Index Academic achievement, 85-86 Achievement testing, 122 Acquisition. See Language acquisition; Speech acquisition Additive bilingualism ancestral language training, 43, 44 subtractive bilingualism versus, 37-38 Adult literacy, 3-14 African language. 130-131 African language growth, 277-286 contemporary, 282-285 historical perspective on, 277-282 overview of, 277 Age level alfonic instruction, 249-250, 256 bilingual reading instruction, 264-269 multilingualism, 8-9 Alfonic instruction, 245-260 applications of, 255-260 basis of, 252 double articulation, 246 letters, 253 overview of, 245-246 phonemes, 252-253 semiotic system, 246-247 skills acquisition, 248-252 skills required, 248 subphonemic notation, 254-255 Ancestral language training, 41-53 bilingual literacy, 43-45 Heritage Language Program (Canada), 42-43 overview of, 41-42 pedagogical aspects, 48-49 psycholinguistic research, 46-48 Bilingualism. 15-24 additive versus subtractive, 37-38 Bilingualism (Cont.) African language growth, 277 ancestral language training, 41-53 Brazilian culture, 16-17 Brazilian history, 16-17 culture, 88-89 education of indigenous populations, 20-21 immersion education, 35-39 indigenous communities, 19-20 intellectual activity, 85-86, 262 interdisciplinary perspective, 22 NELECS, 30, 31-32 reading and. 262-263 research efforts in. 17-18 research issues in. 18-19 threats to, 18 United States, 86-88 written/oral differences, 21 See also Catalan/Castilian; Multilingualism Bilingual reading instruction, 261-276 case studies in, 264-269 instruments for, 270-271 overview of, 261 research in, 269-271 teaching methods, 271-274 theory and, 262-264 Books. See African language growth; Media; Whole-language approach Brazil, 15-24 Britain African/Asian languages in, 130-131 bilingual debate in, 131 language definition problem in, 128 language surveys in, 127-128 linguistic repertoire of children in, 128-130 multilingual education in, 127-132 oral reading in, 223 287
288 INDEX Britain (Cont.) whole-language approach in, 235 Broadcasting. See Media Canada ancestral language training, 41-53 immersion education, 35-39, 86 Catalan/Castilian, 77-90 educational policy and, 84-85 intellectual activity, 85-86 linguistic results, 82-83 methodology of study, 80-82 overview of, 77-80 sociocultural factors, 86-89 Central government. See Government; Politics Children bilingualism, 18, 85-86 Catalan/Castilian, 79, 81 immersion education, 35-36 linguistic repertoire of, 128-130 linguistic variation, 148, 149-151 speech acquisition, 148 Comprehension, 204-206 Coreferent, 177 Creole, 55-75 Haitian linguistic situation, 58-60 Haitian variation, 60-62 native language context, 55-58 norm conflict, 65-70 spelling variations, 62-65 standardization/instrumentalization, 70-73 Culture bilingual education, 88-89 immersion education, 37-38 linguistic variation, 14 7 literacy definition, 95 NELECS, 30 whole-language approach, 238 Curriculum Netherlands, 104-109 Switzerland, 200 Cyrillic characters, 123 Decreolization described, 56, 57 process of, 66-67 threat to, 73 See also Creole Dialect ancestral language training, 49 Dialect (Cont.) Italy, 97 Netherlands, 97-99, 106 Swiss-German, 199-220 Diglossia. See Creole Diphthong/monophthong, 209-210 Double articulation, 246 Early bilingual reading instruction. See Bilingual reading instruction Economic issues mother tongue concept, 6-8 oral reading practice, 223-224 Education policy, 84-85 Educational materials. See Media Ethnicity Hungary, 115 immersion education, 37-38 mother tongue concept, 10, 11 NELECS, 28, 29, 32 Netherlands, 100-102, 106-107 See also Immigrants Family bilingualism, 87 Catalan/Castilian, 84 Financial resources. See Economic issues Foreign language instruction, 122-123 Formal speech, 154-155 Form awareness, 143 France, 245-260 Germany, 223 Government bilingualism, 23-24 Catalan/Castilian, 84-85 Creole, 59 Heritage Language program (Canada), 43 indigenous populations, 20-21 mother tongue concept, 4-5, 7 Netherlands, 102-104 Grade level text reading comprehension evaluation, 167-172 See also Age level Gypsy, 120, 121-122 Haiti, 55-75. See also Creole Hausa language. See African language growth Hawthorne effect, 240
INDEX 289 Heritage Language program, 41-53. See also Ancestral language training Historical-narrative productions, 186-195 Hungary, 115-126 educational system in, 116-123 illiteracy in, 123-124 overview of, 115-116 Illiteracy, 123-124 Immersion education, 35-39 additive versus subtractive bilingualism, 37-38 ancestral language training, 46-47 Catalan/Castilian, 86 early schooling, 35-36 functional bilingualism, 36-37 Immigrants ancestral language training, 41, 4 7-48 bilingual education, 87, 88-89 bilingualism, 19, 22 Heritage Language program (Canada), 43 mother tongue concept, 12-13 NELECS, 28-29 subtractive bilingualism, 41-42 See also Ethnicity Indigenous populations bilingualism, 19-20 educational programs for, 20-21 Informal speech acceptance of, 148 See also Metalinguistic awareness development; Speech acquisition Initial reading scheme. See Whole-language approach Instrumentalization, 70-73 Intellectual activity, 85-86, 262 Italy bilingual reading, 261-276 dialect, 97 Job description, 183-186 Kindergarten, 201-204 Koine, 49 Language acquisition, 199-220 comprehension/lexical acquisition processes, 204-206 overview of, 199-201 phonological acquisition processes, 207-212 Language acquisition (Cont.) preterite acquisition, 212-218 spontaneous production, 201-204 See also Speech acquisition Language awareness assessment, 135-145 form awareness, 143 G.T.L. instrument for, 139-143 instrument for, 136-137 overview of, 135-136 phoneme awareness, 142 statistical data, 137-139 word awareness, 142-143 Language definition, 128 Language surveys, 127-128 Lexical acquisition, 204-206 Lexifier language, 55-58 Linguistics alfonic instruction, 245 Catalan/Castilian, 82-83 mother tongue concept, 8-9 Linguistic variation children, 148, 149-151 factors in, 147 Literacy definition, 91-113 government and, 102-104 linguistic diversity, 97-102 overview of, 91-94 problems in, 94-97 research/curriculum development, l 04-l 09 Materials. See Media Media bilingualism, 21 Creole, 58-59 mother tongue concept, 7, II speech acquisition, 148 Metalinguistic awareness development, 147-157 formal variants and situations, 154-155 linguistic variation, 149-151 overview of, 147 precise linguistic variables, 151-154 research objectives, 149 theory in, 147-149 See also Language awareness assessment Metrology, 167-171 Minorities bilingual education, 86-88 Britain, 130-131 Hungary, 115
290 INDEX Minorities (Cont.) Netherlands, 97, 100-102, 106-107 See also Ethnicity Monolingualism, 87-88 Monophthong/diphthong, 209-210 Mother tongue, 3-14 African language growth, 281, 283 Britain, 131 Catalan/Castilian, 79, 82, 83 Creole, 57-58 economic issues, 6-8 Hungary, 121-122 language acquisition, 199 linguistic context in, 5-6 linguistic-sociolinguistic issues, 8-9 literacy definition, 91-113. See also Literacy definition metalinguistic awareness development, 14 7-!57 political issues, 10-13 religion, 16 Zambian government, 4-5 Multilingual education, 127-132 African/ Asian language in Britain, 130-131 African language growth, 277 language definition problem, 128 language surveys, 127-128 linguistic repertoire of children, 128-130 Multilingualism age level and, 8-9 mother tongue concept, 5-6 See also Bilingualism Narrative, 186-195 NELECS. See Non-English-language ethnic community schools Netherlands literacy definition, 91-113 schools in, 222 Non-English-language ethnic community schools (NELECS), 25-33 characterization of, 28-29 literacy mode in, 29-30 literacy myths and, 30-32 location/evaluation of, 27-28 overview of, 25-27 successes of, 32 N-suffixing, 210-212 Nursery school education, 117-118 Oral language. See Speech acquisition Oral reading practice, 221-233 institutional control, 232-233 learning process and, 228-230 niche creation, 230-231 overview of, 221-223 silent reading processes versus, 227-228 social functions, 223-225 social roots of, 225-226 Orthography alfonic instruction, 245-246 Creole, 62-65 Patois, 56-57 Pedagogy, 48-49 Phonemes alfonic instruction, 252-253 language awareness assessment, 142 Phonological acquisition, 207-212 Politics, 89 mother tongue concept, 10-13 Preterite acquisition, 212-218 Primary school education, 118-123 Psychoeducational language awareness assessment. See Language awareness assessment Psycholinguistics, 46-48 Radio. See Media Reading, 235-245. See also Language awareness assessment Reading comprehension. See Text reading comprehension evaluation; Written comprehension problems Reading instruction. See Alfonic instruction; Bilingual reading instruction; Whole-language approach Reading practice. See Oral reading practice Recounting, 186-195 Referent, 177 Religion, 16 Role dependency, 202 Schoolbooks. See African language growth Semiotics, 246-247 Sidestream institutions, 25-33 Sociocultural factors, 86-89 Socioeconomic class linguistic variation, 147
INDEX 291 Socioeconomic class (Cont.) monolingualism, 87-88 NELECS, 29 lest reading comprehension evaluation, 167-172 Sociolinguistics Creole, 56 mother tongue concept, 8-9 Netherlands, 100, 106 Somali language. See African language growth Spanish. See Catalan/Castilian Speech acquisition metalinguistic awareness development, 147-157 See also Language acquisition Spelling, 62-65. See also Orthography Spontaneous production, 201-204 Standardization, 70-73 Story creation, 180-183 Subphonemic notation, 254-255 Subtractive bilingualism additive bilingualism versus, 37-38 ancestral language training, 41-42 Swahili. See African language growth Switzerland, 199-201 Teachers ancestral language training, 49 bilingual reading instruction, 271-274 immersion education, 36 mother tongue concept, 11-12 oral reading practice, 231 Text reading comprehension evaluation, 159-173 overview of, 159 research objectives, 159-162 results of, 166-172 Text reading comprehensive evaluation (Cont.) test presentation, 162-166 United Kingdom. See Britain United States bilingual education, 86-87 immersion education, 37 non-english-language ethnic community schools in, 25-33 Urban/rural variation Creole, 62 Vowel change, 207-2!0 Whole-language approach, 235-244 alternative schemes described, 236-240 alternative schemes implementation, 240-242 overview of, 235-236 Word awareness, 142-143 Writing instruction. See Alfonic instruction Writing skills, 120-121 Written comprehension problems, 120-121 overview of, 175-176 test results, 176-178 written productions, 178-195. See also Written productions Written language, 31 Written productions, 178-195 job description, 183-186 overview of, 178-180 recounting of show, 186-195 story creation, 180-183 Zambia, 3-14