Law of Delict Fourth Edition J NEETHLING BA LLB (UOVS) LLM (McGill) LLD (Unisa) Professor of Private Law, University of South Africa Advocate ofthe High Court of South Africa JM POTGIETER Blur LLM (RAU) LLM (Harvard) LLD (Unisa) Professor of Private Law, University of South Africa Attomey, Notary and Conveyancer PJ VISSER BA LLB (Pret) LLD (Unisa) Professor of Private Law, University of Pretoria Advocate ofthe High Court of South Africa Translated and edited by: JC KNOBEL BLC LLB (Pret) LLD (Unisa) Associate Professor of Private Law, University of South Africa Advocate ofthe High Court of South Africa BUTTERWORTHS DURBAN 2001
Contents Preface v PARTI Introduction to the law of delict 1 General introduction 1 Delict: general nature and place in the legal System 3 2 Delict and breach of contract 6 3 Delict and crime 7 4 Historical development of delictual liability 8 4 1 Introduction 8 4 2 Actio legis Aquiliae 8 4 3 Actio iniuriarum 13 4 4 Action for pain and suffering 17 5 The law of delict, the Constitution and fundamental (human) rights 18 PART II General principles of the law of delict 2 Conduct 1 General 27 2 Nature and characteristics of conduct 27 3 The defence of automatism 29 4 Commission (commissio) and omission (omissio) 32 3 Wrongfulness 1 Introduction 35 2 Act and consequence 35 3 The legal convictions of the Community (boni mores) as the basic test for wrongfulness 37 3 1 The balancing of interests 39 3 2 A delictual criterion 42 3 3 An objective criterion 43 3 4 Practical application ofthe boni mores criterion 46 4 Wrongfulness as infringement of a right 50 4 1 The doctrineofsubjective rights 50 4 2 The nature of a subjective right 52 4 3 Further development ofthe doctrineofsubjective rights 53 4 4 Origin of subjective rights 53 4 5 Infringement of a subjective right: requirements 54 5 Wrongfulness as a breach of a legal duty 55 5 1 General 55 5 2 Liability for an omission 57 5 2 1 Prior conduct (the omissio per commissionem rule) 58 5 22 Control of a dangerous object 63
viii Law of Delict 5 2 3 Rules of law 66 5 2 4 A Special relationship between the parties 69 5 2 5 A particular office 70 5 2 6 Contractual undertaking for the safety of a third party 70 5 2 7 Creation of the impression that the interests of a third party will be protected 71 5 2 8 Summary 72 5 3 Breach of a statutory duty 73 6 Grounds of justification 75 61 Introduction 75 6 2 Private defence 77 6 2 1 General 77 6 2 2 Requirements for the attack 77 6 2 3 Requirements for the defence 81 6 3 Necessity 86 6 3 1 General 86 6 3 2 Guidelines in determining the presence of necessity 87 6 3 3 Necessity and impossibility 92 6 4 Provocation 93 6 4 1 General 93 6 4 2 Provocation in the case of physical assault 95 6 4 3 Provocation in cases of defamation and insult 96 6 5 Consent 97 6 5 1 General 97 6 5 2 Characteristics of consent as a ground of justification 99 6 5 3 Requirements for valid consent 101 6 5 4 The pactum de nonpetendo in anticipando 104 6 6 Statutory authority 105 6 7 Official capacity 107 6 8 Execution of an official command 108 6 9 Power to discipline 109 7 Abuse of right and neighbour law 112 8 Nuisance and neighbour law 117 4 Fault (and contributory fault) 1 General 119 2 Accountability 121 3 Intent 123 3 1 Direction ofthe will 123 3 2 Consciousness (knowledge) of wrongfulness 125 3 3 Motive and mistake as to the causal chain of events 127 4 Negligence 128 4 1 Definition and nature 128 4 2 Can negligence and intention overlap? 130 4 3 Negligence and an omission 131 4 4 The reasonable person: characteristics 131 4 4 1 General 131 4 4 2 Children 133 4 4 3 Experts 135 4 5 Negligence: foreseeability and preventability of damage 137 4 6 Negligence judged in the light of the surrounding circumstances 145 4 7 Negligence and "duty of care" 148 4 8 Proof of negligence 150 4 9 Relevance of negligence 152
Contents ix 4 10 Wrongfulness and negligence 153 5 Contributory fault 156 5 1 Introduction 156 5 2 The common law position 156 5 3 The Apportionment of Damages Act 157 53 1 Provisions and meaningof section 1(1 ){a) and (b) 157 5 3 2 Meaning of "fault" 158 5 3 3 Meaningof "apportionment of damages" 159 5 3 4 Criteria for the "apportionment of damages" 160 5 3 5 Onusof proof 163 5 3 6 The concept of contributory "negligence" 163 5 3 7 Fault in regard to "damage" or "damage-causing event" 163 5 3 8 The provisions and meaning of section 1(3) 165 5 3 9 The dependant's action 165 5 3 10 Breach of contract 165 5 3 11 Legal causation 166 5 4 Voluntary assumption of risk and contributory fault (intent) 167 5 4 1 Introduction 167 5 4 2 Relevant cases 168 5 4 3 "Rescue" cases 170 5 Causation 1 General 173 2 Factual causation 174 2 1 General 174 2 2 The conditio sine qua non theory 175 2 3 Criticism ofthe conditio sine qua non theory 176 2 4 Conditio sine qua non and causation by an omission 181 2 5 The determination of a factual (causal) nexus 182 3 Legal causation 183 3 1 General 183 3 2 The flexible approach :.. 186 3 3 Adequate causation 190 3 4 "Direct consequences" 192 3 5 Fault 194 3 5 1 Intent as criterion for legal causation 196 3 5 2 Negligence as criterion for legal causation 199 3 6 Reasonable foreseeabiliry 203 3 7 Novus actus interveniens 205 3 8 So-called egg-skull cases (talem qualem rule) 208 6 Damage 1 Introduction 211 2 The compensatory function ofthe law of delict 211 3 The concept of damage 212 3 1 The definition of damage 212 3 2 Extent ofthe concept of damage 212 3 2 1 General 212 3 2 2 Damage includes patrimonial (pecuniary) as well as non-patrimonial (non-pecuniary) loss 213 3 3 The relationship between patrimonial and non-patrimonial loss 215 3 4 The relationship between damage and wrongfulness (unlawfulness)... 216 3 5 The relationship between damage and factual causation 218 4 Patrimonial (pecuniary) loss 219 4 1 Definition of patrimonial loss 219 4 2 A person's patrimony (estate) 219
x Law of Delict 4 3 The ways in which patrimonial loss is caused 220 4 4 Forms of patrimonial loss 221 4 5 The assessment of patrimonial damage 222 4 5 1 The sum-formula approach 222 4 5 2 A concrete concept of damage 223 45 3 Time for the assessment of damage 223 4 6 Prospective patrimonial damage (lucrum cessans) 224 4 6 1 General 224 4 6 2 Definition and nature of prospective loss 224 46 3 Forms of prospective loss 225 4 6 4 Requirements before damages may be recovered for prospective loss.. 226 4 7 The "once and for all" rule 226 47 1 Formulation and implications of the rule 226 4 7 2 Exceptions to the rule 227 4 7 3 Causes of action 227 4 7 4 Examples of causes of action and the "once and for all" rule 228 4 8 The collateral source rule and compensating advantages (res inter alios actä) 230 4 8 1 General 230 4 8 2 Summary of positive law 230 4 8 3 Theoretical explanation ofthe collateral source rule 233 4 9 Mitigation of loss 235 4 10 Nature, object and form of damages 236 4 11 Assessment of the quantum of damages 237 4 111 General 237 4 112 The assessment of damages in specific instances 238 4 12 Damages for loss of income or support earned illegally 240 4 13 Onusofproof 241 5 Non-patrimonial (non-pecuniary) damage or injury to personality 242 5 1 Definition of non-patrimonial loss 242 5 2 Interests of personality 242 5 3 The general nature of non-patrimonial loss or injury to personality 242 5 4 Assessment of non-patrimonial loss or injury to personality and other general principles 244 5 5 The object of damages (compensation and satisfaction) in the case of non-patrimonial loss or injury to personality 244 5 6 Injury to personality in respect of physical-mental integrity 245 5 6 1 General 245 5 6 2 Theories in regard to the nature of physical-mental injury 247 5 6 3 Cases of unconsciousness and changed personality 248 5 7 Assessment of damages in the case of non-patrimonial loss 253 5 7 1 Introduction 253 5 7 2 Physical-mental integrity 253 5 7 3 Injury to personality in the form of iniuria 255 7 Delictual remedies 1 General 259 2 The interdict 260 3 Concurrence of remedies 262 3 1 Introduction 262 3 2 Delictual actions 262 3 3 Actio iniuriarum and contractual action 263 3 4 Action for pain and suffering and contractual action 264 3 5 Actio legis Aquiliae and contractual action 265 3 6 Exclusionary clauses 267 4 Prescription of remedies 268
Contents xi 8 Joint wrongdoers 1 General 269 2 Special cases 271 2 1 Prejudice suffered by a spouse as a result of the conduct of the other spouse and a third party 271 2 1 1 Marriage in Community of property 271 2 12 Marriage out of Community of property 273 2 2 Prejudice suffered by a person as a result of the death or injury of another through the conduct ofthe deceased or injured and a third party 273 2 2 1 Prejudice asa result of death 273 2 22 Prejudice as a result of injury 274 PART III Specific forms of delict 9 Specific forms of damnum iniuria datum 1 Introduction 279 2 Injury or death of another 279 2 1 Action of non-dependants 279 2 2 Action of dependants 282 2 2 1 Death of the breadwinner 282 2 2 2 Injury to the breadwinner 289 3 Psychological lesions (emotional shock) 290 4 Pure economic loss 295 5 Negligent misrepresentation 302 6 Interference with a contractual relationship 311 7 Unlawful competition 314 8 Manufacturer's liability 322 10 Specific forms of iniuria 1 Introduction 327 2 Rights relating to physical integrity 331 2 1 Introduction 331 2 2 The right to corpus or body 332 2 2 1 General 332 2 2 2 Seduction 333 2 3 The right to libertas or physical liberty 335 2 3 1 General 335 23 2 WrongfuI deprivation of liberty or wrongful arrest 335 23 3 Malicious deprivation of liberty 336 3 The right to fama or good name 337 3 1 Introduction 337 3 2 Defamation 338 3 2 1 Definition 338 3 2 2 Elements 338 3 2 2 1 Publication 338 3 22 2 Defamatoryeffect: wrongfulness 340 3 22 3 Grounds of justification 342 3 2 2 3 1 Privilege or privileged occasion 343 3 2 2 3 2 Truth and public interest 345 3 2 2 3 3 Faircomment 346 3 2 2 4 Animus iniuriandi 346 3 2 2 5 Grounds excluding animus iniuriandi 349
xii Law of Delict 3 2 2 5 1 Mistake 349 3 2 2 5 2 Jest 349 3 3 Malicious prosecution 350 3 4 Attachment of property 352 4 Rights relating to dignitas 353 4 1 The right to dignity 353 4 2 The right to privacy 354 4 3 The right to identity 356 4 4 The right to feelings 357 4 4 1 Breach of promise 358 4 4 2 Adultery 358 4 4 3 Abduction, enticement and harbouring 360 11 Forms of liability without fault 1 General 363 1 1 Dominance of the fault theory 363 1 2 Reaction to the fault theory 363 1 3 Justification for liability without fault 364 1 4 General characteristics of liability without fault 365 2 South African law 365 2 1 Common law and case law 365 2 11 Damage caused by animals 365 1 1 Actio de pauperie 365 1 2 Actio de pastu 368 1 3 Actio deferis 369 14 Conclusion 369 2 Damage caused by objects thrown, poured or falling out of or from a building 370 2 13 Damage caused by owners of neighbouring property: nuisance 371 2 14 Forms of iniuria 372 2 15 Vicarious liability 373 2 15 1 Introduction 373 2 15 2 Employer-employee 373 2 153 Principal-agent 380 2 154 Motor car owner-motor car driver 380 2 2 Legislation 381 2 2 1 Legal Succession to the South African Transport Services Act 9 of 1989 381 2 2 2 Aviation Act 74 of 1962 382 22 3 Nuclear Energy Act 131 of 1993 382 2 2 4 Post Office Act 44 of 1958 383 Bibliography 385 Tableof Cases 399 Table of Statutes 431 Index 435