0 0 0 0 British Civilisation : World War One War Poetry A. SCHOOLING, Collège Vendôme, Lyon (00). Introducing the poetry of the First World War The First World War was, as we have already seen, an experience that mobilised the whole energies and talents of the people of the time. Before the Great War, the leisured class (that is, people who had time for leisure activities, particularly the middle classes) often spent their time writing poetry. At school particularly at the public (that is, private ) and grammar schools often the only English literature that a student would learn was poetry and Shakespeare (written in verse). It was quite understandable that those who wrote poetry before the war would continue when the war broke out. Now we have seen that nineteenth century British poetry was particularly inventive and considered noble and, as surprising as it may seem to us today, war was considered the noblest of all subjects because it lifted the soul when one served a greater good, soldiers being prepared to sacrifice everything for others. We have seen the Romantic tradition praised death, which it suggested was a place of peace after the ephemeral passage of life and love on earth; this tradition often used the lyrical form of poetry as in the Lyrical Ballads because this form enabled individuals to sing a song that was drawn from personal experience. Most First World War poetry would also use this form as an appropriate form of personal expression of war experience. Of course, the poets of the First World War did not invent a British response to war, because there already existed a lot of war poetry that most educated people knew by heart. We have learnt about Shakespeare s Henry V, where the king prepares his troops for battle on St Crispin s Day. We have read Tennyson s Charge of the Light Brigade where the calvary ride into the valley of Death. Indeed, not only did inspiration come from British poets, but also from the Bible: the valley of Death is a reference to Psalm which almost every British citizen would have known by heart: even though I walk through the valley of the shadow of Death I will fear no evil.... Thus, when we read through the war poetry below, we must realise that the poets drew inspiration from a common source. Today, many British people consider war poetry to be only poetry written during the First World War, since this poetry has been studied in schools for generations. As we shall see from the poetry below, it is not always anti-war poetry, but most of the major poets of WWI are remembered for writing against the war. As mentioned above, there were thousands of people who wrote in verse during the war, but the quality of their verse has not always been considered good in the sense that it just repeated clichéd phrases devoid of reality. In contrast, the famous war poets, such as Rupert Brooke, Siegfried Sassoon and Wilfred Owen, wrote with style and often expressed a new reaction to war compared to the tradition we have just evoked. Just like their Romantic predecessors, they considered themselves to be prophets speaking the truth to a world that did not want to listen.. Poem : by Rupert Brooke Rupert Brooke, like most war poets, was a former public schoolboy and young when the war broke out. He wrote a number of good poems just before the war, but if the war had not happened, he would probably have had a career in the British civil service with poetry just a hobby. He was blond-haired and thought to be extremely handsome and charming. When he died on a Greek island in from a scorpion sting just before the beginning of the Dardanelles operation, he immediately became the archetypal war hero who was prepared to lay down his life for his country. His response five war poems was based on mobile warfare since he had already taken part in the Royal Naval Division s operations in Antwerp; the last of these poems was The Soldier, the first three lines of which are among the best-known in the English language THE SOLDIER (December January ) If I should die, think only this of me: That there s some corner of a foreign field That is for ever England. There shall be In that rich earth a richer dust conceal d ; Page of
0 A dust whom England bore, shaped, made aware, Gave, once, her flowers to love, her ways to roam, A body of England s, breathing English air. Wash d by the rivers, blest by suns of home. And think, this heart, all evil shed away, A pulse in the eternal mind 0, no less Gives somewhere back the thoughts by England given; Her sights and sounds; dreams happy as her day; And laughter, learnt of friends; and gentleness, In hearts at peace, under an English heaven. Rupert Brooke s grave on the island of Skyros, a corner of a foreign field 0 0 0 0 David Roberts, Minds at War: The Poetry and Experience of the First World War, Saxon Books, Burgess Hill,, p.. Field means an area of land where grass or other crops grow; here it refers to the battlefield, but because the word battle is absent the battle is finished and the soldier can be at peace. Dust means very small particles of earth or sand; when someone who has died is being buried, the priest traditionally says: Dust to dust, ashes to ashes. Concealed means hidden. Shaped means having given a particular form and appearance. Made aware means that the soldier has been informed and understands the truth. To roam means to travel around freely. Blest is an irregular past participle from the verb to bless meaning to ask or give God s favour. Shed away comes from the irregular verb to shed meaning to get rid of or taken away. Pulse means regular beating, for example, the beating of a heart or the beat of a piece of music. 0 Mind usually means the place where thoughts are kept or where a person s intelligence is found.. Poem : by Siegfried Sassoon Although a little older than Rupert Brooke, Siegfried Sassoon was also a public schoolboy who immediately did his duty by joining up on the outbreak of war. He had produced poor verse before the war began, but the subject of war gave Sassoon something interesting to write about. After many of his friends died in the trenches, he started to be mentally unstable and he took risks when fighting. His nickname was mad Jack and his daring won him the most prestigious British medal, the Military Cross, or M.C., when he took a German trench on his own. In fact, he wanted to die, because he couldn t face living when all his friends were dying. In July, Sassoon became famous for producing a statement in the Times newspaper and it was read in the House of Commons: he protested against the war, saying that the Allies were really greedy for territory and that the war could be ended if they wanted. (The first accusation was partly true, but the second was just wishful thinking.) By then, Sassoon had received a Blighty, that is a wound which meant he was sent back to Blighty, the nickname of Home, or Britain. The authorities didn t want Sassoon to be given publicity, so they suggested he was suffering from shell shock, a new condition that was being treated for the first time during WWI. He was sent to a psychiatric hospital in Scotland where he met another soldierpoet, Wilfred Owen, who just happened to be there (Of Owen, more later!) After many conversations with his psychiatrist, he later returned to the front line to help protect his boys. He was later wounded this time accidentally shot by one of his own men! After the war, he became famous for writing semi-autobiographical works of prose about life before and during the war, as well as editing many of the other dead soldier-poets works. Siegfried Sassoon s Military Cross Page of
00 0 0 0 0 THEY (October st, ) The Bishop tells us: When the boys come back They will not be the same; for they ll have fought In a just cause: they lead the last attack On Anti-Christ; their comrades blood has bought New right to breed an honourable race, They have challenged Death and dared him face to face. We re none of us the same! the boys reply. For George lost both his legs; and Bill s stone blind ; Poor Jim s shot through the lungs and like to die; And Bert s gone syphilitic : you ll not find A chap who s served that hasn t found some change. And the Bishop said: The ways of God are strange! Siegfried Sassoon: The War Poems, Faber & Faber, London, (p. ) Dare, in this context, means to challenge someone to do an action which is dangerous or needs courage. Stone blind means that a person cannot see anything at all; usually stone is placed before the expressions stone cold, stone deaf and stone drunk where stone means completely ; there is also the expression to be stoned which means to be totally drunk or in another world because of having taken drugs. Syphilitic means that Bert has caught the venereal disease syphilis after having slept with prostitutes when on leave. Chap is a familiar term meaning a person.. Poem : by Siegfried Sassoon THE GENERAL (Denmark Hill Hospital, April ) Good-morning, good-morning! the General said When we met him last week on our way to the line. Now the soldiers he smiled at are most of em dead, And we re cursing his staff for incompetent swine. He s a cheery old card, grunted Harry to Jack As they slogged up to Arras with rifle and pack.... But he did for them both by his plan of attack. Sassoon s original, illustrated manuscript of The General, George Sassoon Siegfried Sassoon: The War Poems, Faber & Faber, London, (p. ) Cursing means someone says obscene or blasphemous things. Staff means the staff officers who were responsible for planning attacks in châteaux far from the front line and who never saw action. Swine literally means pigs ; it is a form of insult. Cheery means happy. Old card means that the General is a friendly, amusing man. Grunted means that Harry made a low, rough noise, suggesting that he wasn t happy with the General. Slogged up is a mixture of the verb to slog, an informal word meaning to continue working hard at something difficult, and to go up, meaning that on the map Arras was higher than the base camp; Sassoon was saying that the march to the front line was difficult. Pack was the heavy backpack that soldiers wore on their backs and it contained all their equipment and food. He did for them both is an informal expression meaning He killed them. Page of
0 0 0 0 0. Poem : by Wilfred Owen Wilfred Owen was the youngest of the three poets. Unlike the other two, he attended a grammar school and did not come from a wealthy background. As his surname suggests, his family was originally from Wales, and like many lower middle class men, he decided on a career in the church. Unfortunately, Owen began having doubts about his faith and when the war broke out he decided to join the army. His poetry lacked assurance until he met his mentor, Siegfried Sassoon, when he was in hospital in Scotland. Sassoon suggested several changes to his poetry and encouraged him to continue with what Owen called the pity of war. Like Sassoon, he decided to go back to the front line to be able to continue writing powerful poetry and protect his comrades, but his fate was not so good: while everybody else was celebrating the armistice on November th,, his parents received a telegram announcing that their son had died in battle in Belgium just a few days before! ANTHEM FOR DOOMED YOUTH (September October ) What passing-bells for these who die as cattle? Only the monstrous anger of the guns. Only the stuttering rifles rapid rattle Can patter out their hasty orisons. No mockeries now for them; no prayers nor bells; Nor any voice of mourning save 0 the choirs, The shrill, demented choirs of wailing shells; And bugles calling for them from sad shires. What candles may be held to speed them all? Not in the hands of boys but in their eyes Shall shine the holy glimmers of goodbyes. The pallor of girls brows shall be their pall 0 ; Their flowers the tenderness of patient minds, And each slow dusk a drawing-down of blinds. Wilfred Owen in uniform and also (bottom right) wounded Original manuscript of Anthem for Doomed Youth with Sassoon s amendments, British Library Wilfred Owen: Selected Poetry and Prose, (edited by Jennifer Breen), Routledge, London & New York, (pp. -) Anthem means a song and is usually used in the expression The National Anthem ; but it can also be an important religious song (often expressing joy); here, perhaps, a solemn song of celebration. Passing-bells are bells that ring after someone s death to announce the death to the world. Cattle means cows and bulls that are kept for farming or carrying things. Stuttering means that a person finds it difficult to say the first sound of a word and hesitate or repeat it. Here we hear the sound the rifles make and they seem to come to life, which is the exact opposite of what they do to people. Rattle suggests a short, rapid sound that is repeated through shaking or hitting. Patter out means to speak rapidly. Hasty means something done quickly usually without thought or time to prepare. Orisons are prayers, and here they are funeral prayers. Mourning is when someone shows they are sad about another person s death; often it is public behaviour when people wear black. 0 Save means except for in this context. Shrill means a very high, piercing note. Demented means that the person is completely mad. Wailing means high-pitched notes that someone who is crying makes when they express their despair or pain. Page of
0 Bugles are small brass instruments like trumpets which traditionally play the tune the Last Post at military funerals. Shires are all the English counties, many of which end in -shire, from where the soldiers come. Speed means to send them off quickly, and here it means to heaven. Glimmers are faint lights that often come and go. Pallor means paleness. Brows are foreheads, that is, the part of someone s head above their eyes; the word brow is literary and suggests the emotions that cause someone to show happiness or sadness on their foreheads. 0 Pall (which is pronounced like Paul ) is a cloth that is placed over a dead person s coffin at their funeral. Dusk means the sun going down at the end of the day and it has a symbolic significance here. The drawing-down of blinds normally means shutting window blinds at night, but here it also evokes the tradition of drawing the blinds in a room where a dead person lies, as a sign to the world and as a mark of respect. The coming of night is like the drawing down of blinds.. Poem : by Wilfred Owen DULCE ET DECORUM EST (October February ) Bent double, like old beggars under sacks, 00 Knock-kneed, coughing like hags, we cursed through sludge, Till on the haunting flares we turned our backs And towards our distant rest began to trudge. Men marched asleep. Many had lost their boots 0 But limped on, blood-shod. All went lame 0 ; all blind; Drunk with fatigue; deaf even to the hoots Of tired, outstripped Five-Nines that dropped behind. 0 0 Gas! Gas! Quick, boys! An ecstasy of fumbling, Fitting the clumsy helmets just in time; But someone still was yelling out and stumbling, And flound ring 0 like a man in fire or lime Dim, through the misty panes and thick green light, As under a green sea, I saw him drowning. In all my dreams, before my helpless sight, He plunges at me, guttering, choking, drowning. If in some smothering dreams you too could pace Behind the wagon that we flung him in, And watch the white eyes writhing in his face, His hanging face, like a devil s sick of sin 0 ; If you could hear, at every jolt, the blood Come gargling from the froth -corrupted lungs, Obscene as cancer, bitter as the cud Of vile, incurable sores on innocent tongues, My friend, you would not tell with such high zest To children ardent for some desperate glory, The old Lie; Dulce et Decorum est Pro patria mori. Part of the original manuscript of Dulce et Decorum est, British Library Wilfred Owen: Selected Poetry and Prose, (edited by Jennifer Breen), Routledge, London & New York, (pp. 0-) Page of
0 0 0 0 0 NOTES: DULCE ET DECORUM EST: the first words of a Latin ode by the poet Horace. The words were widely understood and often quoted at the start of the First World War. They mean It is sweet and right. The full saying ends the poem: Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori mean it is sweet and right to die for your country. In other words, it is a wonderful and great honour to fight and die for your country. Knock-kneed means that a person s knees hit together, usually because of a physical problem or fright. Hags are ugly old women; it is an offensive description. Sludge is thick mud which is very difficult to walk through. Flares were rockets that were sent up to burn with a brilliant glare to light up men and other targets in the area between the front lines. The rest was a camp away from the front line where exhausted soldiers might rest for a few days or longer. Trudge means to walk slowly with heavy steps because the person is tired or fed up. Limp means to walk with difficulty when one of the legs doesn t function correctly. Shod comes from the irregular verb shoe (shod, shod); it means that the person is wearing something on their feet. 0 Lame means that a person is unable to walk correctly because of an injury. Hoots were the noise made by the shells flying through the air. Outstripped means that the soldiers have struggled to move away from shells which are now falling behind them. Five-Nines were. calibre explosive shells. Gas : from the symptoms Wilfred Owen describes it was probably poisonous chlorine or phosgene gas; this gas filled the lungs with fluid and caused the same effects as when a person drowned. Fumbling means a person is trying to use their hands but unsuccessfully, perhaps to hold or catch something. Clumsy means that somebody or something is inefficient and uncoordinated; the result is that things are broken or spilt. Helmets were the early name for gas masks. Yelling out means shouting loudly. Stumbling means falling to the ground accidentally. 0 Floundering means somebody is moving their arms about in all directions because they can t see and are panicking. Lime is a white chalky substance usually used for putting on dead bodies and which can burn flesh. Dim means the light isn t strong. Misty panes were the pieces of glass which were difficult to see through in the gas masks. Guttering is usually used to speak of a candle that is going out or it can mean the gurgling of water going down a gutter, but here it refers to the sounds in the throat of the choking man. Choking means the person is coughing and can t get enough air into their lungs. Smothering means suppressing, usually of fire, air or emotions. Pace means to walk. Flung comes from the irregular verb to fling (flung, flung) meaning the throw using force. Writhing means that a person s body twists and turns violently backwards and forwards because of pain. 0 Sin means evil in the sight of God. Jolt means a sudden, violent movement. Froth means the small bubbles of a liquid. Cud is normally the regurgitated grass that cows chew; here a similar looking material was coming out of the soldier s mouth. Sores are painful wounds where the skin is infected. High zest means idealistic enthusiasm, when someone believes in the rightness of an idea. Page of