging employees themselves, helping them to improve current and future person job fit and thus to age successfully at work. FUNDING This research was funded by a VENI grant of the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research. REFERENCES Abele, A. E., & Wiese, B. S. (2008). The nomological network of selfmanagement strategies and career success. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 81, 733 749. Anseel, F., Beatty, A. S., Shen, W., Lievens, F., & Sackett, P. (2015). How are we doing after 30 years? A meta-analytic review of the antecedents and outcomes of feedback-seeking behavior. Journal of Management, 41, 318 348. Ashford, S. J. (1986). Feedback-seeking in individual adaptation: A resource perspective. Academy of Management Journal, 29, 465 487. Ashford, S. J., & Black, J. S. (1996). Proactivity during organizational entry: The role of desire for control. Journal of Applied Psychology, 81, 199 214. Bal, P. M., De Jong, S. B., Jansen, P. G. W., & Bakker, A. B. (2012). Motivating employees to work beyond retirement: A multi-level study of the role of I-deals and unit climate. Journal of Management Studies, 49, 306 332. Bal, P. M., & Jansen, P. G. (2015). Idiosyncratic deals for older workers: Increased heterogeneity among older workers enhance the need for I-deals. In P. M. Bal, D. T. A. M. Kooi, & D. Rousseau (Eds.), Aging workers and the employee-employer relationship (pp. 129 144). New York: Springer. Bal, P. M., Kooij, D. T. A. M., & Rousseau, D. M. (Eds.). (2015). Aging workers and the employee employer relationship. Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Springer Publishers. Baltes, P. B., & Baltes, M. M. (1990). Psychological perspectives on successful aging: The model of selective optimization with compensation. In P. B. Baltes & M. M. Baltes (Eds.), Successful aging: Perspectives from the behavioral sciences (pp. 1 34). New York: Cambridge University Press. Baltes, P. B., Staudinger, U. M., & Lindenberger, U. (1999). Lifespan psychology: Theory and application to intellectual functioning. Annual Review of Psychology, 50, 471 507. doi:10.1146/annurev. psych.50.1.471 Bindl, U. K., & Parker, S. K. (2011). Proactive work behavior: Forwardthinking and change-oriented action in organizations. In S. Zedeck (Ed.), APA handbook of industrial and organizational psychology, Vol 2: Selecting and developing members for the organization. APA Handbooks in Psychology (pp. 567 598). Washington, DC, US: American Psychological Association. Black, J. S., & Ashford, S. J. (1995). Fitting in or making jobs fit: Factors affecting mode of adjustment for new hires. Human Relations, 48, 421 437. Boehm, S. A., & Dwertmann, D. J. (2015). Forging a single-edged sword: Facilitating positive age and disability diversity effects in the workplace through leadership, positive climates, and HR practices. Work, Aging and Retirement, 1, 41 63. Carstensen, L. L. (1995). Evidence for a life span theory of socioemotional selectivity. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 4, 151 156. Caspi, A., Roberts, B. W., & Shiner, R. L. (2005). Personality development: Stability and change. Annual Review of Psychology, 56, 453 484. Charles, S. T. (2010). Strength and vulnerability integration: A model of emotional well-being across adulthood. Psychological Bulletin, 136, 1068 1091. doi:10.1037/a0021232 Charles, S. T., & Carstensen, L. L. (2010). Social and emotional aging. Annual Review of Psychology, 61, 383 409. Claes, R., & Ruiz-Quintanilla, S. (1998). Influences of early career experiences, occupational group, and national culture on proactive career behavior. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 52, 357 378. Crant, J. M. (2000). Proactive behavior in organizations. Journal of Management, 26, 435 462. De Lange, A. H., Kooij, T. A. M., & Van der Heijden, B. I. J. M. (2015). Human resource management and sustainability at work across the life-span: An integral perspective. In: D. Truxillio, L. Finkelstein, F. Fraccaroli, & R. Kanfer (Eds.), Facing the challenges of a multiage workforce: A use-inspired approach (SIOP Frontiers series) (pp. 50 80). Taylor and Francis/Routledge. Den Hartog, D. N., & Belschak, F. D. (2012). When does transformational leadership enhance employee proactive behavior? The role of autonomy and role breadth self-efficacy. Journal of Applied Psychology, 97, 194 202.

318 D. T. A. M. Kooij De Vos, A., Dewettinck, K. & Buyens, D. (2009). The professional career on the right track: A study on the interaction between career self-management and organizational career management in explaining employee outcomes. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 18, 55 80. De Vos, A., & Seegers, J. (2013). Self-directed career attitude and retirement intentions. Career Development International, 18, 155 172. Docherty, P., Kira, M., & Shani, A. B. (2009). What the world needs now is sustainable work systems. In P. Docherty, M. Kira, & A. B. Shani (Eds.). Creating sustainable work systems (pp. 1 23). London: Routledge Taylor & Francis Group. Ebner, N. C., Freund, A. M., & Baltes, P. B. (2006). Developmental changes in personal goal orientation from young to late adulthood: From striving for gains to maintenance and prevention of losses. Psychology and Aging, 21, 664 678. doi:10.1037/0882-7974.21.4.664 Edwards, J. (1991). Person job fit: A conceptual integration, literature review and methodological critique. In C. L. Cooper & I. T. Robinson (Eds.), International review of industrial and organizational psychology (Vol. 6, pp. 283 357). New York: Wiley. Edwards, J. R., Cable, D. M., Williamson, I. O., Lambert, L. S., & Shipp, A. J. (2006). The phenomenology of fit: Linking the person and environment to the subjective experience of person environment fit. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91, 802 827. Featherman, D. L. (1992). Development of reserves for adaptation to old age: Personal and societal agendas. In N. E. Cutler, D. W. Gregg, & M. P. Lawton (Eds.), Aging, money, and life satisfaction: Aspects of financial gerontology (pp. 135 168). New York: Springer. Finkelstein, L. M., King, E. B., & Voyles, E. C. (2015). Age metastereotyping and cross-age workplace interactions: A meta view of age stereotypes at work. Work, Aging and Retirement, 1, 26 40. Freund, A. M. (2006). Differential motivational consequences of goal focus in younger and older adults. Psychology and Aging, 21, 240 252. Freund, A. M. (2008). Successful aging as management of resources: The role of selection, optimization, and compensation. Research in Human Development, 5, 94 106. Freund, A. M., & Baltes, P. B. (2002). Life-management strategies of selection, optimization, and compensation: Measurement by self-report and construct validity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82, 642 662. Freund, A. M., & Riediger, M. (2001). What I have and what I do: The role of resource loss and gain throughout life. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 50, 370 380. Grant, A. M., & Parker, S. K. (2009). Redesigning work design theories: The rise of relational and proactive perspectives. Academy of Management Annals, 3, 317 375. Gould, S., & Penley, L. E. (1984). Career strategies and salary progression: A study of their relationship in a municipal bureaucracy. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 34, 244 265. Hansson, R. O., DeKoekkoek, P. D., Neece, W. M., & Patterson, D. W. (1997). Successful aging at work: Annual review, 1992 1996: The older worker and transitions to retirement. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 51, 202 233. Haynes, T. L., Heckhausen, J., Chipperfield, J. G., Perry, R. P., & Newall, N. E. (2009). Primary and secondary control strategies: Implications for health and well-being among older adults. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 28, 165 197. Heckhausen, J., & Schulz, R. (1995). A life-span theory of control. Psychological Review, 102, 284 304. doi:10.1037/0033-295x.102.2.284 Heckhausen, J., Wrosch, C., & Schulz, R. (2010). A motivational theory of life-span development. Psychological Review, 117, 32 60. doi:10.1037/a0017668 Holling, C. S. (2001). Understanding the complexity of economic, ecological, and social systems. Ecosystems, 4, 390 405. Hornung, S., Rousseau, D. M., Glaser, J., Angerer, P., & Weigl, M. (2010). Beyond top-down and bottom-up work redesign: Customizing job content through idiosyncratic deals. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 31, 187 215. Ilmarinen, J. (2009). Aging and work: An international perspective. In J. Sharit (Ed.), Aging and work: Issues and implications in a changing landscape (pp. 51 73). Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press. Ilmarinen, J., & Tuomi, K. (1992). Work ability of aging workers. Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health, 18(Suppl. 2), 8 10. Ilmarinen, J. E. (2001). Aging workers. Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 58, 546 552. Kahana, E., & Kahana, B. (1996). Conceptual and empirical advances in understanding aging well through proactive adaptation. In V. Bengtson (Ed.), Adulthood and aging: Research on continuities and discontinuities (pp. 18 40). New York: Springer. Kahana, E., Kahana, B., & Lee, J. E. (2014). Proactive approaches to successful aging: One clear path through the forest. Gerontology, 60, 466 474. doi:10.1159/000360222 Kahana, E., Kelley-Moore, J. A., & Kahana, B. (2012). Proactive aging: A longitudinal study of stress, resources, agency, and well-being in late life. Aging & Mental Health, 16, 438 451. doi:10.1080/13607 863.2011.644519 Kanfer, R., & Ackerman, P. L. (2004). Aging, adult development and work motivation. Academy of Management Review, 29, 440 458. Kanfer, R., Beier, M. E., & Ackerman, P. L. (2013). Goals and motivation related to work in later adulthood: An organizing framework. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 22, 253 264. doi:10.1080/1359432x.2012.734298 Kira, M., & Van Eijnatten, F. M., & Balkin, D. B. (2010). Crafting sustainable work: development of personal resources. Journal of Organizational Change Management, 23, 616 632. King, Z. (2004). Career self-management: Its nature, causes and consequences. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 65, 112 133. Kooij, D. T. A. M., De Lange, A. H., Jansen, P. G. W., Kanfer, R., & Dikkers, J. S. E. (2011). Age and work-related motives: Results of a meta-analysis. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 32, 197 225. Kooij, D. T. A. M., Tims, M., & Kanfer, R. (2015). Successful aging at work: The role of job crafting. In P. M. Bal, D. T. A. M. Kooij, & D. M. Rousseau (Eds.), Aging workers and the employee employer relationship (pp. 145 161). New York: Springer. Kossek, E. E., Roberts, K., Fisher, S., & Demarr, B. (1998). Career selfmanagement: A quasi-experimental assessment of the effects of a training intervention. Personnel Psychology, 51, 935 962. Kristof, A. L., Zimmerman, R. D., & Johnson, E. C. (2005). Consequences of individuals fit at work: a meta-analysis of person job, person organization, person group, and person supervisor fit. Personnel Psychology, 58, 281 342. Kulkarni, M., & Gopakumar, K. V. (2014). Career management strategies of people with disabilities. Human Resource Management, 53, 445 466. Lang, F. R., & Carstensen, L. L. (2002). Time counts: Future time perspective, goals and social relationships. Psychology and Aging, 17, 125 139

Active Role in Successful Aging 319 Lawton, M. P. (1989). Environmental proactivity in older people. In V. L. Bengtson & K. W. Schaie (Eds.), The course of later life (pp. 15 23). New York: Springer. Lent, R. W., & Brown, S. D. (2013). Social cognitive model of career self-management: Toward a unifying view of adaptive career behavior across the life span. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 60, 557 568. Messersmith, J. G., Patel, P. C., & Lepak, D. P. (2011). Unlocking the black box: Exploring the link between high-performance work systems and performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 96, 1105 1118. Moghimi, D., Scheibe, S., & Van Yperen, N. W. (in press). Job crafting in older workers. In N. A. Pachana & N. Thapa (Eds.), Encyclopedia of geropsychology. New York: Springer. Nicholson, N. 1984. A theory of work role transitions. Administrative Science Quarterly, 29,172 191. Ng, T. W. H., & Feldman, D. C. (2015). The moderating effects of age in the relationships of job autonomy to work outcomes. Work, Aging and Retirement, 1, 64 78. Noe, R. A. (1996). Is career management related to employee development and performance? Journal of Organizational Behavior, 17, 119 133. Oldham, G. R., & Hackman, J. R. (2010). Not what it was and not what it will be: the Future of job design research. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 31, 463 479. Ouwehand, C., de Ridder, D. T. D., & Bensing, J. M. (2007). A review of successful aging models: Proposing proactive coping as an important additional strategy. Clinical Psychology Review, 27, 873 884. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2006.11.003 Parker, S. K., & Collins, C. G. (2010). Taking stock: Integrating and differentiating multiple proactive behaviors. Journal of Management, 36, 633 662. Parker, S. K., Wall, T. D., & Cordery, J. L. (2001). Future work design research and practice: Towards an elaborated model of work design. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 74, 413 440. Parker, S. K., Williams, H., & Turner, N. (2006). Modeling the antecedents of proactive behavior at work. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91, 636 652. Phillips, D. R., & Sui, O. (2012). Global aging and aging workers. In J. W. Hedge & W. C. Borman (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of work and aging (pp. 11 32). New York: Oxford University Press. Rank, J., Carsten, J. M., Unger, J. M., & Spector, P. E. (2007). Proactive customer service performance: Relationships with individual, task, and leadership variables. Human Performance, 20, 363 390. Robson, S. M., Hansson, R. O., Abalos, A. A., & Booth, M. (2006). Successful aging. Criteria for aging well in the workplace. Journal of Career Development, 33, 156 177. Rosen, C. C., Slater, D. J., Chang, C. H., & Johnson, R. E. (2013). Let s make a deal development and validation of the ex post I-deals scale. Journal of Management, 39, 709 742. Rousseau, D. M., Ho, V. T., & Greenberg, J. (2006). I-deals: Idiosyncratic terms in e employment relationships. Academy of Management Review, 31, 977 994. Ryff, C. D. (1989). Beyond Ponce de Leon and life satisfaction: New directions in quest of successful ageing. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 12, 35 55 Schaufeli, W. (2011). Duurzaamheid vanuit psychologisch perspectief: een kwestie van fit? [Sustainability from a psychological perspective: a matter of fit?] In Schouten & Nelissen (Eds.), Ten minste houdbaar tot. Over urgentie van duurzame inzetbaarheid in Nederland, (pp. 96 108). Zaltbommel: Uitgeverij Thema. Seibert, S. E., Kraimer, M. L., & Crant, J. M. (2001). What do proactive people do? A longitudinal model linking proactive personality and career success. Personnel Psychology, 54, 845 874. Shultz, K. S., & Wang, M. (2011). Psychological perspectives on the changing nature of retirement. American Psychologist, 66, 170 179. Sturges, J., Conway, N., & Liefooghe, A. (2010). Organizational support, individual attributes, and the practice of career self-management behavior. Group & Organization Management, 35, 108 141. Tharenou, P., & Terry, P. (1998). Reliability and validity scores on scales to measure managerial aspirations. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 58(3), 475 492. Tims, M., Bakker, A. B., & Derks, D. (2012). Development and validation of the job crafting scale. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 80, 173 186. Vandenberg, R. J., Richardson, H. A., & Eastman, L. J. (1999). The impact of high involvement work processes on organizational effectiveness. Group and Organization Management, 24, 300 339. Van Lieshout, C. F. M. (2000). Lifespan personality development: Self-organising goal-oriented agents and developmental outcome. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 24, 276 288. Wahl, H., Iwarsson, S., & Oswald, F. (2011). Aging well and the environment: Toward an integrative model and research agenda for the future. The Gerontologist, 52, 306 316. Wood, S., Van Veldhoven, M., Croon, M., & De Menezes, L. M. (2012). Enriched job design, high involvement management and organizational performance: The mediating roles of job satisfaction and well-being. Human Relations, 65, 419 445. Wrosch, C., Schulz, R., Miller, G. E., Lupien, S., & Dunne, E. (2007). Physical health problems, depressive mood and cortisol secretion in old age: Buffer effects of health engagement control strategies. Health Psychology, 26, 341 349. Wrzesniewski, A., & Dutton, J. E. (2001). Crafting a job: Revisioning employees as active crafters of their work. Academy of Management Review, 26, 179 201. Zacher, H. (2015). Successful aging at work. Work, Aging and Retirement, 1, 4 25. doi:10.1093/workar/wau006 Zacher, H., Feldman, D. C., & Schulz, H. (2014). Age, occupational strain, and well-being: A person-environment fit perspective. In P. L. Perrewé, J. Halbesleben & C. C. Rosen (Eds.), Research in occupational stress and well-being (Vol. 12, pp. 83 111). Bingley, UK: Emerald. Zacher, H., & Frese, M. (2011). Maintaining a focus on opportunities at work: The interplay between age, job complexity, and the use of selection, optimization, and compensation strategies. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 32, 291 318. doi:10.1002/ job.683 Zacher, H., & Griffin, B. (2015). Older workers age as a moderator of the relationship between career adaptability and job satisfaction. Work, Aging and Retirement, 1, 227 236. Zacher, H., & Kooij, D. T. A. M. (in press). Aging and Proactivity. In S. K. Parker & U. K. Bindl (Eds.), Proactivity in organizations. New York: Taylor & Francis/Routledge.